Th orn ton o n L a b o ur and Its Cla i ms

8/12/2019 Th orn ton o n L a b o ur and Its Cla i ms

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Thornton on Labour and Its Claims

"On Labour, its Wrongful Claims and Rightful Dues, its ActualPresent and Possible Future" b William Thomas Thornton

!ohn tuart #ill

Part I, Fortnightl Re$ie%, a, '()*+, - ./.0'(1Part II, &!une, '()*+, - )(/02//-Reublished in Debates and Dissertation &'(2.+, 3.0(.-

PART I

#r- Thornton long ago ga$e roof of his cometenc to the treatment of some of the most imortant4uestions of ractical olitical econom, b t%o %or5s of great merit, "O$er Poulation and its

Remed,"&'+ and "A Plea for Peasant Prorietors-"&3+ Of the latter of these eseciall it ma be said,that nothing but the total absence, at the time of its ublication, of an general interest in its sub6ect,can account for its not ha$ing achie$ed a high reute and a %ide circulation- The lac5 of interest inthe sub6ect has no% ceased1 oinion is raidl ad$ancing in the direction %hich the author faours1and a ne% edition, %ith its facts brought do%n to the latest date, %ould be %elcomed b ad$ancedoliticians, and %ould materiall contribute to the formation of an enlightened 6udgment on one ofthe economical 4uestions on %hich truth is most imortant, and re6udice still most rife-

The resent %or5, though oular and attracti$e in stle, is strictl scientific in its rinciles andreasonings1 and is therefore, as might be e7ected, strictl imartial in its 6udgments- A considerableart of the $olume is emloed in refuting the rinciles on %hich it is usual to rest those claims andasirations of the labouring classes, %hich ne$ertheless the author, on better grounds, suorts- 8oblind artisan on either side of the feud of labour against caital, %ill relish the boo51 but fe%ersons of intelligence and imartialit %ho read it through, %ill la it do%n %ithout ha$ing reason tofeel that the understand better than before some of the bearings of the 4uestions in$ol$ed in thatconflict-

To this great ractical merit are to be added t%o of a more theoretic 5ind, to the $alue of %hich I amthe more called uon to bear testimon, as on the articular oints touched uon in this deartmentI shall ha$e to e7ress more difference than agreement- First9 it contains a discussion of one of thefundamental 4uestions of abstract olitical econom &the influence of demand and sul on rice+,%hich is a real contribution to science, though, in m estimation, an addition, and not, as the authorthin5s, a correction, to the recei$ed doctrine- econdl9 in the attemt to go to the $er bottom of the4uestion, %hat are the 6ust rights of labour on one side, and caital on the other, it raises the greatissues resecting the foundation of right and %rong, of 6ustice and in6ustice, in a manner highl

ro$ocati$e of thought- To la do%n a definite doctrine of social 6ustice, as %ell as a distinct $ie% ofthe natural la%s of the e7change of commodities, as the basis for the deductions of a %or5 de$otedto such a sub6ect as the rinciles and ractice of Trades0:nionism, %as insearable from thethoroughness %ith %hich the author has sought to do his %or5- ;$er oinion as to the relati$e rightsof labourers and emloers, in$ol$es e7ressl or tacitl some theor of 6ustice, and it cannot beindifferent to 5no% %hat theor- 8either, again, can it be decided in %hat manner the combinedroceedings of labourers or of emloers affect the interests of either side, %ithout a clear $ie% ofthe causes %hich go$ern the bargain bet%een them 00 %ithout a sound theor of the la% of %ages-

Indeed, a theor of %ages obtrusi$el meets the in4uirer, at the threshold of e$er 4uestionresecting the relations bet%een labourers and emloers, and is commonl regarded as renderingsuerfluous an further argument- It is laid do%n that %ages, b an irresistible la%, deend on thedemand and sul of labour, and can in no circumstances be either more or less than %hat %illdistribute the e7isting %ages0fund among the e7isting number of cometitors for emloment- Those%ho are content to set out from generall0recei$ed doctrines as from self0e$ident a7ioms, aresatisfied %ith this and in4uire no further


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closel into %hat the assent to, are bound to as5 themsel$es %hether or in %hat sense %ages dodeend on the demand and sul of labour, and %hat is meant b the %ages0fund-

The author of this %or5 has as5ed himself these 4uestions1 and %hile he is, as his %ritings gi$ee$idence, %ell $ersed in olitical econom, and is able to hold his ground %ith the best in follo%ingout economical la%s into their more obscure and intricate %or5ings, he has become con$inced thatthe barrier %hich seems to close the entrance into one of the most imortant ro$inces of

economical and social in4uir, is a shado% %hich %ill $anish if %e go boldl u to it- =e is of oinionthat economists ha$e mista5en the scientific la% not onl of the rice of labour, but of rices ingeneral- It is an error, he thin5s, that rice, or $alue in e7change, deends on sul and demand-

There is one sense, in %hich this roosition of #r- Thornton %ould be assented to b alleconomists1 the none of them consider sul and demand to be the ultimate regulators of $alue-&>+ That character, the hold, belongs to cost of roduction1 al%as suosing the commodit to bea roduct of labour, and natural or artificial monool to be out of the 4uestion- ub6ect to theseconditions, all commodities, in the long run and on the a$erage, tend to e7change for one another&and, though this oint is a little more intricate, tend also to e7change for mone+ in the ratio of %hatit costs, in labour and abstinence, to roduce the articles and to bring them to the lace of sale-


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salesman e7ects to get for it, and he then graduall lo%ers his terms, until he comes to a rice%hich some bstander is %illing to a rather than not ha$e the lot, and to %hich he accordinglagrees- uose on one occasion the lot to ha$e been a hundred%eight, and the rice agreed tot%ent shillings- If, on the same occasion, instead of the Dutch form of auction, the ordinar ;nglishmode had been adoted, the result might ha$e been different- The oeration %ould then ha$ecommenced b some bstander ma5ing a bid, %hich others might ha$e successi$el e7ceeded,until a rice %as arri$ed at beond %hich no one but the actual bidder could afford or %as disosed

to go- That sum %ould not necessaril be t%ent shillings1 $er ossibl it might be onl eighteenshillings- The erson %ho %as reared to a the former rice might $er ossibl be the onlerson resent reared to a e$en so much as the latter rice1 and if so, he might get b ;nglishauction for eighteen shillings the fish for %hich at Dutch auction he %ould ha$e aid t%ent shillings-In the same mar5et, %ith the same 4uantit of fish for sale, and %ith customers in number and e$erother resect the same, the same lot of fish might fetch t%o $er different rices- &Thornton, - @20(-+

This instance, though seemingl a tri$ial, is reall a reresentati$e one and a hundred cases couldnot sho%, better than this does, %hat #r- Thornton has and %hat he has not made out- =e hasro$ed that the la% of the e4ualisation of sul and demand is not the %hole theor of thearticular case- =e has not ro$ed that the la% is not strictl conformed to in that case- In order to

sho% that the e4uilisation of sul and demand is not the la% of rice, %hat he has reall sho%n isthat the la% is, in this articular case, consistent %ith t%o different rices, and is e4uall andcomletel fulfilled b either of them- The demand and sul are e4ual at t%ent shillings, ande4ual also at eighteen shillings- The conclusion ought to be, not that the la% is false, for #r-Thornton does not den that in the case in 4uestion it is fulfilled1 but onl, that it is not the entire la%of the henomenon- The henomenon cannot hel obeing it, but there is some amount ofindeterminateness in its oeration00a certain limited e7tent of $ariation is ossible %ithin the boundsof the la%1 and as there must be a sufficient reason for e$er $ariation in an effect, there must be asulementar la%, %hich determines the effect, bet%een the limits %ithin %hich the rincial la%lea$es it free- Whoe$er can teach us this sulementar la%, ma5es a $aluable addition to thescientific theor of the sub6ect1 and %e shall see resentl that in substance, if not strictl in form,#r- Thornton does teach it- ;$en if he did not, he %ould ha$e sho%n the recei$ed theor to be

incomlete1 but he %ould not ha$e, nor has he no%, sho%n it to be in the smallest degree incorrect-

What is more1 %hen %e loo5 into the conditions re4uired to ma5e the common theor inade4uate,%e find that, in the case at least %hich %e ha$e no% e7amined, the incomleteness it standscon$icted of amounts to an e7ceedingl small matter- To establish it, #r- Thornton had to assumethat the customer %ho %as reared to a t%ent shillings for a hundred%eight of fish, %as the onlerson resent %ho %as %illing to a e$en so much as eighteen shillings- In other %ords, hesuosed the case to be an e7cetion to the rule, that demand increases %ith cheaness9 and sincethis rule, though general, is not absolutel uni$ersal, he is scientificall right- If there is a art of thescale through %hich the rice ma $ar %ithout increasing or diminishing the demand, the %hole ofthat ortion of the scale ma fulfil the condition of e4ualit bet%een sul and demand-


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The la% does fail in this case, as it failed in the former, but for a different reason1 not, as in theformer case, because se$eral rices fulfil the condition e4uall %ell, but because no rice fulfils it- AtB./ there is a demand for t%ice or three times the sul1 at B./- /s- /Ed- there is no demand atall- When the scale of the demand for a commodit is bro5en b so e7traordinar a 6um, the la%fails of its alication1 not, I $enture to sa, from an fault in the la%, but because the conditions on

%hich its alicabilit deends do not e7ist- If the eculiarities of the case do not ermit the demandto be e4ual to the sul, lea$ing it onl the alternati$e of being greater or less, greater or less it %illbe1 and all that can be affirmed is, that it %ill 5ee as near to the oint of e4ualit as it can- Insteadof conflicting %ith the la%, this is the e7treme case %hich ro$es the la%- The la% is, that the rice%ill be that %hich e4ualises the demand %ith the sul1 and the e7amle ro$es that this onl failsto be the case %hen there is no rice that %ould fulfil the condition, and that e$en then, the samecauses, still oerating, 5ee the rice at the oint %hich %ill most nearl fulfil it- Is it ossible to ha$ean more comlete confirmation of the la%, than that in order to find a case in %hich the rice doesnot conform to the la%, it is necessar to find one in %hich there is no rice that can conform to it

Again900

When a tradesman has laced uon his goods the highest rice %hich an one %ill a for them,the rice cannot, of course, rise higher, et the sul ma be belo% the demand- A glo$er in acountr to%n, on the e$e of an assie bail, ha$ing onl a doen airs of %hite glo$es in store, mightossibl be able to get ten shillings a air for them- =e %ould be able to get this if t%el$e ersons%ere %illing to a that rice rather than not go to the bail, or than go unglo$ed-


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a customer %ho is ignorant, or in a hurr, ma a t%ice as much for the thing as he could get it forat another sho a fe% doors farther off-

The last ob6ection of #r- Thornton to the recei$ed theor, and the one that he las most stress uon,is, that it assumes "that goods are offered for sale unreser$edl, and that dealers are al%as contentto let them go for %hat the %ill fetch-" This, ho%e$er, he obser$es, 00

Is scarcel e$er 00 na, might almost be said to be absolutel ne$er 00 the fact- With one notablee7cetion, that of labour, commodities are almost ne$er offered unreser$edl for sale1 scarcel e$erdoes a dealer allo% his goods to go for %hat the %ill immediatel fetch 00 scarcel e$er does heagree to the rice %hich %ould result from the actual state of sul and demand, or, in other %ords,to the rice at %hich he could immediatel sell the %hole of his stoc5- Imagine the situation of amerchant %ho could not afford to %ait for customers, but %as obliged to accet for a cargo of corn,or sugar, or sundries, the best offer he could get from the customers %ho first resentedthemsel$es1 or imagine a 6e%eller, or %ea$er, or draer, or grocer, obliged to clear out his sho%ithin t%ent0four hours- The nearest aroach e$er made to such a redicament is that of aban5rut?s creditors selling off their debtor?s effects at a ro$erbiall ?tremendous sacrifice1? ande$en the are, comarati$el sea5ing, able to ta5e their time-


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$iolent s5is, that there is no halting oint at %hich it 6ust e4uals the other element-

Do I then mean to sa that #r- Thornton is entirel %rong in his interretation of the cases %hich hesuggests, and has ointed out no imerfection in the current theor ;$en if it %ere so, it %ould notfollo% that he has rendered no ser$ice to science- "There is al%as a benefit done to andeartment of 5no%ledge b digging about the roots of its truths-&@+ cientific la%s al%as come tobe better understood %hen able thin5ers and acute contro$ersialists stir u difficulties resecting

them, and confront them %ith facts %hich the had not et been in$o5ed to e7lain-


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surlus of caital still unused, %ages %ill rise- This series of deductions is generall recei$ed asincontro$ertible- The are found, I resume, in e$er sstematic treatise on olitical econom, mo%n certainl included- I must lead guilt to ha$ing, along %ith the %orld in general, acceted thetheor %ithout the 4ualifications and limitations necessar to ma5e it admissible-&2+

The theor rests on %hat ma be called the doctrine of the %ages fund- There is suosed to be, atan gi$en instant, a sum of %ealth, %hich is unconditionall de$oted to the ament of %ages of

labour- This sum is not regarded as unalterable, for it is augmented b sa$ing, and increases %iththe rogress of %ealth1 but it is reasoned uon as at an gi$en moment a redetermined amount-#ore than that amount it is assumed that the %ages0recei$ing class cannot ossibl di$ide amongthem1 that amount, and no less, the cannot but obtain- o that, the sum to be di$ided being fi7ed,the %ages of each deend solel on the di$isor, the number of articiants- In this doctrine it is bimlication affirmed, that the demand for labour not onl increases %ith the cheaness, butincreases in e7act roortion to it, the same aggregate sum being aid for labour %hate$er its ricema be-


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the more ma be e7ended on the other, and $ice $ersa- The rice of labour, instead of beingdetermined b the di$ision of the roceeds bet%een the emloer and the labourers, determines it- Ifhe gets his labour cheaer, he can afford to send, more uon himself- If he has to a more forlabour, the additional ament comes out of his o%n income1 erhas from the art %hich he %ouldha$e sa$ed and added to caital, thus anticiating his $oluntar econom b a comulsor one1erhas from %hat he %ould ha$e e7ended on his ri$ate %ants or leasures- There is no la% ofnature ma5ing it inherentl imossible for %ages to rise to the oint of absorbing not onl the funds

%hich he had intended to de$ote to carring on his business, but the %hole of %hat he allo%s for hisri$ate e7enses, beond the necessaries of life- The real limit to the rise is the racticalconsideration, ho% much %ould ruin him, or dri$e him to abandon the business9 not the ine7orablelimits of the %ages0fund-

In short, there is abstractedl a$ailable for the ament of %ages, before an absolute limit isreached, not onl the emloer?s caital, but the %hole of %hat can ossibl be retrenched from hisersonal e7enditure1 and the la% of %ages, on the side of demand, amounts onl to the ob$iousroosition, that the emloers cannot a a%a in %ages %hat the ha$e not got- On the side ofsul, the la% as laid do%n b economists remains intact- The more numerous the cometitors foremloment, the lo%er, caeteris aribus, %ill %ages be- It %ould be a comlete misunderstanding of#r- Thornton to suose that he raises an 4uestion about this, or that he has receded from theoinions enforced in his former %ritings resecting the insearable connection of the remuneration

of labour %ith the roortion bet%een oulation and the means of subsistence-


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disro$ed, on grounds of ure olitical econom, the suosed natural la% b %hich, in the oinionof man, the rice of labour is as strictl determined as the motion of the earth, and determined in amanner unalterable b the %ill or effort of either art to the transaction-


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deri$ing eole of that %hich, but for itself, could not ha$e e7isted- Let it be admitted that the earth%as besto%ed b the Creator, not on an ri$ileged class or classes, but on all man5ind, and on allsuccessi$e generations of men, so that no one generation can ha$e more than a life interest in thesoil, or be entitled to alienate the birthright of succeeding generations- Let this be admitted, and theadmission is surel large enough to satisf the most uncomromising chamion of the natural rightsof man- till it is certain that those rights, if full e7ercised, must ine$itabl ha$e ro$ed themsel$esto be so far %orse than %orthless, as to ha$e re$ented an but a $er minute fraction of the e7isting

number of claimants from being born to claim them- The earth, if unaroriated, must also ha$eremained untilled, and conse4uentl comarati$el unroducti$e- Anthing li5e the %orld?s actualoulation could not ossibl ha$e been in e7istence, nor, if it had been, %ould a %hole ear?sgro%th of the earth?s natural roduce ha$e sufficed for the subsistence of the earth?s inhabitantsduring a single da- The utmost of %hich the oor ha$e been disossessed b the institution ofroert is their fair roortion of %hat the earth could ha$e roduced if it had remainedunaroriated- Comensation for this is the utmost %hich is due to them from societ, and the debtis ob$iousl so infinitesimall small, that the crumbs %hich habituall fall from the tables of the richare aml sufficient to a it-

If these things be so, a strict debtor and creditor account bet%een rich and oor %ould sho% nobalance against the former- ociet cannot roerl be said to o%e anthing to the oor beond%hat it is constantl and regularl aing- It is not bound in e4uit, %hate$er it ma be in charit, to

find food for the hungr because the are in need, nor to find occuation for the unemloedbecause the are out of %or5-


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dut- Outside these bounds there is the innumerable $ariet of modes in %hich the acts of humanbeings are either a cause, or a hindrance, of good to their fello%0creatures, but in regard to %hich itis, on the %hole, for the general interest that the should be left free1 being merel encouraged, braise and honour, to the erformance of such beneficial actions as are not sufficientl stimulated bbenefits flo%ing from them to the agent himself- This larger shere is that of #erit or Jirtue-

The an7iet of moralists for some more definite standard of 6udgment than the hainess of

man5ind aears to them to be, or for some first rincile %hich shall ha$e a greater hold on thefeeling of obligation than education has et gi$en to the idea of the good of our fello%0creatures,ma5es them eager to erect into an a7iom of morals an one of the familiar corollaries from therincile of general utilit, %hich, from the imressi$eness of the cases to %hich it is alicable, hasta5en a dee root in the oular mind, and gathered round itself a considerable amount of humanfeeling- When the ha$e made choice of an such ma7im, the follo% it out as if there %ere noothers of e4ual authorit b %hich its alication ought to be limited1 or %ith onl as much regard tothose limitations, as the amount of common sense ossessed b the articular thin5er eremtorilenforces uon him as a ractical being- The t%o oosite theories of social 6ustice set forth b #r-Thornton 00 the Rousseau or Proudhon theor, and his o%n 00 are cases of this descrition- Theformer of these, according to %hich all ri$ate aroriation of an of the instruments of roduction%as a %rong from the beginning, and an in6ur to the rest of man5ind, there is neither room, nor is itnecessar, here to discuss-


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common for the general benefit-


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b ta5ing the matter into their o%n hands, and establishing b la% an modification of the rights ofroert %hich in their oinion %ould increase the remuneration of their labour And, on the author?srinciles, this right cannot be denied them- The e7isting social arrangements, and la% itself, e7ist in$irtue not onl of the forbearance, but of the acti$e suort of the labouring classes- The couldeffect the most fundamental changes in the %hole order of societ b siml %ithholding theirconcurrence- uose that the, %ho being the numerical ma6orit cannot be controlled e7cet btheir o%n tacit consent, should come to the conclusion &for e7amle+ that it is not essential to the

benefits of the institution of roert that %ealth should be allo%ed to accumulate in large masses1and should conse4uentl resol$e to den legal rotection to all roerties e7ceeding a certainamount- There are the strongest utilitarian reasons against their doing this1 but on the author?srinciles, the ha$e a right to do it-


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On the other hand, there is on the oosite side of the 4uestion a 5ind of good moralit, amountingto a cant, against %hich the author rotests, and %hich it is imerati$e to clear our minds of- Thereare eole %ho thin5 it right to be al%as reeating, that the interest of labourers and emloers&and, the add, of landlords and farmers, the uer classes and the lo%er, go$ernments andsub6ects, etc-+ is one and the same- It is not to be %ondered at that this sort of thing should beirritating to those to %hom it is intended as a %arning- =o% is it ossible that the buer and the sellerof a commodit should ha$e e7actl the same interest as to its rice It is the interest of both that

there should be commodities to sell1 and it is, in a certain general %a, the interest both of labourersand emloers that business should roser, and that the returns to labour and caital should belarge-


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is consistent %ith the regard due to the ermanent interest of the race- =is conclusions lea$e melittle to do but to ma5e a rsum of them, though I ma still dissent from some of his remises- Fore7amle, the same rinciles %hich lead him to ac4uit emloers of %rong, ho%e$er the ma a$ailthemsel$es of their ad$antage to 5ee do%n %ages, ma5e him e4uall e7culate :nionists from asimilar charge, e$en %hen he deems them to be ma5ing a short0sighted and dangerous use of theo%er %hich combinations gi$e them-


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%hich a 4uestion ma be raised1 but these should be dealt %ith according to the general la% of thecountr- 8o good reason can be gi$en for sub6ecting them to secial restriction on account of theoccasion %hich gi$es rise to them, or to an legal restraint at all beond that %hich ublic decenc,or the safet of the ublic eace, ma rescribe as a matter of olice regulation-

#r- Thornton enters into a minute e7amination of the limits to the efficac of Trades? :nions00thecircumstances in %hich increased %ages ma be claimed %ith a rosect of success, and, if

successful, of ermanence- These discussions I must content mself %ith recommending to theattention of the reader, %ho %ill find in them much matter of great $alue- In the resent article thereis onl room for the most general considerations, either of olitical econom or of morals- :nder theformer asect, there is a $ie% of the 4uestion, not o$erloo5ed b the author, but hardl, erhas,made sufficientl rominent b him- From the necessit of the case, the onl fund out of %hich anincrease of %ages can ossibl be obtained b the labouring classes considered as a %hole, isrofits- This is contrar to the common oinion, both of the general ublic and of the %or5menthemsel$es, %ho thin5 that there is a second source from %hich it is ossible for the augmentationto come, namel, rices- The emloer, the thin5, can, if foreign or other cometition %ill let him,indemnif himself for the additional %ages demanded of him, b charging an increased rice to theconsumer- And this ma certainl haen in single trades, and e$en in large branches of trade,under conditions %hich are carefull in$estigated b #r- Thornton- The building trade, in itsnumerous subdi$isions, is one of the most salient instances-


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%ill contribute to it- o long, at least, as there are an classes of labourers %ho are not unionised,the successes of the :nions %ill generall be a cause of loss to the labourers in the non0unionistoccuations-

From the recognition of this fact arises a serious 4uestion of right and %rong, as bet%een :nionistsand the remainder of the labouring classes- As bet%een themsel$es and their emloers, the areunder no obligations but those of rudence- The emloers are 4uite caable of ta5ing care of

themsel$es- :nionists are under no moral dut to their emloers %hich the conditions the masee5 to imose on them can ossibl $iolate-


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At the resent rate of rogress less than a hundred ears %ould suffice for the oeration- &P- 3(*0*/-+

This rosect ma aear too remote, and e$en $isionar, to be an actuating moti$e %ith anconsiderable number of :nionists1 but it is certainl not beond the asiration of the leaders of:nionism, and %hat is more, some great stes ha$e alread been made in the direction of itsrealisation- A generation ago all :nions %ere local, and in those das stri5es %ere much more

fre4uent, much oftener unreasonable, and much oftener attended %ith criminal e7cesses, than is thecase at resent- ince then, a number of the most imortant trades ha$e been formed intoAmalgamated ocieties e7tending to the %hole countr, and a central council decides %ith a $ie% tothe interests of the entire trade, %hat conditions shall be imosed on emloers, and in %hat casesstri5es shall ta5e lace- And it is admitted that the rules of these Amalgamated ocieties are muchless ob6ectionable than those of the local unions re$iousl %ere, and that the central bod re$entsman more stri5es than it sanctions- The immediate moti$e to the amalgamations %as, of course,the e7erience that attemts in one to%n to obtain a rise of %ages, onl caused the transfer of thebusiness to another- Concert ha$ing been at length substituted for cometition bet%een differentto%ns, the :nions no% aim at effecting the same substitution bet%een different countries9 and %ithinthe last fe% ears there is a commencement of International Congresses of %or5ing eole, tore$ent the efforts made in one countr from being frustrated for %ant of a common understanding%ith other countries- And there can be little doubt that these attemts to la the foundation of an

alliance among the artisans of cometing countries, ha$e alread roduced some effect, and %illac4uire increasing imortance-

There is, ho%e$er, another, and a less ele$ated, but not fallacious oint of $ie%, from %hich theaarent in6ustice of :nionism to the non0united classes of labourers ma be morall $indicated tothe conscience of an intelligent :nionist- This is the #althusian oint of $ie%, so blindl decried ashostile and odious, abo$e all, to the labouring classes- The ignorant and untrained art of the oorerclasses &such :nionists ma sa+ %ill eole u to the oint %hich %ill 5ee their %ages at thatmiserable rate %hich the lo% scale of their ideas and habits ma5es endurable to them- As long astheir minds remain in their resent state, our re$enting them from cometing %ith us foremloment does them no real in6ur1 it onl sa$es oursel$es from being brought do%n to their le$el-Those %hom %e e7clude are a morall inferior class of labourers to us1 their labour is %orth less,

and their %ant of rudence and serf0restraint ma5es them much more acti$e in adding to theoulation- We do them no %rong b intrenching oursel$es behind a barrier, to e7clude those %hosecometition %ould bring do%n our %ages, %ithout more than momentaril raising theirs, but onladding to the total numbers in e7istence- This is the ractical 6ustification, as things no% are, ofsome of the e7clusi$e regulations of Trades? :nions- If the ma6orit of their members loo5 uon thisstate of things, so far as the e7cluded labourers are concerned, %ith indifference, and thin5 itenough for the :nions to ta5e care of their o%n members, this is not more culable in them than isthe same indifference in classes far more o%erful and more ri$ileged b societ-


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the %or5 of lasterers? labourers, nor labourers that of lasterers, but a lasterer and a labourermust both be emloed %hen one %ould suffice1 that bric5s made on one side of a articular canalmust lie there unused, %hile fresh bric5s are made for %or5 going on uon the other1 that men shallnot do so good a da?s %or5 as to "best their mates1" that the shall not %al5 at more than a gi$enace to their %or5 %hen the %al5 is counted "in the master?s time"00these and scores of similare7amles %hich %ill be found in #r- Thornton?s boo5, e4uall $e7atious, and some of them moreridiculous, are all gra$e $iolations of the moral rule, that disutes bet%een classes should not be so

conducted as to ma5e the %orld a %orse lace for both together, and ultimatel for the %hole of thecommunit- I do not sa that there are ne$er cases %hich 6ustif a resort to measures e$en thus badin rincile- A ortion of societ %hich cannot other%ise obtain 6ust consideration from the rest, mabe %arranted in doing a mischief to societ in order to e7tort %hat it considers its dues- >>0>)-+

ufficient note has not erhas been ta5en of the educational office %hich unionism is silentl andunconsciousl erforming, and of the softening and comosing influence %hich it is insensible7ercising o$er its constituents- #ere union, 4uite irresecti$el of an secial ob6ect, is of itselfbeneficial disciline- The mere act of association is of itself a %holesome subordination of theindi$idual to the general- #erel to combine for some common ob6ect, causes eole to ta5e rideand leasure in that ob6ect, %hate$er it be, and renders them read to ma5e sacrifices for itsfurtherance- And if the ob6ect be mutual defence and mutual suort, then, for the associates to ta5ean interest in it and in each other, is one and the same thing- Among trades? unionists accustomed

to loo5 to each other for assistance in sic5ness, in distress, and in old age, the sense of mutualdeendence begets mutual attachment- In their official intercourse the sea5 of each other as?brothers1? and the %ord is not an emt sound, but indicates the sort of relationshi %hich the at


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o far their smathies ha$e alread %idened, and it is characteristic of all moral e7ansion ne$er tocease e7anding- Those %ho, from caring for none but themsel$es, ha$e got so far as to care fortheir fello%0%or5men, %ill not sto till the ha$e learned to care for all their fello%0men- Lo$e of theirclass %ill ro$e to ha$e been onl an intermediate stage- bet%een self0lo$e and lo$e of their 5ind-8or is it onl indirectl that unionism is 4ualified to contribute to%ards this moral de$eloment-Certain of its arrangements are calculated to lead straight to%ards the same result- =itherto,rotection against material e$il and ac4uisition of material good ha$e been its chief care, but higher

ob6ects are beginning to claim attention, and intellectual and moral imro$ement are coming in for ashare of solicitude- In the lodges of the London bric5laers, drun5enness and s%earing aree7ressl interdicted- :nder the ausices of the Amalgamated Carenters, industrial schools arebeing established- These are stra%s on the surface, sho%ing ho% the current of unionist oinion isflo%ing- The da ma not be $er distant %hen increasing esrit de cors %ill ma5e Amalgamated;ngineers and Carenters as roud indi$iduall of their resecti$e societies, as 6ealous of theirhonour, and as un%illing to disgrace them, as the officers of the old


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(- That those %ho ha$e not et read #r- Thornton?s boo5 ma not be e$en temoraril liable to themisunderstanding of his meaning, and of the %hole sirit of his %ritings, %hich might be the effect ofreading onl the assage cited in the te7t, I %ill at once bring for%ard the other side of his oinion-8othing, he sas, can be further from his urose "than to e7culate the e7isting social sstem, or tosuggest an e7cuse for continued ac4uiescence in its enormities----- To affirm that those e$ils of thee7isting social olit %hich constitute the eculiar grie$ance of the oor are not the result of human

in6ustice, is erfectl consistent %ith the most $ehement denunciation both of the e$ils themsel$esand of the heartless indifference that %ould eretuate them- It is erfectl consistent, e$en %ith theadmission that the rich are bound to do %hat the can to alle$iate those e$ils 00 %ith this ro$iso,ho%e$er, that the are so bound, not b their dut to others, but b their dut to themsel$es- Theobligation is imosed uon them not b in6unctions of 6ustice, but b the force of smath and thee7hortations of humanit and charit- The sacrifices %hich it ma thus become incumbent on therich to ma5e, the oor are not in conse4uence entitled to demand- If the sacrifices are %ithheld, therich stand con$icted indeed of brute selfishness, but the do not thereb la themsel$es oen to theadditional charge of in6ustice- This distinction is not dra%n for the sa5e of edantic recision1 it isone of immense ractical imortance- To all right reasoning, it is essential that things should becalled b their right names1 and that nothing, ho%e$er bad, should recei$e a %orse name than itdeser$es- The more glaring a sin, the less reason is there for e7aggerating it1 and, in the casebefore us, the use of an erroneous eithet has been a fruitful source of further error- :nless the

resent constitution of societ had been arbitraril assumed to be un6ust, it %ould ne$er ha$e beenroosed to correct its in6ustice b resorting to means %hich %ould other%ise ha$e been at onceercei$ed to be themsel$es utterl un6ustifiable- On no other account could it e$er ha$e beensuosed that libert demanded for its o%n $indication the $iolation of libert, and that the freedomof cometition ought to be fettered or abolished- For freedom of cometition means no more thanthat e$er one should be at libert to do his best for himself, lea$ing all others e4uall at libert to dotheir best for themsel$es- Of all the natural rights of man, there is not one more incontestable thanthis, nor %ith %hich interference %ould be more manifestl unrighteous- et this it is roosed to setaside as incomatible %ith the rights of labour, as if those could ossibl be rights %hich cannot bemaintained e7cet b unrighteous means- &P- *@0.-+

The heartiness of #r- Thornton?s de$otion to the interest of the labouring classes &or, it should rather

be said, to the interest of human nature as embodied in them+, is manifested throughout the %or51but no%here so $i$idl as in the noble Introductor Chater, %here he deicts a state of things in%hich all the grosser and more alable e$ils of their o$ert might be e7tinct, and sho%s that %iththis the ought not, and %e ought not, to be content- It is not enough that the should no longer beob6ects of it- The conditions of a ositi$el ha and dignified e7istence are %hat he demands forthem, as %ell as for e$er other ortion of the human race-

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