Sustainable Development

Sustainable Water Supply

Alan Shelley May 2000

Flooding in Cheltenham

1 Coleridge, The Ancient Mariner

PREFACE

Water, water everywhere Nor any drop to drink!1

When flooding occurs, the suggestion of rationed water in Britain is

beyond comprehension. Shortages of water in Asia are taken for

granted. With ever increasing demands for water it is recognised that

global reductions are critical to sustainability of the eco-system.

In Britain we have been mindlessly squandering high quality

processed drinking water. The costs of so doing are expensive both

financially and to the environment. It is time to take immediate action

to reduce and regulate demands. WATER IS VALUABLE.

'We can make a difference' -This small project considers methods

that can be employed from the level of an individual, house or

business unit up the scale to the recommendation of regulations

imposed at national levels. As potential designers of landscapes we

are in a position that can influence 'sustainable' practices at each level.

Contents

Page

The Commodity of Water ........................................................................................... 1

Sustainable Water Supply ........................................................................................ 2

Total Water Management. .......................................................................................... 3

Water Cycling and Design Patterns ........................................................................... 4

Protecting Water Catchment Areas............................................................................ 5

Rainwater Harvesting................................................................................................ 6

Recycling and the Treatment of Sewage ................................................................... 9

Reedbed Cleansing ................................................................................................... 1 O

On-plot Case Study .................................................................................................. 11

The Local Watershed ................................................................................................. 16

Waste Management. .................................................................................................. 20

Facilities at Plot/Unit and Neighbourhood Levels ....................................................... 21

Regulation at Local and Watershed Levels ............................................................... 27

Management at Town or Locality Scale ..................................................................... 29

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) ........................................................ 30

APPENDICES

1. The Environment. ........................................................................................... 34

2. River Che It Flood Alleviation .......................................................................... 39

3. Waterless Toilet System ................................................................................ 40

4. Presentations (Brief talks) .............................................................................. 41

Illustrations

Figure Page

1. The 'hydrological cycle'.................................................................................. 2

2. Water catchment areas ................................................................................... 5

3. Wff filter collector ............................................................................................. 7

4. Rainwater harvesting system ........................................................................ 8

5. Eco-Cabins sewage treatment system ......................................................... 1 O

6. Reedbed 'greywater' treatment.. .................................................................... 10

7. Case Study; location photograph .................................................................. 11

8. Watershed/Catchment Area (map) ................................................................ 12

9. Location within the Watershed (map) ............................................................ 13

10. Average Annual Rainfall ................................................................................. 17

11. Hydrogeological Map ..................................................................................... 18

12. Groundwater Vulnerability Map ..................................................................... 19

13. Unit (house) Level (plan) ............................................................................... 24

14. Plot Level (plan) ............................................................................................. 25

15. Neighbourhood Level (plan) .......................................................................... 26

16. 'What If'? Cambray Place (plan) ................................................................... 32

17. Reedbed Cleansing (photograph) ................................................................. 33

18. Reedbed Cleansing (photograph) ................................................................. 33

19. 'Cotuit' Dry Toilet System (diagram) .............................................................. 40

20. Waterless toilet (photograph) ........................................................................ 40

TABLES

1. Water consumption of household ................................................................... 22

2. Water consumption comparisons ................................................................... 22

3. Domestic hot-water demand ........................................................................... 23

The Commodity of Water

Drinking water is expensive to provide and is prone to shortages in

times of drought. The consumption of clean water is rapidly rising.

The costs of waste management adds to a problem that can be

considerably reduced. Each of us use an average of 135 litres of

water per day.

We flush in the region of 33 % of our drinking water down the toilet.

Baths and showers account for 25% while our washing machines and

dishwashers take a further 21 %.1 Severn Trent have estimated that

we only drink 1 % of the water produced to drinking quality.

On a broader level, it is recognised that by the year 2025, two out of

five people in the world will suffer from shortage of water.2 Huge

quantities of valuable rainwater are lost through inadequate catchment

systems and wasteful applications to the land. Two thirds of water,

world-wide, is used for agriculture and while the world population

has increased by 100% in 100 years, water consumption has risen by

600%.

1 Barton, H. et al. (1995) Sustainable Settlements Bristol: UWE p.235. 2 Green Futures (1999) Sweetwater Postel, S. July/August, p.22.

Here in the UK, we make insufficient provision to conserve water.

Each time there is an excessive rainfall we appear to have flash floods

that damage housing developments. Many of these are post-war

developments built upon former flood plains. It is of little consolation

to learn shortly afterwards that water continues to be in short supply

because the floodwater has been directed through the surface water

system, straight out to sea.

Catchment and treatment of water is an issue of sustainable

development that must be addressed. As someone particularly

interested in wetland, it is alarming how the water-tables are being

changed by shifting consumption's of water. Ground saturation is an

important biotic function and further assists in the reception of water

to be utilised.

Water resources must be managed in a sustainable way if standards of

living are to be maintained. This may result in some regulation of

drinking water supply by metering and raising charges. The

following advice may assist those wishing to learn more and facilitate

the conservation of water.

1

Sustainable Water Supply

Water efficiency is improved by:

• Minimising the use of white (mains) water

• Collection and use of storm water (rainwater) for utility purposes

• Recycling water (grey-water) for utility and irrigation purposes

• Recycling black-water sewage effluent after suitable treatment

• Reducing the demand and consumption for irrigation

Sustainable systems can reduce environmental impact and are based

upon catchment storage. This may require considerable space.

Water Catchment Conditions

Water collection will be conditional upon:

• Climatic conditions of an area

• Land area relationships with eco-cycles

• Measurements and decisions determined by 'watershed' area

• Flow, volume and water quality will be determined by landscape

gradients

• Biophysical conditions will be affected by land, position, climate,

soil and rock formation

• Positional elements include, macro-climate (topography) meso­

climate (exposure) and micro-climate (wind and sun).

Fig. 1.3

Some of the processes of water circulation in the 'hydrological cycle'.

3 Money 1972, p.58.

2

The availability of water is essential to ecology. Water supply must

be regular and uncontaminated to support plant and animal life. Water

is collected in sub-surface aquifers resulting from the infiltration of

precipitation from rain, fog, snow, frost and dew. Land surfaces

collect water that runs via gradients into water courses, or collects in

ponds and lakes. These surfaces may be designated geographically as

'catchment areas'. Catchment and collection will depend upon the

retentive qualities of the soil and rock formations. Quality may be

affected by leaching conditions and contamination from fertilisers or

industrial infiltration. Fresh water is measured for quality by the

Environment Agency. Pollutants are detected and filtered

accordingly.

Total Water Cycle Management

This involves the integration of land use planning, managing water

supply, waste-water collection, treatment and disposal. Storm water

collection and drainage services are essential within the design of this

cyclic system of management. However, where a 'sustainable

system' is confined to a small development, these elements can be

dealt within a larger decentralised management system. Three levels

of treatment are required to treat effluent to a quality sufficient to

discharge into a potable (drinking quality) standard. These are

recognised as the primary, secondary and 'polishing' stages. They

progressively decrease the biochemical oxygen demand and most of

the ammonia levels. Integration of catchment and treatment will

depend upon the size of the land available and its affect on land use.

Hydrological Function

To be fully accommodated, each land area has a position within the

hydrological cycle - depending upon topography, soil and geo­

characteristics. Particularly where there are flood plains or sloping

lands. They may also be affected by, or liable to, pollution from

leaching, etc. The presence of upland forest will ensure rainfall if

managed accordingly. Vegetation provides a vital role in the

generation of rainwater supplies.

Local Water Supply and Treatment

Local water is that supplied from within the local river catchment area

and directly on site. It is important that no interference is caused to

the natural hydrological cycle. The catchment locally should be

defined. Sewage systems may be integrated with the hydrological

cycle. This can be handled 'on-site', or through the local authority

system, or an element of both. Harmful substances must be

separated, bio-degraded and reduced to a 'useable' and safe quality.

3

On-site treatment may include septic tanks, reed beds, leach fields,

solar ponds and other forms of 'digester'. Black sewage will require

large areas for treatment and may be better handled off-site.

Water Cycling

This is the process of water through an organisation such as a

household, office, farm or industrial activity. It does not need to be

of 'drinking quality' for all purposes. Quality standards can be

applied for differing purposes. Surface water drainage is the key to

the hydrological cycle. Flash flooding is disruptive and damaging.

Such collections of rainwater should be allowed to penetrate into

groundwater reserves. The areas of sealed surfaces generate 'run-off

in heavy rains and may cause problems at lower ground surface

levels.

Design Patterns

Barbara Hammond has made a study of the elements that may be

considered when approaching an on-site design proposal:

This is essentially to improve biotic productivity. Starting with the

ecological unit of the watershed. The local authority unit is organised

as a whole and 'regional boundaries' are up to the major national

water system and major rivers. Second tier boundaries - may be parts

of the above watershed's feeding tributaries. The watershed scale is

of importance in the improvement of biotic productivity. A

'neighbourhood' would be within the 'watershed'. Economic 'units'

may be households, businesses (factories, farms or estates).

The design might include 'plots' and 'blocks' that are scale collections

of units within the 'watershed'. The 'local scale' may be a political

unit or a local authority.

Flow Indicators and Aims

These will be taken from the hydrological pattern, its function, water

catchment and supply. How close is the supply? Minimal

groundwater should be extracted. Rainwater 'harvesting' should be

applied. Water is best transported by gravity. Minimum stream­

water extraction. Grey-water cycling (close to use) and water supply

redundancy. Dual water and sewage treatment to reduce external

services to redundancy.

Surface (stormwater) drainage reduction by foresting upper slopes.

Creation of slow drainage, avoiding excessive 'sealing' of surfaces.

'Balancing' local floodwater treatment and reducing main drainage to

redundancy.

4

Fig.2.

Protecting Water Catchment Areas

Planning must be applied to ameliorate the effects of development.:

• External surfaces and drainage should be designed to increase

infiltration (less concrete and paved surfaces)

• Apply vegetation where possible to cleanse air and water

• A void the necessity for irrigation where possible

• Protect aquifers and water courses from pollution

• Protect floodplains from development and ensure run-off facility

• Reduce all demands for water, particularly the consumption of

drinking quality (white water).

Indicators for W ater4

• Percentage of population with drinking water below EU standards

• Per capita consumption of water

• Percentage of local demand for water met from local resources

• Changes in the level of water table over time in each district

• Capacity of both local water supply and disposal systems compared to current levels of use, by area

• Tonnes of untreated sewage discharged

• Percentage of river or stream mileage in class one category (EA)

4 Sustainable Settlements p.35.

5

Rainwater Harvesting

A large proportion of drinking quality water is consumed on activities

where such a high quality is unnecessary. Purified water is essential

for healthy drinking and bathing purposes. The water we use to flush

toilets, wash clothes, clean cars or water gardens may be less

purified.

Rainwater can be readily collected from the roofs of buildings and

stored for use as required. This standard of quality can be used for at

least 50% of domestic activities. Application can be much higher in

commercial or educational establishments. Drinking 'tap' water can

be reduced to metered efficiencies.

The collected surface rainwater is normally gravity fed into storage

tanks. From there it is pumped to various outlets. The rainwater is

filtered before entering the storage tank and a further filter is applied

to the outgoing pumped supply. Rainwater storage systems may be

fitted with sensing devices, firstly to operate the pumped output

supply on demand, and secondly, to trip over to mains supply at

times of shortage.

In an article written by Nick Bentley of 'Eco-Vat', 5 he states that

'more than 50% of the UK's total daily water requirement falls freely

on the roofs'. When accounting for an average family of four he goes

on to say:

'With a roof area of 180m2, and an average rainfall of

1,000mm, this area will, through the course of a year,

collect 180m3 of water. This means that 76% of this

household's water needs can be supplied by the property

itself .6

Potable water can be achieved if additional filtration is installed. An

Eco-Vat rainwater storage system is typically supplied complete with

all fixtures and fittings necessary for use. The collection tank is

specifically designed for rainwater storage. The tank can be installed

above or below ground. Usually it is concealed below ground and is

fitted with a screw-down manhole cover. The standard capacity of a

tank is 5,000 litres. Where necessary additional tanks can be

connected. No planning permission is necessary and the pump is

submersed in the tank. This system normally operates three-phases

of filtration.

5 Urban Design (1999) High & Dry (January p.19. 6 Ibid

6

~ .. ·~~.

~

Ud

~ uerinsert

WFF filter collector

Fig. 3.

The Green Shop, Cheltenham Road, Bisley, Nr. Stroud,

Gloucestershire GL6 7BX, are suppliers of three alternative systems.

They each incorporate an automatic switch over to mains water if

stored water is low. Each of the systems are designed to suit

individual budgets and requirements. They are fitted with 'Wisy'

filters which they consider to be the most efficient available. Various

pumps are available along with regulating controls to maintain

pressure levels. Excluding the container tanks, the price of the

systems range from c.£600 to £1,400, plus VAT.

The 'Green Shop' do not stock storage tanks which may vary in size

according to individual systems. However, they are happy to supply

from stock, re-used orange juice tanks, with a capacity of 1520 litres,

which they consider to be fine for smaller domestic installations. The

current price for these, including delivery, is around £120.

Typical costs for an Eco-Vat system, including a 5000 litres tank,

( exclusive of VAT) range from c.£1300 to £1700. Perhaps it would

take an average family seven or eight years to recover the costs of

installing one of these systems but Eco-Vat have statistics to support

costs recovered by many commercial establishments in less than 3-4

years.

7

Tundish detail

~ insect proof mesh

Minimum water level; valve turns on.

Detail to prevent sediment disturbance

pipe falls away from valve

/ 0 @ Mains water

~-------,G> r ::

__.) I~ c:=== II

(f -::-

I I I I I I I I I I I I

------~:_-1

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soakawayorsurface ater drain -verflow detail

To we, washing machine, Garden tap etc 15mm plas1ic eg_ljepworth 6r Johri Guest (PEX).

1. Inlet from Wisy filter. 2. Mains top up via type A airgap. 3. Overflow. 4. ElectricaUy operated valve. 5. Float switch for mains top up. 6. Coarse strainer and foot valve. 7. Rainharvester pressure booster pump: 8. Flex. 9. Junction box. 10.13A socket. 11. Isolating valve.

EXAMPLE OF TYPICAL INSTALLATION USING A 1520 litre 'OJ' CONTAINER AND RAINHARVESTER BUDGET SYSTEM

Fig. 4.

Extracted from 'Rainwater Harvesting' literature of the 'Green Shop'

8

Recycling and the Treatment Of Sewage

The purposes of sustainable systems should not focus simply on cost

reduction or even the readily available and convenient supply of

water. It is important to remember that we are reducing the effects of

water demand on the mains water supplies. In a world where the use

of finite resources is being reassessed, and in an economic

environment where the cost of mains water (and sewage treatment) is

both expensive and becoming unreliable, all consumers must observe

the needs for conservation.

Greywater is a term given to effluent, contaminated by use of some

form but not to the degree of sewage, or 'blackwater'. In areas where

there is less rainfall to be gathered it may be of greater necessity to

consider the maximisation of greywater cycling.

Greywater cycling can be undertaken at various scales. Within the

household or commercial establishment, water may be cycled through

filters to eventually reach potable quality. In most cases recycled

water is brought up to a standard similar to that of rainwater or simply

reapplied. Typical 're-uses' of water would be from that used for

cooking, washing-up and bathing to be applied to toilet flushing and

garden irrigation.

Greywater cycling is of fundamental importance to the improvement

of watercourse quality. Greywater combined with stormwater will

overflow from the main drainage system at times of extreme pressure.

The two conditions of rain and greywaters should be contained within

different systems. Blackwater and greywater can be processed

together and put through a recognised three phase system of filtration.

This system employs reedbeds which can be operated locally.

Two main types of reedbed are in currently in use, the horizontal

Kickuth beds, and the vertical, Seidal beds. The vertical form

requires less room and fewer reeds to filtrate a comparative amount of

water. The breakdown of sewage requires some preliminary

treatment before entering the reedbed system. A series of deep cells

process the effluent. At the first stage there is constant silting to be

removed. Following through a bed of Common Reed or Reedmace,

it then flows through a secondary bed containing a wider range of

aquatic plants. Finally the water is cleaned or 'polished' on shallower

lagoons of finer vegetation. At this stage the quality of the water

should have reached a standard fit for discharge into local

watercourses, applied to irrigation or for utility use in house or firm.

9

Reedbed Cleansing

Sewage absorption will require an initial pond of at minimum 10m2•

This would be sufficient for a three person household and an

additional lm2 would be required for each additional person. A three

bed system would usually be employed, having common rush and

reed in a first filter pond, with bulrush and iris with reeds in a second.

The final 'polishing' stage can be formed into a stream with gravel

bed and planted with water mint, marsh marigolds, etc.

lststage Ca1't1mnn&!ed

~EY

0 Crunpleted

,-,, Pn•'-'--' '. ....... , .,...__ ...

,\~ Hummus tank \... 3rd :.ta~ iris bed

3rd stage ll<>lded truebuhush bed c· i ~ Pnlyt1Umel

I ·--· J / ...... ::::. l mariguld buJnash !~.,' f ) ., ~

"~ : .. ~·:! ............ (.) rund . Irrigation

The Eco-Cabins sewage treatment system ~ holdlngtanl;

Fig. 5.7

7 System proved at Centre for Alternative Technology (Moodie, 1995)

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:11'D1!MCll1" et!l>i- ~ ~iMl'-'f IIJ Wlt,IP~

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Fig. 6.8

8 Architects' Journal 18 April 1996 p.34

10

On-plot and Local Systems

Many architects and developers today are adopting 'green' processes

and secondary water systems can be seen in their show houses.

However, if there is to be sufficient improvement to 'make a

difference' we must consider a straightforward update of existing

property. Here are the stages to be considered:

• Analysis of the local watershed (quality and collection)

• Modifying the collection guttering and down-pipes from roofs

• fustalling a rainwater harvesting and filtering system ( & storage)

• Plumbing into the mains 'changeover' and supply system

• Minimising any 'sealed' surfacing and ensuring soil penetration

• Creating surface ponds where and filtration beds where possible

• Administering a strict regime of recycling useable 'utility' water

• Clear labelling of 'drinking/bathing' quality water and limitation of

any excess 'tap running'.

Case Study: . Domestic Update

The property under examination is a four storey Regency terraced

house: 13 Cambray Place, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire.

Fig. 7.

11

Fig. 8

The Cheltenham Site Boundary/ River Catchment Area

12

Fig. 9.

Location of Cambray Place

13

The Practical Application of Water Conservation

Conservation at the immediate level can simply be achieved by the

reduction of water consumption. Considerable reductions can made

by the use of water efficient WC's (1.5 - 3.0 litres versus 9 litres

conventional) or by the use of composting toilets.9 Showers can be

applied efficiently to replace the greater consumption of baths.

Scale of operations

The initial and greater level of consideration must be that of the area

watershed. This will affect the proximity quantity and quality of

water available or accessible to the developer10• Flood plain, high

water-table or sloping ground will affect the approaches applied. At

the larger scale of operation and with available land surface available it

may be possible store water in ponds or lakes. This would

incorporate the catchment of ground and surface water. It should not

include any diversion of water courses however minor in size.

At 'plot' or 'unit' scale rainwater may be collected from several roofs

and stored in a suitable pond or contained within tanks. Preferably

and where space allows it should be in ponds to be 'balanced' and

9 Refer to Appendix 10 The expression 'developer' may be applied to each scale of operation.

cleansed by natural vegetation. Wild-life is to be encouraged and

output can be adequately filtered before consumption. The cleansing

of greywater and blackwater will be dependant upon available space.

This can be dealt with adequately by grouping 'units' as necessary.

At the smallest scale, a house 'plot', in an urban environment the

'cleansing' method will be dictated by space limitations. If grouping

is impractical then the system must be limited to rainwater harvesting

from all roof surfaces, collection and containment in a tank. This can

be above or below the ground in a small backyard.

An option worthy of consideration, when gathering water from a

roof, is to retain storage at attic level and or heated by solar panels.

The collected water can then be stored at high temperatures in super

insulated thermal storage tanks. (This is truly 'green technology').

With such an arrangement the supply can be distributed in hot or cold

format.

14

Case Study: 13 Cambray Place, Cheltenham

The property is of four storey's, these comprise:

A basement flat containing 1 Bath, 2 WC' s and 1 Washing

machine. Currently this is the accommodation of one professional

adult.

The ground floor is occupied by a business (Architect's Office) and

has 1 WC. Currently this employs two adults.

The two upper floors comprise house levels and contain 1 Bath and

Shower, 2 WC's and a washing machine. Currently this is the

accommodation of two adults and two children under ten years of

age.

Plan dimensions of the rear garden are approximately 17m x 5m.

Down pipes from the potential roof catchment are conveniently

situated as is the mains water supply to be incorporated into a 'rain­

harvester' system. Directly to the rear of the property is a small patio

of approximately 3m square and currently covered by small pavers.

This location would be entirely suitable to contain a submerged water

storage tank 2036mm diameter and 2428mm high. The container,

supplied by ECO-V AT will store 5000 litres of non-potable water. It

would be capped at ground surface level with a screw-down man-hole

cover.

The recommended system for these domestic and business conditions

would be the ECO-V AT Gravity Primary System. This will provide

all non potable supplies. Toilet flushing, washing machines,

dishwashers ( should they be fitted) hot water supplies and all external

uses. Specification as follows:

5000 litres net rotomoulded tank with 110mm diameter inlet and

overflow connections, tank connector for 25mm alkathene pipe, and

lockable cast iron manhole cover.

Multigo stainless steel submersible pump, supplying 80 litres/minute

at 10 metres head. 'Lift-out' service plate containing pressure switch,

non-return valve, control unit and depth sensor switch. A display

unit (to be sited internally) with manual and automatic modes, and

lights to indicate the level of water in the tank. Leaf filter requiring

maintenance every three months. Floating filter (200 microns)

attached to the pump and drawing water from 150mm - 225mm below

the surface. 'In-line' filter with removable and washable 100 micron

stainless filter. Solenoid valve to control the mains water.

15

The Local Watershed

The groundwater of the Cheltenham area is the result of the following

geology. Cheltenham originated on a 'sand-bed' (the Cheltenham

Sand) and the Chelt hollowed out a depression which has filled up

with gravel, loam and peat overspread with alluvial matter.

Subsequently the town extended onto the Lower Lias clay.

These conditions can be seen in excavations of the soil at the rear of

13 Cambray Place.

The groundwater of the Cheltenham area is not monitored by the

Environment Agency. It was recognised that the wells in the sand of

this area were ( and are) particularly vulnerable to pollution. This has

been the case since ( and probably before) the 1930' s. At one-time

there was a borehole for the Flower's brewery but that was

discontinued. Groundwater is not considered usable by the agency

without treatment and close monitoring. The Chelt Sands area are

classified as a minor aquifer with high vulnerability.

The soil is generally classified as 'slowly permeable calcareous clayey

soils ( 411 b - Evesham II but unclassified actually in Cheltenham) .11

Water levels in the sands reflect the topography mainly being

relatively shallow near the river. Industrial processes may have

compromised the groundwater quality locally.

Employing the principles of "What if', and given the space to employ

a suitable catchment pool, with an impervious bed, freshwater could

be stored. Contamination or pollution could be eliminated by the

planting of reeds and other dissipating aquatic plants. Taking up the

area immediately in front of the terrace containing 13 Cambray Place.

This area, currently a car park could be conveniently be created into a

communal lake capable of providing a functional and very attractive

landscape. A communal lake would be capable of cleansing the

surrounding prope1ties sewage disposals to a level capable of

providing a useful water garden and wild life reserve. If local 'roof

gathered water' was initially collected for personal consumption then

the overflow could be directed into the communal pool.

11 These comments by John Hiley, Hydrogeologist Environment Agency, letter to Alan Shelley 10 April 2000.

16

Fig. 10.

"'

"'

KILOMETRES

o 20 40 eo ao 100

I A- ;;;;we 0 10 20 30 40 50 1!10 MILES

Average Annual Rainfall for England & Wales 1916 - 1950

(The higher density of shading inicates the greater levels of rainfall)

17

Fig. 11. (Extract) Hydrogeological Map of England & Wales

Cheltenham area G5 Inferior Oolite (Brick pattern showing Cotswolds area)

G3 Lias ( clays with thin bands of limestone and sand deposits

18

Fig. 12. Groundwater Vulnerability Map (Extracted from NRA Sheet 29 (Worcestershire)

areas indicate major aquifer with high vulnerability

areas indicate low aquifer with low vulnerability

minor aquifer with high vulnerability

non aquifer (negligibly permeable)

NB. Other than green areas, all are highly susceptible to leaching.

19

Waste Management

All waste water (greywater) is handled conventionally. The baths,

basins, and kitchen sinks have conventional traps and wastes. With

permission (to be sought) from EA (local authority) screened water

can be passed to an approved soak:away. All waste pipes currently

run internally and connect at each floor level with an external waste

down pipe.

An additional down-pipe 50mm diameter can be installed alongside

existing waste-pipe to direct greywater into a clayware 'Hepworth'

drain 100mm in diameter. This drain should be connected to a

Hepworth clayware grease trap, to remove any grease that may have

entered the waste water from the kitchen sinks. From the grease trap

the drain would join with the overflow from the rainwater storage

tanks and pass to the soak:away, which handles all the grey water

from the house.

Permission to discharge waste water is referred to as 'sullage'. Such

permission was sought (and granted) by the authors12 of The

Autonomous House on the grounds that such waste water would be

12 Vale, B. & R. (2000)The New Autonomous House London: Thames & Hudson

P.187.

no greater in quantity than the water that would have entered into the

soil before the building was constructed. It should also be qualified

that the water would only contain soap and eco friendly detergents.

The soak:away can be constructed to a depth of around 1.5 m. This

would be excavated 0.5 - 1.0 m from the periphery of the rainwater

storage tank (into the garden). Construction of the soak:away would

be 1.5m2 of perforated brickwork on a 150mm concrete base. A

suitable concrete slab would form the top of the chamber.

The walls of the unit should be backfilled with broken brick rubble.

Although there is clay in the soil formation at Cambray Place, the

soak:away has sufficient capacity to ensure dispersal and percolation.

A bilge pump (hand or mechanically operated) can be attached to the

container and with a hose-pipe to apply irrigation water to the garden.

The capacity of the soak:away is estimated to be 1,350 litres plus, and

will safely handle any unforeseen excess intake. Neighbourhood

schemes would involve an overflow from the individual soak:aways

into a communal pool.

Without an available overflow pool facility, excess water may flow

(in its limited amount) into the local surface water drainage system.

20

Facilities at house/plot level

Well-water, bored locally, has been ruled out as unsuitable in the case

study of Cambray Place. However, in alternative circumstances, and

where watercourses are not affected, low level supplies from a bore

hole may be considered.

Rainwater harvested at roof level can be held via storage tanks ( at

ground level) pumped to header tanks installed in loft or large airing

cupboard space. Header tanks could be dedicated a) to roof collected

rainwater and b) to solar heated rainwater contained within super

insulation to retain heat.

A solar system can preheat water to be retained at high levels for

gravity distribution. A collector of roughly 6m2 in area, positioned on

the roof will heat sufficient water to satisfy a household in summer

with around 2000 kW'h of energy. Of course this will vary

considerably throughout the seasons. In the case of 13 Cambray

Place, three evacuated-tube, solar water heaters, mounted uppermost

on the south facing wall, will allow heated water to thermosyphon to

storage tanks accommodated as above. It is reasonable to assume that

solar energy may also drive circulation pumps where required.

Alternatively a small wind driven generator, installed on the roof of

13 Cambray Place, could operate efficiently.

Water and sewage treatment if handled autonomously would reduce

domestic running costs considerably. At the same time it will relieve

the overburdened 'local systems'. During times of 'main supply'

shortage, self sufficiency may alleviate national problems while

ensuring ready supplies to the self sufficient.

Results of tests carried out13 at the Nottingham Trent University

proved surprisingly high standards of rainwater collected from roofs

in the Nottingham area. The physical and chemical characteristics

from collection tanks, excepting turbidity, complied with World

Health Authority standards for drinking water.

Water collection is via guttering (pref. copper) in order to fit standard

diversionary fittings. Leaf traps may be necessary according to

prevailing conditions. Pressure pumps can be activated when a tap is

turned on to supply water directly. Alternatively, water held in the

header tank can be fed via pump and drawn via ball valve and gravity.

13 The Autonomous House

21

Roofs inhabited by pigeons and other birds may provide contaminated

water that will require purification. In-line filters that remove disease

organisms may be considered if pollution is likely to occur.

Reduction in water consumption will be achieved by replacement of

conventional toilet units. It is estimated that a saving of more than

20% of the total consumption can be achieved. Disposal of sewage

by conventional means includes a waste of potential fertiliser and a

loss of flushed (purified) water.

An option can therefore be provided, to replace one or more of the

toilets with a 'dry' unit. The Swedish Mullbank toilet is comparable

in size to a conventional toilet. It uses a 140W electric heater,

combined with a 21W ventilation fan, to accelerate aerobic

decomposition. Output from the toilet is considered 'safe' to be

distributed on garden plants and vegetables.

Composting toilet units seldom need cleaning ( compared with

conventional water flushed units) .. Smell is minimal and liquid

removal, pumped into a bucket (at intervals of five to six weeks) can

then be applied as fertiliser. The liquid can be diluted to water tomato

plants or poured around the base of trees, shrubs or hedges. It also

provides an excellent activator on compost a heap.

Water consumption of five-person14 (sustainable) household

I/head/day Table 1.

2 (3 washes/week)

2 (2 washes/day)

5 (as conventional house)

5 ( assumes occasional use of basin

16 (4 showers of 20 1/head/day)

34 I/head/day

170 I/day

Water consumption comparisons Table 2

UK house Sustainable %

(1/head/day) house reduction

45 21 53

15 6 60

15 2 87

5 5 0

10 0 100

20 0 100

50 0 100

160 1/hd/day 341/hd/day 79

800 I/day 170 I/day

14 3 adults & 2 children. Table info taken from Vale, b & R, Autonomous House.

22

Domestic hot-water demand in use Table 3.

total consumption cold water hot water

(I/head/day) (1/hd/day) (1/hd/day

6 6 0

2 0 2

5 5 0

5 0 5

16 10 6

34 21 13

170 105 65

Further to pumping of hot ( or cold) water: A photo-voltaic panel

would provide enough solar energy to power a pump/s. The solar

radiation required, would correlate with the occasions when solar

heated water is circulated to the insulated hot water storage tank/s.

The temperature of stored hot water could be topped-up by the

addition of a conventional electric immersion heater. As previously

suggested, the system's energy performance could be improved by

the addition of a wind turbine (installed on the root). This would

smooth the seasonal discrepancies.

Community and Economics

In both short and longer terms, the benefits of adopting sustainable

practices are manifold. Economically, as the household unit gains in

energy savings, excesses beyond the needs of the household can be

passed on through the plot scale into the neighbourhood.

A major gain and perhaps most important benefit, is that of

community. While not necessarily being reliant on immediate

neighbours, it is likely that a 'common' ideal towards sustainability

will gain 'community' values. These will aid both physical and

economic support and increase levels of security.

An example ( on a 'What if? principle) of how an urban

neighbourhood could be converted to be more sustainable, is shown

in figure 16 on page 32. The communal resources are coupled with

the need to participate in an organic environment. Such conditions

should generate a more neighbourly and caring community.

23

/

Fig. 13. Unit (house) level: 13 Cambray Place, Cheltenham

24

Fig. 14. Plot Level: Cambray Place terraced block

25

Fig. 15. Neighbourhood Level (Primary locality) Cambray Place, Cheltenham.

26

THE WIDER SCALE

Regulation Imposed at Local and Watershed Levels

Significant improvements can be made to the existing water supply

and waste removal systems to reduce costs economically and

ecologically. Firstly, let us clarify a few facts about 'locality'. This

refers to a district within the overall designated 'watershed'. The

watershed is a geographical area determined by its catchment from

defined watercourses. For the purposes of regulation or moderation,

it will normally be of a size that serves a community and its suburbs.

The unit and plot scales have been previously explained. The

references to 'neighbourhood' may require clarification.

A neighbourhood is generally a close community of mixed people,

with common needs, that share experiences and mutual support. It

will also be seen as a 'place' (e.g. neighbourhood/community). It is

possible to significantly reduce their water consumption without

affecting the comfort of occupants. This is dealt with initially by:

• Installation oflow-flush toilets or modification of older versions

using 'Hippo' bags, or similar, to reduce flush volumes.

• Application of composting toilets.

• Installation of aerating sink/basin taps and aerating showerheads.

• Flow restrictions

• Incorporating a greywater and possibly (space permitting)

blackwater recycling system.

Firstly, we may consider those actions that will bring us nearer to an

autonomous and sustainable situation. Drinking (potable) water is

collected from rainwater, then stored underground. A long dwell time

between inlet and outlet pipes will enable particles to settle down on

the bottom of the tanks and provide relatively pure water. However,

to avoid discrepancies, the water is passed through a 5µm string filter

(or similar) to remove any remaining small matter. It may then pass

through a carbon filter to remove any dissolved chemicals or foreign

matter. The water can then, if necessary, be further subjected to ultra

violet light to kill any suspected unhealthy remaining bacteria or

viruses.

Drinking water points in most domestic buildings will be limited to

the bathrooms and kitchens. The catchment of roof-surface rainwater

is ideally via copper gutters. This will avoid lead contamination and

reduce the use of PVC. The manufacture of PVC is both dangerous

(PVC off-gases) ad the material is difficult to dispose of at the end of

its useful life.

27

Non-potable water, collected from road and paved surfaces is

channelled into an open reservoir. The water should pass through a

'sand filter' before effecting any uses. This water will then be of a

standard suitable for bathing, flushing toilets or cleaning cars, etc.

Sewage treatment can also be dealt with quite locally. Sewage from

soil pipes ( clayware) with minimal slope, would collect water from

utility/kitchen sink, toilet and basins to run into a sewer. This enters a

septic tank with around ten days retention (to settle) the overflow

from which runs into a reed bed.

The arrangement of the reedbed ensures a long dwell time in the reeds

( up to three months) to a level of purification before finally passing

through a limestone gabion wall into a reservoir lagoon. W astewater

treated via reed beds supports a highly active eco-system. The roots

of the reeds supply oxygen to bacteria in the water that digest

pathogens in the sewage. No smell or faecal coliforms are liable to be

found in the reservoir. The water of which can effectively support

fish on its nutrient rich quality and will be pure enough to reach EU

bathing standards.

From time to time, it will be necessary to provide low maintenance to

remove blanket weed and unwanted over-growth from the reedbeds

and lagoon.

Annual management can be reckoned at around:

Lagoon maintenance @ two man days per annum, say

Emptying septic tanks @ half day p.a., say

Changing filters etc. @ one-man-day p.a., say

Maintenance of sand-filters @ two-man-days

Replacement of new filters at an approximate cost of

A rough total of these expenses amounts to

(£150)

(£35)

(£75)

(£150)

(£50)

(£460)15

These costs represent very large cost savings against the regular

charges made by a local water authority. Reed beds and 'sewage

gardens', however, do take space. Their application very much

depends upon the nature of the community and conditions of the land

space available. Shared facilities are inevitable and desirable to lessen

the pressures of development. Although it is unlikely that full

autonomy can be reached, the reduction on valuable resources and the

costs cutting will be very significant indeed.

If residents and businesses are to accept responsibility for their own

wastes, robust local management systems must be devised.

15 These figures extracted from information within the 'vision statements' of the Hockerton Housing Project, 1999.

28

Management at Town or Locality Scale16

• Town sewage can be treated by an advanced tertiary works,

producing compost for reuse on the land and a liquid effluent of

high enough quality to raise fish.

• A 'wet-dry' system of waste management will recycle up to 85%

of the town's wastes through a composting plant and materials

recovery facility.

• A community utility will control the pricing of energy and water to

encourage efficiency and discourage use during peak-demand

periods.

Watershed

Environmental Infrastructure:

All watercourses will be protected from developments and pollution's

from adjacent industrial or agricultural activity. Asphalt surfaces

should be limited or removed to reduce chemical run-off.

Physical Infrastructure:

Storm drains, that normally channel run-off water into river and sea,

can be replaced by a system of grass swales designed to maximise the

reabsorption of run-off back into the land.

16 Ideals extracted from those developed for the Canadian 'Bamberton' town project.

Guy Dauncey (1994) Incontext

New Developments:

Regeneration on the rural fringes can employ open ditch surface water

channels to handle 'local' flash-flood rainfalls. Excess water would

be directed into the outer grass swale system.

National Water Resources

River water quality may be poor in areas, resulting from urban

contamination. This may occur where surface run-off from roads and

industrial areas introduce contaminants. Unattenuated run-off from

developments increase the risks of flooding from the receiving

watercourse and can damage the river habitat.

Flood water coursing down rivers reduces the available water

resource. Rainwater should preferably be able to percolate into and

soak the ground.

Abstraction

This has not been closely regulated in the past. Many abstractions

have been carried out 'as of right' by private land owners. This must

now be tightened. The farmer will need to have an abstraction licence

from the Environment Agency in order to fill a private reservoir.

Planning permission and 'winter filling' should also be required.

29

Rainfall normally drains into watercourses via surface water outfalls.

Contaminated discharges may include oil, organic or toxic matter.

Cross connections of foul sewers into surface water drains also

occur. The result of these contamination's can severely degrade

urban rivers.

To minimise the impact of environmental problems arising from

conventional drainage, design attention can be applied to the process

of reducing pollution. Protection of rivers and groundwater requires

changes to the drainage system. Treatment facilities should be

introduced, prior to discharge into the watercourse or reservoir.

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS)

There a flexible series of options. Structural techniques can reduce

the impact of surface water discharges. These should be included in

future developments. Local authorities are being encouraged to

include SUDS in strategic and local plans.

Discharges of site drainage may also be regulated by the Agencies

under the law on water pollution. The regulation of surface water

discharges is a discretionary power and the Agencies are seeking to

encourage 'good practice'.

Surface water discharges to soakaway systems are subject to control

under Water Pollution Regulations, including the Groundwater

Regulations 1998, where List I or List II substances are present. Any

discharges should be in accordance with the appropriate Code of

Practice.

Planning guidance can be provided on surface water drainage using

source control techniques both within units or plot areas as a whole.

Such circumstances would include the use of rainwater butts, wet and

dry ponds and storm-water wetlands.

Surface Water Quality

Rain falling on impermeable surfaces becomes contaminated by dust,

oil, litter and organic matter. This flushes into a watercourse where

conditions may result in silt blanketing and a reduction in oxygen

levels. Life in receiving streams may be severely restricted.

Where discharges soak into the ground, the quality of the

groundwater may be affected. Foul drainage from incorrectly

plumbed toilets, washing machines or dishwashers may contaminate

rainwater systems

30

Flooding caused by impervious surface areas may occur at some

distance ( down stream) from the source. Balancing ponds or similar

measures can compensate for this. By increasing permeable ground

areas, allowing water it to infiltrate, we can improve levels of

groundwater and base flows in streams. Flood generated high flow

rates, for short periods, can have dramatic affects on river habitats.

Irregularly increased flow rates can erode riverbanks and beds and

shift silting matter downstream. Such conditions will alter the natural

flora and fauna of the river habitat and ecology.

SUDS may provide treatment for water prior to discharge, by

applying the natural processes of sedimentation, filtration, absorption

and biological degradation. Systems can be designed to improve

biodiversity in urban areas. Ponds can be designed as a local feature

(re Cambray Place) for recreational purposes and to provide valuable

wildlife habitat in urban settings.

SUDS fall into three broad objectives:

• Reduce the quantity of run-off from site ( source control techniques)

• Slow the run-off to allow infiltration (permeable conveyance)

• Provide passive treatment to collected surf ace water ( end of pipe)

SUDS offer a number of benefits over conventional drainage

systems:

• may protect and enhance water quality and biodiversity in urban

streams;

• may maintain or restore the natural flow regime in urban streams;

• may protect people from property from flooding, now or in the

future;

• may protect urban watercourses from pollution caused by

accidental spillage's and misconnections;

• may allow new development in areas where sewage systems are

already at full capacity.

SUDS can be designed to be sympathetic with the environment and

the needs of a specific community. The systems will allow

groundwater to recharge where appropriate and for better control of

wet and vulnerable areas. The success of the system relies very much

on the involvement of developers with planners and authorities from

the earliest stages of the development process. Systems will include

filter drains, infiltration basins, swales and integrated balancing

ponds. Detention basins designed to hold back storms or retention

ponds that will treat water and create wetland (wildlife) landscapes.

31

Fig. 16. 'What If' Cambray Place's Water Supply was Sustainable?

(An urban 'organic' and 'community' landscape)

32

Reedbed Cleansing Figs. 17 and 18.

The accompanying photographs, were taken at the

'Hockerton Housing Project', a sustainable

development, at Newark, Nottinghamshire.

These cleansing beds have been furnished with reeds,

planted in floating troughs submerged below the

surface. For maintenance purposes they both

'contain' growth and their mobility enables them to be

drawn to the bank when required.

Sewage passes through a sewer into a septic tank,

where it settles (10 days retention) and outflows into

the floating reedbed. The arrangement of the reedbed

ensures a long dwell time in the reeds (c. three months).

The treated water is finally cleansed by passing

(filtered) through a limestone gabion wall into the

main lagoon.

The lake water, while clean enough for EU bathing

quality, is also nutrient rich for fish rearing and

wildlife support. Altogether an attractive landscape.

33

APPENDIX 1 THE ENVIRONMENT

Groundwater

Groundwater forms part of the natural water cycle and is contained in

certain underground rocks or aquifers. abstractions from

groundwater in England and Wales account for around 35% of the

public water supply.17 Some aquifers also provide water supplies for

abstractors who cannot, or prefer not to use the public mains.

Groundwater is an important source of water for agriculture and

industry.

Some groundwater' s naturally feed surface waters through springs

and by base flow to rivers. This recharge is important in supporting

wetlands and their ecosystems. Extraction or diversion of

groundwater can affect total river flow, causing problems with low

flows. This may significantly affect surface waters and the quality of

water standards.

17 Environment Agency (Viewpoints, www.environment-agency.gov.uk . .land-use/water-res, May 2000)

Groundwater resources are replenished by rainfall, primarily in winter

when evaporation losses and vegetation uptake are at a minimum.

Low winter rainfalls can result in summer-time droughts.

Groundwater' s can be vulnerable to contamination. Under the Water

Resources Act 1991 it is an offence to pollute groundwaters. The EU

Directive on Groundwater (80/68/EEC) requires specific measures are

taken to prevent pollution by chemicals. There are two categories:

List I of those that must be prevented and List II of those that should

be minimised.

A study of groundwater pollution by the Agency in 196618 found 210

sources of pollution were affecting 251 abstractions. Of these 114

were public supply and 137 private supply boreholes. Many others

were found to be at risk of pollution.

The Policy & Practice for the Protection of Groundwater for England

& Wales (1998) provides a classification of the vulnerability of

groundwater to pollution. This is comprised of detailed maps on a

scale of 1:100 OOO. Additional protection to groundwaters apply to

nitrate pollution, referred to as Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (68 areas).

18 Ibid

34

Freshwater Quality

The Environment Agency monitors water quality under the Water

Resources Act, 1991. The quality of river and canal waters are

reported every five years. In the past they were simply classed as fair

or poor or bad. Since 1978 there has been a more formal scheme of

classification. Stretches are now indicated as Class 1 from A to B =

good or fair. Then Class 2 = poor, Class 3 = poorer to Class 4 being

bad. The scheme measures the presence of dissolved oxygen,

biochemical oxygen demand and ammonia. Other chemicals found

present are also recorded. Similar quality standards apply under the

EC Directive on Surface Water Abstraction (75/440/EEC). The

Agency also examines stretches of fresh water for nutrient and

aesthetic qualities under a General Quality Assessment scheme.

Water varies to some extent even along individual stretches of a

watercourse. It can be classified wrongly from one year to another

because of the analyses of 36 separate, instantaneously taken ,

samples of water. In consequence stretches of rivers are upgraded or

downgraded without any real changes having taken place!

Bathing Water Quality

The quality of bathing water in England and Wales is monitored

against standards laid down in the bathing waters regulations (SI

1991/1597) which give effect to the EC Bathing Water Directive

(76/160/EEC). Up until 1998 this applied to coastal waters. In 1998

nine inland bathing waters (lakes and rivers) were also designated.

The bathing season in England and Wales is taken to be 15 May to 30

September and sampling begins two weeks before. At each site 20

samples are taken at regular intervals ( each week). Each sample,

taken 30 cm below the surface, is analysed for total coliform bacteria

and for faecal bacteria. The latter being indicative of the presence of

traces of human sewage.

The imperative standards, which should not be exceeded, are 10,000

total coliforms per 100 millilitres (ml) of water and 2,000 faecal

coliforms per 100ml of water (i.e. at least 19 out of the 20 taken)

must meet these standards, plus other criteria.

Bathing waters are also analysed (under EC Directive) for the

presence of enteroviruses, and two samples for the presence of

salmonellae. Compliance with the mandatory standards of the EC

35

Directive have been increasing in line with recent investments by the

water service companies. Much of the publicity, if not all, has

applied to the Seaside Awards and 'Blue Flag' scheme for safe clean

seaside resorts.

Surface Water Abstraction

Water sources, such as rivers, lakes and reservoirs are collectively

known as 'surface waters'. The Surface Water Abstraction Directive

(75/440/EEC) applies to sources of drinking water. The Directive

does not control the actual amount that can be abstracted, that is

governed by an abstraction licence.

The Directive has three aims:

• To set standards for abstracted surface waters.

• To ensure abstracted water is given appropriate treatment.

• To improve the overall quality of surface waters used for drinking

water.

Surface waters are classified by the level of treatment they require and

by their suitability for abstraction. This is classified as follows:

• Al: Only simple physical treatment and disinfection necessary

• A2: Normal physical/chemical treatment and disinfection required.

• A3: Intensive physical/chemical treatment, extended treatment and

disinfection are required before the water is suitable for public

supply.

The Directive sets out different standards for the above classes:

• Imperative 'I' values, which are standards that must be met, and

• Guideline "G" values, which should be achieved where possible.

At times of exceptional weather conditions (such as floods) and

natural enrichment by substances leaching from soil, the Directive

allows waivers.

The Directive does not cover abstractions which are for private supply

(lakes in private grounds), nor does it cover abstraction from

groundwater.

36

Flooding

Although there is insufficient water, from the public supply, at certain

times of the year, at other times there is an uncontrolled excess.

Flooding normally occurs as a result of rivers and canals

overflowing, by tidal surges in estuaries and by the impact of the sea

directly on low-lying coastal land. Under the Water Resources Act,

1991, the Environment Agency is responsible for exercising

supervision over all flood defences. Their main responsibility is for

rivers, defined on statutory maps and for sea defences in areas which

are not privately owned.

River channels can only carry a given amount of water and heavy rain

or sudden melting of snow can cause them to overflow. When this

occurs, the excess flows onto low-lying areas. These may be

designated flood plains. Periodic inundation of low-lying areas have

always been a natural and potential source of soil nourishment. Flood

plains make up approximately 10% of the land area in England and

Wales. An estimated 5.8 million people live on them. 19 In some

areas, the rate of development on flood plains has more than doubled

in the past 50 years.

19 Ibid

Flood plain development has reduced the space available to store and

slowly transport floodwaters. This has forced an increase in the

speed with which floods move downstream and the maximum height

that a flood can reach. Hard surfaces of roads, car parks and

buildings rapidly increase the transfer of water into the rivers. This

excess of water at times and the very impact of development on the

flood plain has an adverse affect on the ecological and archaeological

value of the land.

Flood defences of all kinds have become essential in some areas to

protect human life. They protect property and reduce an element of

risk. Climate changes suggest, as well as becoming more windy, the

south of England will become hotter and drier. The north west is

likely to become wetter. Storm damage is forcasted to become more

frequent with effects on flooding and erosions of coastal areas.

The Agency currently maintains 36,000 kilometres of main river

defences. These include embankments, flood walls, flood relief

channels and culverts.

37

Households

Households exert pressure on the environment by using energy,

water and generating waste. Twenty per cent of all water supplied is

consumed by households, and 5% of controlled waste is generated in

the home.20 There is a steady increase in the numbers of households

and this is projected to increase at a faster rate in the next 20 years.

The increase in the number of households is projected to contribute to

the expected increase in the area of land in urban use and hence a loss

to the rural environment. Some 169,000 hectares (1.3% of England's

land area) are projected to change from rural uses to urban uses

between 1991 and 2016, i.e. a rate of 6,800 hectares per year. By the

year 2016, 11.9% of England's land is predicted to be in urban use

compared with 10.6% in 1991.

In England and Wales we each currently consume about 140 litres of

water every day. Household use of water has increased significantly

over time. This reflects changes in household appliances, lifestyles

and expectations. Efficient use of water is necessary to reduce or to

minimise the increasing demand for water. Toilets and baths use

more than half of the water in the home

20 Ibid

A five minute shower instead of a bath can save an average of 55

litres of water. Heavy duty plastic bags ('Hippos') and other devices

can reduce the amount water used to flush toilets. The use of water in

the garden and for irrigation has increased rapidly in recent years.

Most of the water used by households (80%) is returned to rivers or

estuaries after sewage treatment. Natural human waste contributes

organic matter and nutrients such as phosphorous in sewage. Some

detergents also contain phosphorous, although changing formulations

have led to a decline in the 1990s. Metal and chemical products are

widely used in the home. Some metals are dissolved from water

pipes and solder, other substances including metals are included in

toiletries, medicines and domestic cleaners.

Sewage-treatment normally reduces these to harmless levels but it is

not always known what these harmless levels are. Recent work has

suggested that some substances may have a harmful affect on the

environment. The use of pesticides and herbicides in gardens,

misconnections from 'soil' plumbing and misuse of road drains for

oily residues create problems in fresh waters. More than 1,000 water

incidents in 1995 were attributed to domestic or residential premises.

38

APPENDIX2 FLOODING

The River Chelt and Flood Alleviation

In the past Cheltenham has suffered flooding by the River Chelt.

There reference to major flood events from 1731 onwards. Floods

causing damage and disruption occurred in 1805, 1830, 1855. 1875,

1924 and 1931.

More recently, a major flood event occurred on 30 May, 1979, which

caused considerable damage and disruption. Following this, the

Borough Council carried out some diversions to alleviate such a

reoccurrence. However, there have been further flood events in

1981, 1992 and in 1993. During the last of these, on 13 January

1993, several properties were flooded, one of which to a depth of

over a metre.

Overtopping and flooding occur within about two hours of the onset

of heavy rain. The river system, through and above Cheltenham, has

been significantly affected by man-made features. Within the present

borough boundary exist the previous sites of at least seven mills.

Today only four actual mill sites exist, three with major spillways or

weirs, and three with associated buildings. In many places the river

now flows along elevated channels associated with the mills and not

in the valley bottom.

In the town the river has many road crossings (some with limited

capacity) and it is often concealed in culverts or hidden behind walls.

Through the town centre the river is mostly culverted in work carried

out between 1820 and 1834, with the remainder completed before

1855.

Today, the scheme has incorporated new flood defences, mainly

consisting of replacement culverts beneath the town centre. The Chelt

was re-designated a "main river" in 1995 and has undergone analysis

by the Environment Agency. A comprehensive scheme has been

carried out to compliment the alleviation work already undertaken.

This has included by-pass culverts, channel improvements and flood

storage.

The Environment Agency has a duty to carry our environmental

impact assessments on all its operational works. This includes

protection of ecology, archaeology and landscape/townscape. A vital

part of the scheme has been to convert Dowdeswell Reservoir to a

flood storage area. This not only protects Cheltenham from severe

flooding but provides environmental benefits for wildlife, etc.

39

APPENDIX 3.

'Cotuit' Dry Toilet Cutaway Diagram

K. - Back wall mount for hinge strapsl. - Clamp down assemblyM. - Flush toilet interchange riserN. - Notch in riser for stool leg0. - Clip to hold upper assembly upP. - Flush toilet closet flange adapter

Fig. 19. 'Cotuit' Dry Toilet

.. -.---·*_..,..--,---,-

A.

Inner door B.

Inner door slide pins c. Inner door catch & adjustn

D.

Inner· door pivot handle

E. Inner door

, latch F.Air

Urine diverte1 gutter H. Urine anti-spl pad I.

Manure bin J. Hinge strap for bin

The diagram shows toilet with flush toilet interchange kit.

This unit is a small domestic self contained waterless toilet

Fig. 20. Domestic W.C. proportions.

The unit is airtight, and has an integral urinal which takes off the urine

before mixing with the manure, making it pathogen free and safe for

use in vegetable gardens. Urine separation is also critical for keeping

the compost bin from becoming anaerobic from excess liquid.

Specification:

Top Section: is one piece of fibreglass bonded to epoxy plywood.

Manure Bib: is injection moulded HDPE stack & nest tote with lid.

Manure Bin capacity: OLNA mode; 5 person weeks.

Dehydrator mode: 15 person weeks. Volume 11.8 gallons.

Urine Tank: Available in sizes Of 5 through 55 gallons dep. on space.

Overall dimensions: 29.5" long, 20.5" wide, 21.5" tall.

Vent Fan: 12 or 24v DC, or 250v AC, approximately 5 watts (2" Vent)

Inner door closure handle: l" schedule 40 PVC. White or grey.21

21 http://www.cape.com/cdt/specs.htm NB. This is a USA product.

40

APPENDIX 4. PRESENTATIONS

'The Commodity of Water' (Seminar 30.3.00)

I acknowledge the dire problem of Global water shortages but will

confine my talk to more local issues.

Each time we have on excessive rain fall we appear to have flash

floods that affect new, perhaps unsuitable, developments on prior

flood plains.

This often occurs after a period of drought and water rationing. Once

released, the water escapes through the system and out to sea.

Catchment is an issue that must be addressed.

As someone particularly interested in wet land, I am alarmed at the

shifting levels of the water tables.

Drinking water is expensive and the consumption of drinking quality

is rising rapidly. I shall be addressing the subject of water

sustainability in view of the increasing demand and the needs for a

more balanced environment.

'Sustainable Water Supply' (Seminar 11.5.00)

At my previous presentation I mentioned the need to curtail the

squandering of valuable water. You may recall my comments on the

alarming changes to water tables and the need to arrest this situation

and to sustain water supply. To bring this into perspective we can

acknowledge two current events.

Firstly, the severe drought that exists in Africa and in India, coupled

with the fact that the India's population is rising at an alarming ( and

unsustainable) rate. Secondly, and close to home, we have just

experienced an extended spell of very wet weather. This may lead

people to believe we have an unlimited supply of available water.

However, in global terms, deeper wells are now being bored to

access water. Clearly the world's water aquifers are reducing to

levels that are causing concern for the future. Such low levels of

water can easily become contaminated by salinity when falling below

a certain level.

In order to address world shortages we may begin at where we may

invoke changes. My project concerns the up grade of local supply.

41

Brief Summary and Conclusion (Final presentation 15.6.00)

'Sustainable Water Supply' is the subject of balancing demands. Key

words are: drought, dry, flood, expense, public awareness and

conservation.

People in the UK don't generally recognise the real problem of water

shortage, maybe the occasional cutbacks in severe dry spells. We are

an island, surrounded by water and receive fairly regular rainfalls.

Water Companies are under some scrutiny, mainly for economic

reasons, to repair leaks and to keep rivers free from pollution, etc.

If a serious shortage arises, it is likely the Govt. will pass legislation

to make meters compulsory. It is generally believed that when asked

to pay more for water, there will be a marked reduction in

consumption. Currently demand is escalating, and in fact a 'paying

for what you use' policy should be encouraged - to support a

'sustainable' future. This would mean abolishing standing charges

and metering supplies, even including private abstractions.

Focus groups may argue that this fairness to mankind can have

adverse effects on the environment. A planned approach should be

implemented to ensure the environment is sustained for the future.

Ruskin wrote:

God has lent us the earth for our life, It is a great entail.

It belongs as much to those who follow us as it does to us

And we have no right by anything we do, or neglect to do,

to involve then in unnecessary penalties, Or to deprive them of

the benefit we have it in our power to bequeath.22

Global issues are acknowledged but with little fear or concern. However,

there is considerable concern among environmentalists regarding climate

changes.

Actions taken by the individual at primary consumption levels can rapidly

alleviate the escalating demands for water. By minimising the use of

mains water, collecting rainwater for utility purposes and re-cycling

greywater for irrigation. If society can be influenced, not simply by moral

duty but by penalty and taxation, a great deal may be achieved. New

planning regulations and design techniques will provide efficient processes

that conserve water and energy. This is not simply an argument to secure

the future of mankind. In recent years we have seen a rapid decline in

semi-wetland ecology, resulting in the decimation of much of our popular

wildlife. This can be addressed by the appreciation of 'sustainable water

supply'.

22 J. Ruskin (1819-1900) Collected Works (ed Cook, E. & Wedderburn, A. (1903-12)

42

llt could yet et worse LEESANDERS

Gloucestershire has been particularly badly hit by the latest deluge, with the Severn still risil'IIJ. Much of Tewkesbury is flooded and the muddy water is now lapping at the doors of its Norman abbey • =

By Charles Clover Environment Editor

IT WASN'T going to be long, given the biblical scale of the flooding over the past few days, before ques­tions were asked about the .effec­tiveness of the embattled Environ­ment Agency and its chief executive, Lady Young.

Baroness Young of Old Scone, to give her full name, is a Scot who

has benefited twice from the patronage of the Labour govern­

, ment, fast by her appointment as a working peer and second by being given the £163,000-a-year job as chief executive of the agency.

Given how unpleasant Labour MPs were about the handling of the Easter floods of 1998 by Lord De Ramsey, a predecessor and a Tory appointment, it is a measure of the regard in which she is held that the daggers have stayed sheathed for so long.

Lady Young has now been

accused of writing off the June floods as a one-in-200-year event and then falling back on the lame excuse that the July floods hap­pened because you cannot always prepare for an awful lot of rain.

Some of the mud will stick. Eve­ryone knows that the agency's temporary flood barriers for Upton­upon-Severn failed to arrive in time because· the barriers. were stored an hour'~. drive away, and . the agency operatives were held up by flooding on the motorway.

What any inquiry is likely to be

told, though, is that the barriers would have protected' 30 houses out of 10,000 flooded and such was the storm that they were likely to have been overfopped.

Peter Ainsworth, the Tory envi­ronment spokesman, yesterday: reported nothing but praise from the emergency services for how agency staff behaved under duress.

An inquiry would · be equally reluctant to judge the agency's per­formance on one drop in an ocean of human misery. It would find that no single flood defence failed

( otper than at Upton-upon-Severn) in tpe job it was designed to do ~ protect against a 011e-in-100-year flood.

If one wants to criticise the agency, or Government policy on flood defence, one has to look wider. David Fursdon, president of the Country Land and Business Association, raised an important issue at the waterlogged Royal Welsh. Show yesterday when he accused the agency of failing to prioritise flood protection over the other statutory responsibilities it

WEDNESDAY, JULY 25, 2007 j THE DAILY TELEGRAPH

has for, say, water quality and polic­ing exports of waste. Put it another way, does the agency have too many responsibilities? Its prede­cessor, the National Rivers Author­ity, did a more focused job.

Mr Fursdon also accused it of not being strong enough to ask for adequate funding from Govern­ment for flood defence. Others have asked why there is no drain­age engineer on its board. .

Those sound like the right criti­. cisms. But a truly independent inquiry chairman would under-

www.telegraph.eo.uk/news

stand that the agency must not be made a scapegoat for the failures of the government itself, which has rejected or not acted on 25 pieces of advice about flooding since 2000.

What kind of flood was this should be his fast question. And has a one-in-100 year event become, say a 1 in 50 year one in the light of climate change? Minis­ters were warned they should have reassessed the risks three years ago. My bet it was them, not the agency, that slept on their watch.

That sinking feeling again: The flood has been described as a one·in-100.;year event. Not so for Tewksbury in Gloucestershire and its historic abbey, where the overflowing waters of the Severn and Avon engulfed the town and left it marooned ooth in 1947 and this month. These two pictures, taken 60 years apart, show the extent of the devastation. This time hundreds of thousands in the county have been left without running water. The waters are beginning to subside, but a severe fllood waming remains i111 place