The Kailasa (Sanskrit:Kailsantha) temple is one of the largest rock-cut ancientHindutemples located inEllora,Maharashtra,Indiaand it is amegalithcarved out of one single rock. It was built in the 8th century by theRashtrakutakingKrishna Ias attested inKannadainscriptions. This is one of the 34 temples and monasteries known collectively as theEllora Caves. These extend over more than 2km, were dug side by side in the wall of a highbasaltcliff in the complex located atEllora. The Kailasa (cave 16) is a remarkable example ofDravidian architectureon account of its striking proportion, elaborate workmanship, architectural content, and sculptural ornamentation ofrock-cut architecture.[1][2]The temple was commissioned and completed between 757-783 CE, when Krishna I ruled the Rashtrakuta dynasty.[1]It is designed to recallMount Kailash, the home ofLord Shiva

ethod of Construction[edit]The Kailasa Temple[3]is notable for itsverticalexcavationcarvers started at the top of the original rock, and excavated downward. The traditional methods were rigidly followed by the master architect which could not have been achieved by excavating from the front.[4]It is estimated that about 400,000 tons of rocks were scooped out over a period of 20 years to construct this monolithic structure.[5]From the chisel marks on walls of this temple, archeologists could conclude that three types of chisels were used to carve this temple.[6]Architecture[edit]All the carvings are at more than one level. A two-storeyed gateway opens to reveal a U-shaped courtyard. The courtyard is edged by a columned arcade three stories high. The arcades are punctuated by huge sculpted panels, and alcoves containing enormous sculptures of a variety of deities. Originally flying bridges of stone connected these galleries to central temple structures, but these have fallen.Within the courtyard are two structures. As is traditional in Shiva temples, an image of the sacred bullNandifronts the central temple housing the lingam. In Cave 16, the Nandi Mandapa and main Shiva temple are each about 7 metres high, and built on two storeys. The lower stories of the Nandi Mandapa are both solid structures, decorated with elaborate illustrative carvings. The base of the temple has been carved to suggest that elephants are holding the structure aloft.A rock bridge connects the Nandi Mandapa to the porch of the temple. The structure itself is a tall pyramidicSouth Indiantemple. The shrine complete with pillars, windows, inner and outer rooms, gathering halls, and an enormous stone lingam at its heart is carved with niches, plasters, windows as well as images of deities,mithunas (erotic male and female figures) and other figures. Most of the deities at the left of the entrance areShaivaite(followers of Lord Shiva) while on the right hand side the deities areVaishnavaites(followers of Lord Vishnu).There are two Dhwajasthambha (pillars with flagstaff) in the courtyard. The grand sculpture ofRavanaattempting to lift Mount Kailasa, with his full might is a landmark in Indian art

History of South Asian domes

Islamic rule over northern and central Indiabrought with it the use of domes constructed with stone, brick and mortar, and iron dowels and cramps. Centering was made from timber and bamboo. The use of iron cramps to join together adjacent stones was known in pre-Islamic India, and was used at the base of domes for hoop reinforcement. The synthesis of styles created by this introduction of new forms to theHindu traditionoftrabeateconstruction created a distinctive architecture.[1]Domes in pre-Mughal India have a standard squat circular shape with a lotus design and bulbous finial at the top, derived from Hindu architecture. Because the Hindu architectural tradition did not include arches, flat corbels were used to transition from the corners of the room to the dome, rather than squinches.[2]In contrast to Persian and Ottoman domes, the domes of Indian tombs tend to be more bulbousEarly history[edit]

TheAlai Dawarzain Delhi.The earliest examples include the half-domes of the late 13th centurytomb of Balbanand the small dome of the tomb of Khan Shahid, which were made of roughly cut material and would have needed covering surface finishes. The Alai Dawarza, a gate in theQutb complexbuilt in 1311, has the first dome in India made of finely dressed stone cut into voussoir blocks. Arches transition a square chamber to an octagon, which transitions to a sixteen-sided polygon through the use of corbelled brackets. The cut stone dome over the tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (d. 1325) uses alternating rings of shallow and deep stones to produce a better bond with the core material. The use of finely cut stone voussoirs for these domes suggest the migration of masons from the formerSeljuk Empire.[4]Domes from the late 14th century use roughly shaped stones covered in render, due to the dispersal of skilled masons following the movement of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad and back again. Examples include theKhirki Masjid(c. 1375) and the tomb ofFiroz Shah(d. 1388). The domed tomb ofKhan-i-Jahan Tilangani(1368) is generally referred to as "the first octagonal tomb in Delhi with the domed central chamber surrounded by an ambulatory verandah with three arched openings on each facet", although it is predated by the tomb ofZafar Khan.[5]Lodi dynasty[edit]Under theLodi dynastythere was a large proliferation of tomb building, with octagonal plans reserved for royalty and square plans used for others of high rank, and the first double dome was introduced to India in this period. There are multiple candidates. ThetombofSikander Lodiwas built from 1517 to 1518 and is cited, but is predated by the brick tomb ofZain-ul-Abidin's mother, built around 1465 in Zaina Kadal,Srinagar. The Sabz Burj in Delhi may be earlier still, but is dated to 1530-40 by written sources.[6]Mughal dynasty[edit]The first majorMughal buildingis the domedtomb of Humayun, built between 1562 and 1571 by a Persian architect. The central dome likely has a core of brick, as can be seen in the later stripped tomb ofKhan-i-Khanan. The central dome is faced with marble blocks in attached to the core by alternating wide and narrow layers and there is evidence of the use of iron cramps to secure them. Iron cramps may also help form a tension ring at the base of the dome. The central double dome covers an octagonal central chamber about 15 meters wide and is accompanied by small domedchattrimade of brick and faced with stone. Smaller domes were widely made with rectangular bricks beginning in the 16th century, the necessary curvature being created by tapering the mortar joints.[7]Chatris, the domed kiosks on pillars characteristic of Mughal roofs, were adopted from their Hindu use ascenotaphs.[8]

TheTaj Mahalin Agra, India.TheTaj MahalinAgra, also a brick structure clad primarily in marble, was begun in 1632 and mostly completed in 1636; the rest of the extensive complex would not be finished before 1643. The tomb was built forMumtaz Mahal, a wife of emperor Shah Jahan, after her death in 1631. The central double dome covers a diameter of 22 meters. The inner dome is three meters thick and over 30 meters below the outer dome. The outer dome rests upon drum walls five metes thick.[9]The fusion of Persian and Indian architecture can be seen in the dome's shape: the bulbous shape derives from Persian Timurid domes, and thefinialwith lotus leaf base is derived from Hindu temples.[2]The inner dome has a decorative triangulated pattern modeled after plaster mold work, but here carved in marble. The entire complex is highly symmetrical. On the western side of the tomb is a red sandstone mosque with three bulbous domes faced with marble, and on the eastern side is mirror-image assembly hall that likewise has three marble domes.[10]At the center of the tomb hall lies the cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahal, with her husband's off-center to the west. The actualsarcophagilie directly below, in the crypt, but in the same arrangement.[11]

TheGol Gumbazin Bijapur, India.The tomb ofMohammed Adil Shah(d. 1656) inBijapuris one of the largest masonry domes in the world. Called theGol Gumbaz, orRound Dome, it has an internal diameter of 41.15 meters and a height of 54.25 meters. The dome was built with layers of brick between thick layers of mortar and rendered on both faces, so that the dome acts as a concrete shell reinforced with bricks. It is 2.6 meters thick at the base.[12]The dome was the most technically advanced to be built in theDeccan, and exemplifies the flowering of art and architecture that occurred during the period of theAdil Shahi Sultanate's greatest extent.[13]Radial cracks were repaired in 1936-7 by the application of reinforcement to the outside of the dome, which was then covered by sprayed concrete.[14]Both the Gol Gumbaz dome and the smaller dome of theJama Masjid, a 57 foot wide dome also at Bijapur, are above distinctive transition zones consisting of eight intersecting arches that narrow the openings to be covered.[15]The last major Islamic tomb built in India was thetomb of Safdar Jang(175354). It is a brick structure clad in sandstone and marble stripped from the earlier tomb ofKhan-i-Khanan(d. 1627). Shallow brick domes cover the perimeter chambers of the building, and the central dome is reportedly triple-shelled, with two relatively flat inner brick domes and an outer bulbous marble dome, although it may actually be that the marble and second brick domes are joined everywhere but under the lotus leaf finial at the top.[16]

Pakistan[edit]TheBadshahi Mosquein Pakistan remained the largest mosque ever built until theGrand MosqueinMeccawas constructed in 1986. It has three domes, the largest of which is the central one which reaches 15 m in height and has a diameter of 21.5 m at the central bulging

Mughal gardens

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

TheShalimar Gardens, LahoreMughal gardensare a group ofgardensbuilt by theMughalsin thePersianstyle of architecture. This style was heavily influenced by thePersian gardensparticularly theCharbaghstructure.[1]Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features includepools,fountainsand canals inside the gardens.History[edit]

Mughal EmperorBabursupervising the creation of a gardenThe founder of theMughal empire,Babur, described his favourite type of garden as acharbagh. They use the termbgh,baug, bageecha or bagicha for garden. This word developed a new meaning in India, as Babur explains; India lacked the fast-flowing streams required for the Central Asian charbagh. TheAgragarden, now known as theRam Bagh, is thought to have been the first charbagh. India, Bangladesh and Pakistan have a number of Mughal gardens which differ from their Central Asian predecessors with respect to "the highly disciplined geometry". An early textual references about Mughal gardens are found in the memoirs and biographies of the Mughal emperors, including those ofBabur,HumayunandAkbar. Later references are found from "the accounts of India" written by various European travellers (Bernier for example). The first serious historical study of Mughal gardens was written byConstance Villiers-Stuart, with the titleGardens of the Great Mughals(1913). Her husband was a Colonel in Britain's Indian army. This gave her a good network of contacts and an opportunity to travel. During their residence atPinjore Gardens, Mrs. Villiers-Stuart also had an opportunity to direct the maintenance of an important Mughal garden. Her book makes reference to the forthcoming design of a garden in the Government House at New Delhi (now known asRashtrapati Bhavan).[2]She was consulted byEdwin Lutyens, and this may have influenced his choice of Mughal style for this project. Recent scholarly work on the history of Mughal gardens has been carried out under the auspicious guidance ofDumbarton Oaks(includingMughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospectsedited by James L. Wescoat, Jr. and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn) and theSmithsonian Institution. Some examples of Mughal gardens areShalimar Gardens (Lahore),Lalbagh Fortat Dhaka, andShalimar Bagh (Srinagar).

Mughal gardens at theTaj MahalFrom the beginnings of the Mughal Empire, the construction of gardens was a beloved imperial pastime.[3]Babur, the first Mughal conqueror-king, had gardens built inLahoreandDholpur. Humayun, his son, does not seem to have had much time for buildinghe was busy reclaiming and increasing the realmbut he is known to have spent a great deal of time at his fathers gardens.[4]Akbar built several gardens first in Delhi,[5]then in Agra, Akbars new capital.[6]These tended to be riverfront gardens rather than the fortress gardens that his predecessors built. Building riverfront rather than fortress gardens influenced later Mughal garden architecture considerably.Akbars region,Jahangir, did not build as much, but he helped to lay out the famous Shalimar garden and was known for his great love for flowers.[7]Indeed, his trips to Kashmir are believed to have begun a fashion for naturalistic and abundant floral design.[8]Jahangir's son,Shah Jahan, marks the apex of Mughal garden architecture and floral design. He is famous for the construction of theTaj Mahal, a sprawling funereal paradise in memory of his favorite wife,Mumtaz Mahal.[9]He is also responsible for theRed Fortat Delhi which contains theMahtab Bagh, a night garden that was filled with night-blooming jasmine and other pale flowers.[10]The pavilions within are faced with white marble to glow in the moonlight. This and the marble of the Taj Mahal are inlaid with semiprecious stone depicting scrolling naturalistic floral motifs, the most important being thetulip, which Shah Jahan adopted as a personal symbol.[11]Design and symbolism[edit]

Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar, KashmirMughal gardens design derives primarily from the medievalIslamic garden, although there are nomadic influences that come from the Mughals Turkish-Mongolian ancestry. Julie Scott Meisami describes the medieval Islamic garden as ahortus conclusus, walled off and protected from the outside world; within, its design was rigidly formal, and its inner space was filled with those elements that man finds most pleasing in nature. Its essential features included running water (perhaps the most important element) and a pool to reflect the beauties of sky and garden; trees of various sorts, some to provide shade merely, and others to produce fruits; flowers, colorful and sweet-smelling; grass, usually growing wild under the trees; birds to fill the garden with song; the whole cooled by a pleasant breeze. The garden might include a raised hillock at the center, reminiscent of the mountain at the center of the universe in cosmological descriptions, and often surmounted by a pavilion or palace.[12]The Turkish-Mongolian elements of the Mughal garden are primarily related to the inclusion of tents, carpets and canopies reflecting nomadic roots. Tents indicated status in these societies, so wealth and power were displayed through the richness of the fabrics as well as by size and number.[13]The Mughals were obsessed with symbol and incorporated it into their gardens in many ways. The standard Quranic references to paradise were in the architecture, layout, and in the choice of plant life; but more secular references, including numerological and zodiacal significances connected to family history or other cultural significance, were often juxtaposed. The numbers eight and nine were considered auspicious by the Mughals and can be found in the number of terraces or in garden architecture such as octagonal pools.[14]Sites of Mughal gardens[edit]

Pinjore GardensinHaryana

Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, IndiaAfghanistan[edit]Bagh-e Babur(Kabul)

India[edit]Humayun's Tomb,Nizamuddin East,Delhi

Taj Mahal,Agra

Ram Bagh,Agra

Mehtab Bagh,Agra

Safdarjung's Tomb

Shalimar Bagh (Srinagar),Jammu and Kashmir

Nishat Gardens, Jammu and Kashmir

Yadavindra Gardens,Pinjore

Khusro Bagh,Allahabad

Roshanara Bagh

Brindavan Gardens,Mysore,Karnataka(1927-1932)

Rashtrapati Bhavan,New Delhi(1911-1931)

Vernag

Chashma Shahi

Pari Mahal

Achabal Gardens

Pakistan[edit]Chauburji

Lahore Fort

Shahdara Bagh

Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)

Tomb of Jahangir,Lahore

Hazuri Bagh

Hiran Minar(Sheikhupura)

Mughal Garden Wah