8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

1/13

P e r g am o nHABITAT INTL Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 463-475, 1996Copyright 1996 Elsevier Science LtdPrinted in Great Britain. All rights reserved0197-3975/96 15.00 + 0.00S0197-3975(96)00012-4

onservation and Rehabilitation ofUrban Heritage in DevelopingountriesF L O R I A N S T E I N B E R GInsti tute fo r Housing an d U rban Development Studies Rotterdam The Netherlands

A B S T R A C TT h i s p a p e r a d d r e s s e s r e h a b i l i ta t i o n a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n o f o l d i n n e r - c i ty a r e a s a n d h i s t o r icm o n u m e n t s i n t h e c i t ie s o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d w h i c h h a v e s o f a r r e c e i v e d v e ry l it tl ea t t e n t i o n i n u r b a n d e v e l o p me n t p o l i c y . T h e n e e d f o r u r b a n r e h a b i l i t a t i o n a n d a d a p t i v er e - u s e i s d i s c u s s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to a n u m b e r o f c as e s , i .e . C a i ro , T u n i s , S a n a ' a ,A l e p p o , D e l h i , B o mb a y , B h a k t a p u r, G a l le , P e n a n g , S i n g a p o r e , S h a n g h a i , B e i ji n g , Qu i t o ,C a r t a g e n a , R i o d e J a n e i r o a n d H a v a n a . A d e l i n e a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t i s p r o v i d e d , a n dsom e key aspec t s o f r ehab i l it a t ion a re d i scussed . Th e pape r conc lud es wi th cons ide ra t ionso n t h e n e e d f o r a r e a r e h a b i l i t a t i o n a n d r e v i t a l i s a t i o n a p p r o a c h e s wh i c h ma i n t a i n t h et y p i c a l u r b a n t i s s u e a n d e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a r e a s a n d o f t h e l i f e o f t h ec o m m u n i t i e s r e s i d i n g t h e r e , b u t w h i c h c a n a l s o a d a p t t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u re s a n d a c t i v i-t i es t o s o m e o f t h e p r e s e n t d a y r e q u i r e me n t s . I n t e r ms o f mo n u m e n t s , i t i s s tr e s s e d th a tt h e s e n e e d t o b e s e e n a s p a r t o f c o n s e r v a t i o n a r e as , a n d t h a t t h e i r su s t a i n ab i l it y a n dr e v i t a l i s a t i o n wi l l b e mo s t f e a s i b l e i f t h e y a r e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o n e w c o n c e p t s o f u s e .C o p y r i g h t 1 9 96 E l s e v i e r S c ie n c e L t d

W HA T I S U R B A N HE R IT A GE

W h e n w e w a n t t o d e fi n e u r b a n h e r it a g e , w h a t c o m e s t o t h e m i n d o f m o s t u r b a np l a n n e r s a n d ma n a g e r s a r e u s u a l l y m o n u m e n t s , i. e. c h u r c h e s , t e mp l e s , a ll s o r ts o fre l ig ious bu i ld ings , pa laces , cas t l e s , fo r t r e s ses , h i s to r i c c i ty wa l l s and ga tes and o the rt y p e s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l b u i l d i n g s ( e . g . o f e d u c a t i o n , s c i e n c e , a d mi n i s t r a t i o n , o r o t h e rsoc ia l pu rposes ) . Th i s und ers tand ing o f ten exc lud es h i s to r i c r e s iden t i a l a reas and h i s to r i cc i t y c e n t r e s wh i c h e q u a l l y r e p r e s e n t t h e u r b a n h e r i t a g e . I n a d d i t io n , t h e r e ma y e v e n b en o n - t a n g i b l e e l e m e n t s o f u r b a n h e r i t a g e , s u c h a s c u s t o ms a n d b e l i e f s, wh i c h p l a y ar o l e f o r t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f s p a c e u s e a n d t h e b u i l t e n v i r o n me n t .Du e t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c u l t u r a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s , s u c h a s t h e Un i t e d Na -t i o n s E d u c a t i o n a l , S c i e n t i f i c a n d C u l t u r a l Or g a n i s a t i o n ( UNE S C O) , t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a lC e n t r e f o r t h e S t u d y o f t h e P r e s e r v a t i o n a n d R e s t o r a t i o n o f C u l t u r a l P r o p e r t y ( I C -C R O M ) a n d t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n o n M o n u m e n t s a n d S i t e s ( I C O M O S ) a n d ag o o d n u m b e r o f l o ca l c o n s e r v a ti o n g r o u p s, m o n u m e n t s h a v e a t l e as t a l o b b y a n d a r e

Correspondence to: F i o r i a n S t e i n b e r g , P r o j e c t I H S P , 2 1 2 A s i a n G a m e s V i l l a g e C o m p l e x , K h e l g a o n M a r g , S i r i F o r t ,ew Delh i 110 049 , Ind ia .463

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

2/13

6 lorian Steinberg

i n a s o me wh a t mo r e f a v o u r a b l e s i t u a t i o n t h a n h i s t o r i c r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s . T h e a b o v eo r g a n i s a t io n s a n d i n t e r e s t g r o u p s s e e m t o y i e l d s o m e s u c c e s s i n t h e i r e f f o r ts to a c h i e v eg r e a t e r in t e re s t f o r th e c o u r s e o f p r e s e r v at i o n a n d c o n s e r v at i o n o f o l d m o n u m e n t s o fh i s to r i c va lue .H o w e v e r , s e l d o m is a c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e m a d e b e t w e e n u r b a n h e r i ta g e a n d s u st a in a b il -ity . T h e r e c e n t c o n c e r n f o r su s t ai n a b il i ty a n d t h e b r o wn a g e n d a o f u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t a ld e v e l o p m e n t h a s c o m p l e t e l y e x c l u d e d u r b a n h e r i ta g e f r o m t h e s u s t a in a b i li ty d i s cu s -s i on . 2 T h e b u i l t e n v i r o n m e n t a n d b u i l t e x p r e s s i o n s o f c u l tu r e , o f m i l it a r y , e c o n o m i ca n d r e l i g io u s p o w e r s a n d f o r c e s a s p a r t o f t h e n a t i o n a l h e r i t a g e d e s e r v e t o b e i n c l u d e di n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , a n d u r b a n h e r i t a g e s h o u l d a t t a i n t h e s t a t u s o f a p r e s e r v a b l e a s s e twh i c h c a n b e n e f i t t h e p r e s e n t a n d t h e f u t u r e o f c i ti e s. S u c h a n a s s e t i s n o t o n l y l i m i t e dt o c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s , b u t c o u l d b e c o me a n e c o n o mi c a s s e t w i t h g o o d p o t e n t i a l f o re c o n o m i c e x p l o it a t io n , f o r i n s t a n c e t h r o u g h t o u r i s m, f o r c u l t u r a l l y - b a s e d i ma g e b u i l d -i n g o f l o c a l e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t o r t h e p r o m o t i o n o f c o r p o ra t e e n t e rp r i se s .

T H E S I T U A T I O N O F O L D H O U S I N G S T O C K A N D H I ST O R I C C E N T R E SD u r i n g t h e p a s t 4 0 - 5 0 y e a r s , t h e a t t e n t i o n o f m o s t g o v e r n m e n t s i n t h e d e v e l o p i n gw o r l d ( a n d o f m o s t i n t e r na t io n a l a g e n c i e s ) ha s b e e n f o c u s e d o n t h e p r o b l e m s o f n e ws e t t l e me n t s , b u i l t t h r o u g h a u t h o r i s e d a n d n o n - a u t h o r i s e d ( i n f o r ma l ) p r o c e s s e s . T y p i -c a ll y , m o s t o f t h e s e h o u s i n g a r e a s g r e w r a p i d ly a n d w e r e c h a r a c t e r is e d b y o v e r c r o w d -ing, lack o f infras t ructure , poor-q ual i ty construct ion , bad s ites , an d so for th . Q uant i ta t ively ,t h e s e h o u s i n g a r e a s u s u a l l y o v e r w h e l m e d t h e p r e -e x i s t i n g c i ty . B y t h e 1 9 7 0s , t h e v a s tma j o r i t y o f t h e h o u s i n g s t o c k i n mo s t l a r g e c i ti e s in t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d wa s l e s st h a n 2 5 y e a r s o l d . T h e o l d e r h o u s i n g s t o c k wa s , t h e r e f o r e , c o n s i d e r e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t i nt e r m s o f t h e s c a l e o f th e h o u s i n g p r o b l e mA t t h e s a m e t im e , th e d e si r e f o r m o d e r n i s a t i o n b y g o v e r n m e n t s a n d t o p d e c i s io n -m a k e r s i n m o s t d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s o f t e n l e d t h e m t o b e l i e v e t h a t o n l y n e w a n dm o d e r n h o u s i n g wa s w o r t h wh i l e . An y t h i n g o l d o r i n a tr a d it io n a l s ty l e wa s c o n s i d e r e dof l it tle value an d w as torn do w n or , a t bes t , ignored.3 Olde r hous ing , norm al ly concen t ra tedi n t h e i n n e r p a r ts o f t h e c it y , wa s o f t e n i n a s t at e o f p h y s i c a l d e t e r io r a t i o n , o v e r c r o w d e da n d l a c k i n g in s e r v i ce s . It wa s e a s y t o la b e l s u c h a r e as a s s l u ms , t o b e r e m o v e d a tt h e e a r l i e s t c o n v e n i e n t o p p o r t u n it y .I n a d d i t io n , b e c a u s e o f t h e r a p i d g r o wt h i n t h e s i ze o f mo s t c i ti e s i n t h e d e v e l o p i n gwo r l d a n d t h e r a p i d t r a n s f o r ma t i o n o f t h e i r c i t y e c o n o mi c s , t h e wh o l e s p a t i a l p a t t e r no f l a n d u s e s a n d a c t i v i ti e s b e g a n t o c h a n g e . I n n e r c it i e s b e c a m e v a l u a b l e f o r l a n d u s e so t h e r t h a n h o u s i n g , a n d e c o n o mi c p r e s s u r e s l e d t o f u r t h e r e l i mi n a t i o n o f t h e o l d e rh o u s i n g s t o ck .F o r a l l o f th e s e r e a s o n s , mo s t c i t ie s in t h e d e v e l o p i n g wo r l d h a v e p a i d - - a n dc o n t i n u e t o p a y - - v e r y l i t tl e a t te n t i o n t o t h e i r o l d e r h o u s i n g a r e a s. As a r e s u lt , t h e s ea r e a s c o n t i n u e g e n e r a l l y to d e c l i n e , w i t h t h e i r p h y s i c a l , so c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c f u n c t i o n sd i s r u p t e d a n d t h e i r p r e s e n t p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e c i t y ' s o v e r a l l h o u s i n g s t o c kunder -u t i l i sed .Ye t t h e s e a r e a s a r e mo r e s i g n i f i c a n t a n d mo r e i mp o r t a n t t h a n i s c o mmo n l y r e a l i s e d .Al mo s t a l l c i t i e s , e v e n f a s t - g r o wi n g o n e s , h a v e a n o l d e r h o u s i n g s t o c k . Mo s t l a r g ec i t ie s t o d a y h a v e g r o wn f r o m a c o r e w h i c h h a s e x i s t e d f o r c e n t u r i e s , e v e n i f o n l y o n as ma l l s c a l e . I n s o m e c i ti e s, t h i s o l d e r c o r e i s la r g e a n d w e l l - d e f i n e d wi t h a p h y s i c a l l ys u b s t a n t i a l h o u s i n g s t o c k . Oc c a s i o n a l l y , a s i n S h a n g h a i 4 o r B o mb a y , 5 t h e o l d e r h o u s -i n g s t o c k i s q u a n t i t a t iv e l y v e r y i mp o r t a n t , c o n s t i t u t i n g a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e h o u s -i n g u n i ts . I n o t h e r c i ti e s , f o r i n s ta n c e J a k a r t a o r C a r t a g e n a, t h e n u m b e r o f t h e r e s i d e n c e so f th e c o lo n i a l e l i te is sma l l e r , a n d r e s t r ic t e d m a i n l y to E u r o p e a n q u a r t e r s b u il t d u r -i n g t h e c o l o n i a l e r a , w i t h t h e n a t i v e q u a r t e r s b e i n g p r e d o mi n a n t l y o f s ma l l e r a n dl e s s - p e r ma n e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n .B u t a l m o s t e v e r y w h e r e t hi s o l d e r c o r e e x i st s. A n d a l m o s t e v e r y w h e r e t h e h i s to r ic

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

3/13

onservation and Rehabilitation of Urban Heritage in Developing ountries 65

c i t y c e n t r e r e p r e s e n t s a u n i q u e h i s t o r i c a l l in k w i t h t h e p a s t , a p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n o ft h e s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h h a v e d e v e l o p e d t o g i v e t h e mo d e m c i t y a n ds o c i e t y i t s me a n i n g a n d c h a r a c t e r . T h i s r o l e i s g r a d u a l l y b e i n g a p p r e c i a t e d , a l t h o u g hs o f a r o n l y o n a l i mi t e d s c a l e .E q u a l l y , m a n y c i t ie s n o w r e a l is e t h a t it i s o f te n c o u n t e r - p r o d u c t i v e t o r e m o v e l a r g ea r e as o f e x i st in g o l d h o u s i n g s to c k , g i v en t h e t r e m e n d o u s h o u s i n g d e m a n d w h i c h e x -i s ts a n d t h e c l e a r i n a b i l it y o f e x i s ti n g i n s t it u t io n s ( a n d f i n a n c e ) t o p r o v i d e n e w h o u s i n gon the sca le des i red . Ins tead , i t i s impor tan t to u t i l i se these hous ing un i t s , even i f , a tp r e s e n t , t h e y a r e i n p o o r c o n d i t i o n .H o w e v e r , e v e n i f t h e r e a r e s u c h c h a n g e s i n a t t i t u d e , i t i s n o t a l w a y s c l e a r w h a ts h o u l d b e d o n e . A f t e r s o ma n y y e a r s o f h o s t i l i t y o r i n d i f f e r e n c e , w h a t s h o u l d b e t h en e w a p p r o a c h e s t o w a r d o l d e r h o u s i n g a r e a s? W h a t s t ra t eg i e s s h o u ld b e a d o p t e d ? W h a tc a n b e d o n e ?

T H E S I T U A T IO N O F M O N U M E N T SM o s t o l d c i t i e s h a v e s o m e m o n u m e n t s w h i c h r e p r e s e n t th e r e l ig i o u s , mi l it a r y , p o l it i ca lo r e c o n o m i c p o w e r s o f t h e pa st . T h e c o n d i t io n o f s u c h m o n u m e n t s is d e t e r m i n e dl a r g e l y b y t h e i r p r e s e n t f u n c t i o n a n d u s e . M o n u m e n t s w h i c h h a v e n o f u r t h e r u t i li s a ti o nt e n d t o d e c a y r a p i d l y , w h i l e mo n u me n t s w h i c h a r e s t i l l i n u s e h a v e a b e t t e r c h a n c e o fb e i n g m a i n ta i n e d . T h e r e i s a g o o d c h a n c e th a t m o n u m e n t s w h i c h h a v e a n e w f u n c t i o nt h r o u g h a d a p t i v e r e - u s e a r e e v e n b e t te r ma i n t a i n e d . I n f a c t, t h e s t r a t e g y o f c o n v e r -s i o n o f mo n u m e n t s f o r a d a p t i v e r e - u s e a p p e a r s t o b e t h e mo s t e f f e c t i v e a p p r o a c h f o r as e l f - f i n a n c i n g a n d s u s t a i n a b l e f o r m o f c o n s e r v a t i o n .T h e r e i s, o f c o u r se , a v e r y la r g e v a r ie t y a mo n g u r b a n h e r i t a g e m o n u m e n t s t h r o u g h o u tA f r i c a , t h e M i d d l e E a s t , A s i a a n d L a t i n A m e r i c a a n d , h e n c e , i t is d i f fi c u lt t o g e n e r a l i s ew i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r c o n d i t io n s a n d t h e p o s s i b il i ti e s f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d r e h a b il i ta t i o n .Genera l ly speak ing , the re is a t r em endous shor tage o f funds fo r the upkeep and m ain tenanceo f g o v e r n m e n t o w n e d , r e g i s t e r e d m o n u m e n t s . I n t h e c a s e o f p r i v a t e l y o w n e d m o n u -m ents the s i tuation is of ten not m uch different . Pr ivate ow ners m ay consid er the ma intenanceo f a ( r e g i s t e r e d o r u n - r e g i s t e r e d ) mo n u me n t a s a b u r d e n d u e t o i n a b i l i t y t o a f f o r d t h en e c e s s a r y m a i n t e n a n c e , a n d t h e y m a y b e u n a b l e t o e s ta b li sh o t h e r fo r m s o f u se o ri n n o v a t i v e me c h a n i s ms f o r t h e f i n a n c i n g o f t h e r e q u i r e d c o n s e r v a t i o n .D u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e s , s e v e r a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o d i e s , s u c h a s U N E S C O , I C C R O Mand IC OM OS , an d loca l o r na tiona l he r i t age soc iet i e s , have in i ti a ted impor tan t cam pa ignsa n d p r o p os a l s f o r c o n s e r v a ti o n o f n e g l e c t e d m o n u m e n t s a n d h e r i ta g e c o m p l e x e s .Desp i te cons ide rab le en thus iasm, the ac tua l r e su l ts o f such cam pa igns hav e been l imi ted .Few in te rna t iona l agenc ies , cu l tu ra l o r a rchaeo log ica l ins t i tu t ions (mos t ly f rom Europe) ,o r b i l a t e r a l d o n o r s h a v e s t e p p e d i n t o h e l p t o p r e s e r v e v a l u a b l e h e r i t a g e c o mp l e x e s .D e v e l o p m e n t a l ba n k s h a v e b e e n s h y i n g a w a y f r o m c o n s e r v a t io n s c h e m e s a s t h e y f o u n dt h e m e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d f i n a n c i a ll y u n f e a s i b l e a n d , t h u s , n o t c o n v i n c i n g . V e r y f e w c i t-i e s h a v e s u c c e e d e d i n g e n e r a t i n g a n a m b i e n c e f o r p r i v a t e - s e c t o r p a r t ic i p a t io n i n u r b a nh e r i t a g e c o n s e r v a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e e s t a b l i s h me n t o f a n a t t r a c t iv e a n d i n n o v a t i v e s t r a t eg yo f h e r i t a g e c o m m e r c i a li s a ti o n .

D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E I D E S O F C O N S ER V T I O N N D R E H B I L IT T I O N

U n t i l t h e 1 9 4 0 s f e w c o u n t r i e s in t h e w o r l d a p p r e c i a t e d t h e v a l u e o f t h e i r o l d e r c i ti e s.I n E u r o p e , c o n s e r v a t i o n w a s l i mi t e d t o a c o n c e r n f o r h i s t o r i c a l b u i l d i n g s o f s p e c i a li mp o r t a n c e , u s u a l l y c a s t l e s , p a l a c e s , c h u r c h e s , mu s e u ms a n d o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t p u b l i cb u i l d i n g s . A t t e n t i o n w a s f o c u s e d o n t h e mo n u me n t s i n d i v i d u a l l y , c o n s i d e r e d i n i s o l a -t i o n f r o m t h e i r u r b a n s u r r o u n d i n g s . ( F o r e x a m p l e , t h e P a r i s C h u r c h o f N o t r e D a m ew a s p r e s e r v e d , b u t t h e h i s t o r i c b u i l d i n g s s u r r o u n d i n g i t w e r e d e mo l i s h e d . )

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

4/13

466 Florian teinbergI t wa s t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r a n d i t s ma s s d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e h is t o r ic c i ti e s i n E u r o p ew h i c h p r o v i d e d t h e s t i mu l u s f o r a mo r e s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f o l d e r u rb a n a r e a s .T h e r e - b u i l d i n g w h i c h o c c u r r e d a c r o s s We s t e r n E u r o p e i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d i n t o th e 1 9 6 0sl e d t o a m u c h g r e a t e r a w a r e n e s s o f t h e u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e se o l d e r a r ea s a n d t h en e e d t o t r e a t t h e m s e n s i t i v e l y a n d c o n s t r u c t i v e l y . 6A t t h e s a m e t im e , i n E u r o p e a n d i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , t h er e w a s g r o w i n g c r it i ci s m o ft h e m o d e m s c h o ol o f a r c h i te c t u r e a n d th e b u l l d o z e r s c h o o l o f p l an n in g . T h e r e b e g a nt o b e p o p u l a r r e s is t a n c e t o t h e s ta n d a r d i s e d h i g h - r i s e h o u s i n g s o l u t i o n s wh i c h we r ei m p o s e d i n t h e n a m e o f m o d e r n i s a t i o n . P e o p l e w h o h a d b e e n s h i f te d to n e w h o u s i n ge s t a t e s g e n e r a l l y c o mp a r e d t h e m u n f a v o u r a b l y t o t h e i r p r e v i o u s l i v e s i n o l d e r h o u s i n ga r e a s o f t h e c i t y c o r e . T h e b u l l d o z e r a p p r o a c h t o u r b a n r e n e w a l g e n e r a t e d g r e a t d i s -s a t i sf a c t io n , a s wh o l e a r e a s we r e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y d e s t r o y e d a n d t h e i r so c i a l c o m m u n i -t i e s t h o u g h t l e s s l y r u i n e d . P r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e h o u s i n g a n d p l a n n i n g f i e l d g r a d u a l l yr e t re a t e d f r o m t h is b u l l d o z e r a p p r o a c h a s t h e n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s b e c a m e m o r ea n d m o r e w e l l d o c u m e n t e d a n d p u b l i c i s e d . T h e y s t a r t e d t o f o r m u l a t e n e w c o n c e p t s

a n d a p p r o a c h e s , wh i c h s l o w l y w o n a c c e p t a n c e f r o m p o l i ti c i a n s a n d b u r e a u c r a t s . 7F r o m t h e s e v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s h a s e me r g e d t h e i d e a o f u r b a n r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . T h i sdoes no t m ean s imply the pass ive p ro tec t ion o f ind iv idua l bu ild ings o f h i s to ri c s ign i fi cance ;n o r d o e s i t me a n t h e wh o l e s o me p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e v e r y t h i n g wh i c h i s o l d . I n s t e a d , i tm e a n s t h e c r e a t i v e u s e a n d r e - u s e o f o l d e r q u a r t e r s o f t h e c i t y , t a k e n a s a w h o l e , sW h e r e p o s s i b le , o l d b u i l d in g s a r e r e p a i r e d a n d m o d e m i s e d , to f a c i li t a te t h e ir c o n t i n u e du s e , e s p e c i a l l y a s h o u s i n g . T h i s o f t e n i n c l u d e s u p g r a d i n g o f i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s e r v i c e s( wa t e r , s e we r a g e , d r a i n a g e , ro a d s , e t c . ), b u t o n a m o d e s t s c a l e, a l l o wi n g t h e p r e s e r v a -t i o n o f t h e e x i s t i n g u r b a n p a t t e r n a n d f a b r i c . W h e r e n e c e s s a r y , s o me c h a n g e o f u s em a y b e i n c o r p o r a t e d , b u t o n a sma l l s c a l e . De m o l i t i o n s h o u l d n o r m a l l y b e r e s e r v e d f o rs t r u ct u r a ll y u n s o u n d b u i l d in g s , b u t m a y a l s o s o m e t i m e s b e n e e d e d i n o r d e r t o p r o v id es p a c e f o r e s s e n t i a l s o c i a l s e r v i c e s , i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o r o p e n s p a c e . 9 A n o v e r r i d i n g o b j e c -t i v e i s to m i n i m i s e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f e x i s t in g r e s i d e n t s , b e c a u s e o f e i t h e r d e m o l i t i o no r r e p a i r a n d u p g r a d i n g . 1 T h e i n t e n t io n i s to p r o v i d e e n o u g h m o d e m i s a t i o n o f t h ep h y s i c a l f a b r ic t o a l lo w t h e l i f e o f th e c o m m u n i t y to g o o n , w i t h s c o p e f o r b o t h b u i l d -i n g s a n d s o c i a l s y s t e ms t o e v o l v e a n d a d a p t t o n e w c o n d i t i o n s .I n t e r e s ti n g l y , e x p e r i e n c e in m a n y c o u n t r i e s h a s s h o wn t h a t it c a n b e e a s i e r a n d l e ssc o s t l y t o r e s t o r e a n d m o d e r n i s e o l d b u i l d i n g s t h a n w a s o r i g i n a l ly e x p e c t e d . I n c o n t r a st ,t h e c o s t o f d e m o l i t i o n a n d r e p l a c e m e n t b y n e w b u i ld i n g s h a s a l m o s t a l w a y s t u r n e d o u tt o b e m o r e e x p e n s i v e t h a n e x p e c t e d . N a t ur a ll y , m a n y m i s ta k e s w e r e m a d e i n t h e e a r lyy e a r s o f r e h a b il i ta t i o n e ff o r ts ; s o m e p r o j e c t s w e r e f a i l u re s , s o m e w e r e f a r t o o e x p e n s i v ea n d s o m e s u c c e e d e d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e o r i g in a l r e s id e n t s . No n e t h e l e s s , t h e t r e n d o fthe expe r ience i s favourab le , l ead ing to a s t ead i ly g row ing suppor t in coun t r i e s th rougho u tE u r o p e a n d e l s e w h e r e .I n 1 9 6 4 , I C O M O S h a d p r o m o t e d w i t h t h e Venice Charter, t h e e s t a b l i s h me n t o f t h ec o n s e r v a t i o n a p p r o a c h f o r h i s t o r i c mo n u me n t s . I n 1 9 7 2 , ma n y d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e ss ig n e d u p f o r U N E S C O s Convention Concerning the Protection of the World s Culturaland Natural Heritage, a n d b y 1 9 7 7 t h e l i s t i n g o f wo r l d h e r i t a g e s i t e s h a d b e g u n .W h i l e t h e Venice Charter wa s s til l o n l y c o n c e r n e d wi t h s in g l e mo n u m e n t s , t h e UN E S C OConvention i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i me t h e c o n c e p t o f c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e , wh i c h i s t h eb a s is f o r a r e a c o n s e r v a ti o n a n d r e h a b il it a ti o n c o n c e p t s . l l U N E S C O a l so p r o m o t e d t h ee s t a b l i s h me n t o f a f u n d f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e wo r l d c u l t u r a l a n d n a t u r a l h e r i t a g e ,b u t i n a c t u a l f a c t v e r y f e w c o u n t r i e s h a v e b e e n a b l e t o b e n e f i t f r o m t h i s s u b s t an t ia l ly ,a n d v e r y f e w f u n d s b e c a me a v a i l a b l e f o r h i s t o r i c c i t y c e n t r e s .A l t h o u g h t h e c o n c e p t o f r e h a b i l i ta t i o n h a s s e e n i n c r e a s i n g s u p p o r t i n mo s t o f t h ei n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s , a v e r y d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n e x i s t s i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s .T h e c o n c e p t i s s t i l l n e w a n d u n f a mi l i a r i n mo s t p l a c e s . I n t e l l e c t u a l l y a n d p r o f e s s i o n -a l l y i t r e ma i n s l i mi t e d t o h e r i t a g e s o c i e t i e s , a s ma l l n u mb e r o f f o r e i g n - t r a i n e d l o c a lp r o f e s s i o n a l s , a n d e v e n t u a l l y a f e w e x t e r n a l a d v i s o r s . P o l i ti c a l ly , i t h a s n o t y e t g e n e r -a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t s u p p o rt . L e g a l a n d a d mi n i s t r a t i v e ma c h i n e r y f o r h is t o r ic a r e a c o n s e r v a -

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

5/13

onservation and Rehabilitation of Urban Heritage in Deve loping ountries 67

t ion, whe re i t exis ts , is largely prohibi tory ra ther than constru ct ive and is se ldo m effec t ivelye n f o r c e d . O l d e r h o u s i n g a re a s a r e s ti ll s e e m a s p r o b l e m s r a t h e r t h a n a s i mp o r t a n tc o m p o n e n t s o f u r b a n l i fe . In s o m e c a se s , s i n g l e - m i n d e d c o n c e r n f o r a n a r r o w l y -c o n c e i v e d m o d e r n i s a t i o n h a s b e e n c a r r i e d s o f a r t h a t t h e r e is a l mo s t n o t h i n g l e ft o ft h e o l d c i ty . S i n g a p o r e i s t h e b e s t e x a m p l e , b u t , o n l y t h a n k s t o a r e c e n t s h i ft i n p o li c y ,c o n s e r v a t i o n o f a f e w r e ma i n i n g h i s t o r i c z o n e s h a s b e e n i n i t i a t e d ( s e e a l s o b e l o w) .

S P E C T S R E L T E D T O U R B N R E H B I L IT T I O N

Rea l i s t i ca l ly , no one a rgues fo r to ta l p rese rv a t ion o f eve ry th in g tha t i s o ld in the c i ty .12E q u a l l y , f e w wo u l d q u a r r e l w i t h a t t e mp t s t o i mp r o v e s a n i t a t i o n a n d wa t e r s u p p l y ,r e d u c e o v e r c r o w d i n g , o r o t h e r w i s e i mp r o v e t h e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n o l d e r h o u s i n g a r e a s.S u c h i m p r o v e m e n t s d o p r o v i d e a m o r e s a t is f a ct o r y e n v i r o n m e n t . B u t a b e t te r e n v i ro n -m e n t a l s o i m p l i e s a s a t i s f y i n g o f so c i a l a n d c u lt u r a l l if e f o r th o s e w h o m a k e u s e o f t h ee n v i r o n me n t a l r e s o u r c e s . I t i s t h e h u ma n i n h a b i t a n t s wh o c r e a t e a n d c o n s t i t u t e t h es o c i a l - c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o mi c s y s t e ms wh i c h g i v e l i f e t o t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n me n t .T h e f o c u s o f r e v i t a l i sa t i o n a n d r e h a b i l i t a ti o n o f h i s to r i c c e n t r e s , t h e r e f o r e , h a s t o b eo n w h o l e a r e a s , n o t j u s t i n d i v i d u a l b u i ld i n g s , a n d o n s o c i al c o m m u n i t i e s , n o t j u s t t h ep h y s i c a l e n v i r o n me n t . T h e s e o l d e r h o u s i n g a r e a s , t y p i c a l l y i n t h e i n n e r p a r t s o f t h ec i ty , a re o f t e n h o m e f o r l o w e r - i n c o me f a mi l i e s a n d t h e y h a v e p h y s i c a l , so c ia l , e c o n o m i ca n d c u l t u r a l v a l u e s d i f f e r e n t f r o m, a n d b e y o n d t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f , b u r e a u c r a t s o r p l a n -ne r s .A d v o c a t e s o f r e h a bi li ta t io n p o l i ci e s e m p h a s i s e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a c o m p r e h e n s i v ea n d i n t e g r a t e d a p p r o a c h t o p l a n n i n g f o r o l d e r a r ea s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e n e e d t o c o n s i d e rc o m p l e t e c o n s e r v a t i o n / r e h a b i l i t a t i o n a re a s , n o t j u s t i n d i v i d u a l b u i l d in g s . O f c o u r s e ,p a r t i c u l a r b u i l d i n g s o f s p e c i a l h is t o r ic a n d / o r a r c h i t e c tu r a l i n t e r e s t s h o u l d b e p r e s e r v e da s p a r t o f t h e o v e r a l l s c h e me . B u t t h e r e a l f o c u s i s o n t h e a c t i v i t i e s a n d u s e s o f t h eb u i l d i n g s t a k e n a s a wh o l e , a n d t h e n e e d t o u p g r a d e s e l e c t i v e l y a n d a d a p t i v e ly . 13T h i s r e h a b i l it a t i o n a p p r o a c h r a i se s a v a r i e t y o f c r u c i a l i s s u e s a n d q u e s t io n s .Political aspects H o w c a n p o l i ti c a l s u p p o r t b e g e n e r a t e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d ? H o w c a n a n a t i o n a l p o l i c y in s u p p o r t o f c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d r e h a b i l i ta t i o n o f u r b a nh e r i t a g e b e e s t a b l i s h e d ? H o w c a n t h e a f f e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n p a r t ic i p a t e in t h e f o r m u l a t i o n a n d e x e c u t i o n o f

c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d r e h a b i l i t a t i o n s c h e me s ?ultural aspects

To wha t ex ten t can the rehab i li t at ion o f h i s to r i c hous ing a reas and mon um ents con t ribu tet o t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f i n d i g e n o u s c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s a n d f o r ms ? W hat i s the ro le o f h i s to r i c c i ty cen t res and o f mon um ents , the i r phys ica l cha rac te r i s ti c sand the i r soc ia l l i f e in the loca l (o r na t iona l ) cu l tu re? C a n h i s t o r i c mo n u m e n t s a n d c i ty c e n t re s b e c o m e a n a r e a o f s p e c ia l to u r i s t i n t e re s t ?

Social aspects H o w c a n t h e p o o r , w h o g e n e r a l l y c o mp r i s e a ma j o r i t y o f t h o s e l i v in g i n t h e h is t o r ich o u s i n g a r e a s , p a r t i c i p a te e f f e c t i v e l y in t h e r e h a b i l i t a t io n p r o c e s s ? H o w c a n t h e c o m m u n i t y o f l o w - i n c o m e r e s id e n t s b e r e t a i n e d i n t h e f a c e o f c h a n g -i n g l a n d u s e s a n d v a l u e s ? ( Or h o w c a n t h e y b e s u p p o r t e d w h e n r e l o c a t i o n is u n a v o i d -ab le? ) H o w c a n l o w - i n c o m e r e s id e n t s b e p ro t e c t ed f r o m t h e i m p a c t o f g e n t r if i c at i o n ?

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

6/13

68 lorian SteinbergEconomic aspects H o w c a n u r b a n r e h a b i l it a t i o n b e f in a n c e d ? W h a t m i x o f p ri v a t e a n d p u b l ic r e s o u r c e s , i. e. p u b l i c - p r i v a t e p a r t n e r s h i p s , s h o u l db e u s e d ? H o w c a n o l d e r la n d u s e s an d a c t iv i ti e s c o m p e t e w i th n e w o n e s ? W h a t h a p p e n s wh e n l an d v a l u e s a n d / o r t a x e s i n c r e a s e ? H o w c a n t h e c o n t r ib u t i o n o f t h e o l d e r a r e a o f t h e u r b a n e c o n o m y b e c o n s o l id a t e d ?Wh i c h e c o n o mi c r o l e c o u l d t o u r i s m p l a y i n t h i s c o n t e x t ?

Urbanisation aspects H o w c a n t h e u r b a n p a t t e r n a n d t i s s u es o f h i s to r i c c i t y ar e a s b e p r e s e r v e d i n t h e fa c eo f n e c e s s a r y u p g r a d i n g a n d l a n d u s e c h a n g e s ? C a n t h e h i st o ri c q u a li t y o f t h e m i x e d - u s e e n v i r o n m e n t b e a d a pt e d to m o d e m c o n d i -

t i o n s ?I n o r d e r t o a n s w e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , r e f e r e n c e wi l l b e ma d e t o t h e u r b a n h e r i t a g e e x p e r i -e n c e s o f a n u m b e r c i ti e s , n a m e l y C a i r o , T u n i s , S a n a a , D e l h i , B o m b a y , B h a k t a p u r ,Ga l l e , P e n a n g , S i n g a p o r e , S h a n g h a i , B e i j i n g , Qu i t o , C a r t a g e n a a n d Ha v a n a .

U R B N R E H B I L I T T I O N N D R E V I T L I S T I O N I N P R C T I C E

Political supportPol i t i ca l suppor t fo r u rban rehab i l i t a t ion and rev i t a l i sa t ion i s ce r t a in ly c ruc ia l and ap r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a n y s u b s t a n t i a l p r o g r a mme . Ho we v e r , t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e ma j o r i t yo f c i t ie s a r e n o t e n c o u r a g i n g i n t h is r e s p e c t . T o o m a n y i n s t a n c e s e x i s t wh e r e t h e p o l i ti -c a l c o m m i t m e n t i s l a c k i n g o r v e r y d i f f i cu l t t o o b t a in , a n d e v e n t h e c o n c e r t e d e f fo r t s o fi n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d n a t i o n a l h e r i t a g e o r g a n i s a t i o n s h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e t o g e n e r a t e s u c hs u p p o rt . F o r i n s t a n c e, i n t h e c a s e s o f C a i r o 14 a n d S a n a a , i s m a n y y e a r s o f e f f o r t s o nt h e p a rt o f U N E S C O a n d t h e A g a K h a n F o u n d a t i o n o f A r c h i t e c t u r e h a v e n o t y i e l d e d af i rm c o mm i t me n t fo r a r e a c o n s e r v a t io n f r o m t h e n a ti o n a l a u th o r it ie s wh i c h we r e e x p e c t e dt o t a k e u p a W o r l d B a n k l o a n ( i n th e c a s e o f C a i r o ) o r to n e g o t i a t e w i t h d o n o r s f o rt h e i r s u p p o r t ( i n t h e c a s e o f S a n a a ) . B o t h C a i r o a n d S a n a a h a v e b e n e f i t e d o n l y f r o ma n u m b e r o f r a t h e r i s o la t e d c a s e s o f mo n u m e n t r e s t o ra t i o n , fi n a n c e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , b yf o r e i g n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n s t i tu t e s a n d o t h e r b i l a te r a l d o n o r a g e n c i e s . I n t h e c a s e o f I n d i a ,a n d q u i t e e x c e p t i o n a l l y i f s e e n f r o m a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e Na t i o n a l Ho u s -i n g P o l i c y o f 1 9 9 4 1 6 s p e a k s o f s u p p o r t t o h i s t o r i c r e si d e n t ia l a r e a s w h i c h h a v e b e e nd e f i n e d a s c o n s e r v a t i o n a r e a s, b u t i n r e a l i ty t h e r e i s v e r y l it tl e i mp l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s ep o l i c ie s , 17 a n d m o s t l o c a l a g e n c i e s l a c k t h e s k il ls t o d e s i g n a n d i m p l e m e n t c o n s e r v a -t ion sche m es . 18

B o m b a y i s q u i te a n e x c e p t i o n i n t h i s r e g a r d a n d t h e r e p a ir o f chawls h is to r i c work ing-c lass h ous ing , has b een t aken up b y th e loca l au thor i t i e s , a9 Bu t the chawl r epa i r sp r o g r a m m e i t s e l f - - a f t e r t h e r e p ai r o f s ev e r a l t h o u s a n d un i ts - - is e n d a n g e r e d b y ar e s o u r c e c r u n c h , a n d t h e h i g h i n v e s t me n t p r e s s u r e o n i n n e r - c i t y l a n d o n t h e p e n i n s u l ao f B o m b a y m a k e i t s e e m l i k el y th a t t h e B o m b a y h o u s i n g r e p ai rs p r o g r a m m e w i l l bea b o r t e d i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . I n O l d D e l h i , 2 a s i n s o m a n y I n d i a n c i t i e s w i t h a h i s t o ri cc i t y c e n t r e , a c o mp l e t e laissez faire a p p r o a c h i s b e i n g f o l l o we d , a n d t h e r e h a s b e e n al a c k o f p o l i ti c a l c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f t h e h i s t o ri c c e n t r e . I n r e a l it y , inOl d De l h i , a n y b o d y c a n d e v e l o p , d e mo l i s h o r b u i l d a s h e l i k e s .E q u a l l y , i n t h e c a s e o f S h a n g h a i , E1 t h e o l d w a l l e d - c i t y a r e a h a s b e e n d e c l a r e d an a t i o n a l mo n u me n t , a n d s o me p i l o t r e h a b i l i t a t i o n / a r e a u p g r a d i n g p r o j e c t s h a v e b e e ne x e c u t e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t 1 0 y e a r s , b u t t h is o v e r a l l p o l i c y h a s n o t b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o am a j o r i n v e s t m e n t s c h e m e f o r t h e o l d t e n e m e n t h o u si n g s t o c k o f S h a n g ha i . S o m e c i t ie s

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

7/13

onservation and Rehabilitation of Urban Heritage in Deve loping ountries 69

h a v e , o f c o u r s e f a r e d b e t te r , a s t h e c a s e s o f T u n i s , 22 B h a k t a p u r , 23 a n d A l e p p o s h o w.C o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h b i - a n d mu l t i - l a te r a l e x t e r n a l d o n o r s h a v e i n i t ia t e d s o m e l a r g e s c a l ea r e a c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d r e h a b i l i t a t i o n p r o j e c t s i n T u n i s ( wi t h Wo r l d B a n k f u n d i n g ) , i nB h a k t a p u r a n d A l e p p o ( w i t h G e r m a n G T Z f u n d s ) a n d lo c a l p o l it ic a l c o m m i t m e n t h a sb e e n a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e s e p r o j e c t s .T h e c a s e o f S i n g a p o r e i s o f a c e r t a i n s i g n i f i c a n c e , a s i t c o mb i n e s ma n y f a c t o r s .W h e n i t w a s r e a l is e d t h a t S in g a p o r e, w h i c h i s q u i t e d e p e n d e n t o n i n c o m e f r o m t o ur -i s m, w a s l o s i n g i t s a t t r a ct i o n a s a t o u r i s t d e s ti n a t i o n d u e t o t h e r a p i d l y v a n i s h i n g u r b a nh e r i t a g e , a c o m p l e t e t u r n i n p o l i c i e s w a s i n it i at e d . 24 He n c e f o r t h , h e r i t a g e c o n s e r v a t i o nh a s b e c o m e a n i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f th e c i t y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t p o li c ie s a n d i m a g e b u i l d -ing . In a l l o f these cases , th e ac t ive pa r t i c ipa t ion o f the r e s iden t s o f h i s to r i c c i ty cen-t re s in the p rese rva t ion and con se rva t ion o f the i r c i ty , be i t in the fo rm ula t ion o r execu t ions t a g e s , h a s b e e n v e r y l i mi t e d . I n a f e w i n s t a n c e s t h e r e a r e r e p o r t s o f a l i mi t e d n u mb e ro f u s e r / c o n s u me r s u r v e y s b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t , mo s t l y i n t e r ms o f a f f o r d a b i l i t y o f t h eprop osed m easu res on ly . Ho we ver , ce r t a in in te res t g roups , such as cu l tu ra l and conse rva -t i o n a n d h e r i t a g e a s s o c i a t i o n s o f c o n c e r n e d c i t iz e n s , h a v e i n i t i a t ed a t l e a s t s o me d e g r e eo f p u b l i c i ty a n d d e b a t e o n c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d r e h a b i l i t a ti o n i s s u e s. T h e s e o r g a n i s a t i o n sa c t mo s t l y a t c i t y l e v e l ( B o mb a y , 25 D elhi , 26 Sin gap ore , 27 P ena ng ,2s Tunis29) , but ins o me c o u n t r i e s t h e r e a r e a l s o n a t i o n a l c a mp a i g n g r o u p s ( f o r i n s t a n c e i n I n d i a 3 andI n d o n e s i a3 ~ ) wh i c h h a v e t a k e n t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l a n d n a t u r a l h e r i t a g e o nt h e i r b a n n e r s .

u l tu ra l a spec t sT h e s e h a v e b e e n h i g h l i g h t e d v e r y p r o m i n e n t l y b y c o n s e r v a t i o n i s t s a n d c a m p a i g n e r s ,i n te r n a ti o n a l o r g a n is a ti o n s ( U N E S C O , I C O M O S , I C C R O M , A g a K h a n F o u n d a t i o n f o rArch i t ec tu re ) a s we l l a s b i - l a t e ra l in s t i tu t ions ( cu l tu ra l and a rchaeo log ica l ins t i tu te s ) .Of l a t e , w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f mo r e t o u r i s m- o r i e n t a t e d ma r k e t i n g o f c i t i e s , c u l t u r e h a sb e e n a c c e p t e d as a m e a n s t o p r o m o t e t o u r is m a n d e v e n t h e l o c a l i n v e s t m e n t c l im a t e o ra m b i e n c e o f c i ti e s. 32 T h u s , c u l t u r e i s n o l o n g e r a p u r e e n d i n i t se l f, b u t a m e a n s f o rl o c a l e c o n o mi c p r o mo t i o n ( o r a s t h e c r i t i q u e s o f t h i s a p p r o a c h b r a n d i s h f o r a s e l l - o u to f cu l tu re ). S ingapore , a f t e r it awo ke to the c la ims o f the loca l conse rva t ion i s t s ' campa ignfor a cu l tu ra l c i ty ,33 h a s c o m e o u t v e r y p r o m i n e n t l y i n th i s r e sp e c t , a n d i s n o w ma r k e t -ing cons e rva t io n a reas in the c i ty fo r tou r i sm.a4Bhak tapur , a s one o f the m os t t r ad i t iona lc i t i e s in Nepa l , a s we l l a s the M e d i n a of Tun is , o r h i s to r i c Qu i to 35 a re p resen ted (andma r k e t e d ) a s a t t r a c t i o n s d u e t o t h e i r c u l t u r a l v a l u e s . I n t h e c a s e s o f C a i r o , S a n a ' a o rHa v a n a s o me l o c a l a g e n c i e s a r e a l s o v e r y k e e n t o p r o mo t e t h e o l d t o wn s a s t o u r i s tc e n t r e s , b u t a r e l o s i n g o u t t o r a p i d d e c a y a n d d e s t r u c t i o n , a n d t h e n o n - a v a i l a b i l i t y o fp o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t a n d f u n d i n g .I n t h e c a s e o f R i o d e J a n e i r o , a r e a r e h a b i l i t a t i o n h a s b e c o me a l e v e r a g e f o r t h ee s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s o - c a l l e d c u l t u r a l c o r r i d o r wh i c h h a s s u c c e e d e d i n r e v i t a li s i n g t h ec i t y c e n t r e wi t h c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m i c a c t iv i t ie s a n d a t t ra c t io n s . 36 In t h e e a r l y c o l o n i a lc i t y o f Ga l l e , 37 wh i c h i s o n e o f t h e d e c l a r e d wo r l d h e r i t a g e c i ti e s , t h e c u l t u r a l a s p e c t so f t h e b u i l t e n v i r o n m e n t f ig u r e s t r o n g ly i n t h e p l e d g e o f t h e l o c a l a u t h o ri t ie s f o r e x t e r n a lf u n d i n g t o p r e s e r v e t h e c i t y a s a t e s t i mo n y o f g l o b a l c u l t u r e o f t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d .Ho we v e r , wh e r e c u l t u r e h a s t h e s t i g ma o f t h e c o l o n i a l e r a , c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s i s t a n c e i st o b e e x p e c t e d f r o m l o c a l p o l i t ic a l f o r c e s wh i c h w i ll t r y to l o b b y a g a i n s t a n y e x p e n s e sf o r t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f th e t e s t i m o n y o f t h is h i s t o r ic p e r i o d .Soc ia l a spec t sS o c i a l a s p e c t s ma n i f e s t th e m s e l v e s i n p a r ti c u l a r th r o u g h t h e p r e s e n c e o f th e p o o r , wh o( a s r e c e n t i mmi g r a n t s ) h a v e b e c o me r e s i d e n t s i n v e r y c r o wd e d h i s t o r i c h o u s i n g s t o c k ,u s u a l l y s u f f e r i n g f r o m t h e i mp a c t s o f s u b - d i v i s i o n a n d o v e r - u t i l i s a t i o n o f o u t d a t e ds e r v i c e s. T h i s p i c t u r e i s c o n t r a s t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t ma n y w e l l - t o - d o o w n e r s o f h i st o r ic

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

8/13

47 lorian Steinberg

buildings have moved elsewhere and have lost interest in the upkeep of their proper-ties, as can be seen in the cases of Cairo, Tunis, Delhi, Bombay, Penang, Quito, Havanaand many others. The income situation of the poor and the disinterest of absenteelandlords who earn hardly any income from the low rents being paid by the occupantsof their old housing stock have strongly contributed to the decay and lack of maintenanceof old housing stock in historic city centres. For the formulation of area revitalisationand rehabilitation schemes there is a good chance that the poor will be forced to leaveand that they will have to sacrifice their centrally located residences for rehabilitationor redevelopment projects. The former residents of Singapore's Chinatown and Kam-pong Glam are a point in case; almost all o f the previous residents have been relocatedelsewhere in modern housing estates as a prelude to gentrification of these areas.Similar developments are taking place in Shanghai and Beijing, where more than 40%of the population of the historic residential areas are to exchange these locations fornew suburban satellite townships. 38However, such government-sponsored relocation in modern high-rise housing estatesis not so common elsewhere, and the poor inhabitants of inner-city areas are mostlyleft to fend for themselves. Cases like Quito and Cartagena demonstrate that low-income residents receive no support for finding alternative and affordable accommoda-tion when properties are being sold for conservation and adaptive re-use by high-income groups or commercial activities. Very few examples of area revitalisation andrehabilitation, like that in Tunis (with financial support of the World Bank), have at-tempted to address a mixed social group of residents (high-, middle- and low-income),and to finance the renovation of housing stock inhabited by the poor partly throughcross-subsidy mechanisms. But even in this case it remains to be seen whether thelow-income groups will be able to resist pressures by higher income groups for thesecentrally located housing units. In the case of Bombay's restoration of chawls at-tempts have been made to transfer ownership of neglected housing stock, owned byabsentee landlords, into the hands of specially created tenants' co-operatives, but theseefforts have had limited impact s o f a r 39Economic aspectsThese certainly dominate the considerations for urban rehabilitation of historic citycentres and monuments. World-wide experiences show that most local and nationalgovernments and religious organisations cannot afford to conserve and improve a largemajority of even their most precious monuments. This can be demonstrated in a numberof cities, such as Cairo, Tunis, Delhi, Galle and Sana'a. Efforts to improve the financialstatus of national archaeological institutes and to increase their portfolio have mostlybeen unsuccessful, as most governments seem to shy away from additional expensesfor the preservation and rehabilitation of monuments. Most countries do not have anadequate policy of charging entrance fees to monuments; in many cases monumentsremain inaccessible to the public and to tourists, or if they are accessible, only apittance of an entrance fee, if any is charged, as for instance in most parts of India.Very few cities have adopted a more progressive policy like the city of Bhaktapur,which charges a (still nominal) lump-sum entrance fee from tourists for entering thehistoric conservation zone. Sri Lanka follows a similar approach in its cultural triangleof the historic cities of Kandy-Anuradhapura-Polonnaruwa (and some enclosed sites),but has failed so far to do the same for the historic city of Galle. The economicproblems of financing the preservation and upkeep of monuments have stimulated agood deal of debate about the possibilities of doing this through the approach of adap-tive re-use and to invite the private sector (or non-governmental institutions) to leasehistoric buildings with commercially viable activities. These activities would pay forthe conservation and rehabilitation of the monuments, and have an overall revitalisingimpact on the economic development of such areas. There are many isolated examplesof such an approach in India, in Quito, Cartagena, Tunis, Sana'a, Penang and Sin-

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

9/13

onservation and Rehabilitation of Urban Heritag e in Deve loping ountries 47

g a p o r e t o n a m e a f e w . B u t t h e r e a r e v e r y f e w e x a m p l e s o f i n t e g r a t e d a r e a c o n c e p t sw h i c h s t r iv e f o r t h e r e v i t a l i s at i o n o f w h o l e h i s t o r i c c i t y c e n t r e s , i n c l u d i n g ( i ) t h e r e v i-t a li s a ti o n a n d mo d e r n i s a t i o n o f l o c a l e c o n o m i c a c t iv i t ie s a n d t h e r e q u i r e d i n f ra s t ru c t u r e ,( i i ) t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f mo n u me n t s , a n d ( i i i ) t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f o l d h o u s i n g s t o c k ,wh ich app ly an in teg ra ted f inanc ing po l icy tha t poo ls toge th e r p r iva te ind iv idua l , p r iva tec o mme r c i a l a s w e l l a s p u b l i c - s e c t o r e f f o r t s a n d f u n d s . T o s o me e x t e n t t h i s h a s b e e nt r ie d t o B h a k t a p u r ( t h o u g h t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r ' s c o n t r i b u ti o n m a y b e l o w i n t hi s p a r ti c u l a rc a s e ) a n d i n T u n i s , b u t i t h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d i n q u i t e a n u m b e r o f c i ti e s , s u c h a sCa i ro , 4 Qu i to , 41 Sa na ' a 42 a nd Pen ang . 43

V e r y f e w c i t ie s h a v e , h o w e v e r , ta k e n t h e c o m p l e t e c o m m e r c i a l p a t h f o r a r ea r e v i-t a li s a ti o n . S i n g a p o r e i s o n e e x a m p l e i n w h i c h t h e l o c al r e d e v e l o p m e n t a u t h o r it y h a sa c q u i r e d a l l t h e p l o t s o f t h e d e s i g n a t e d c o n s e r v a t i o n a r e a s , a n d h a s b e e n t e n d e r i n gt h e s e p l o t s f o r r e h a b i l i t a t i o n - c u m - r e d e v e l o p m e n t a s c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v it ie s ( s h o p s,r e s t a u r a n t s , t o u r i s t h o t e l s o r o f f i c e s f o r o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s ) . A n o t h e r c a s e i n p o i n t i sC a r t a g e n a w h i c h , a f t e r d e s i g n a t i n g t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n a r e a , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e o n l ys e e n t o i t th a t h i s t o ri c p r o p e r t i e s a r e n o t d e m o l i s h e d a n d t h a t p r iv a t e i n v e s t o r s c o n s e r v ea n d r e h a b i l i t a t e t h e l a t e me d i a e v a l b u i l d i n g s f o r t h e i r p r i v a t e u s e . P r a c t i c a l l y a l l t h e s er e n o v a t i o n s a r e t a k e n u p b y h i g h - i n c o m e u s e r s w h o c o n v e r t h i s t o r i c m a n s i o n s i n t om o d e r n r e s i d e n c e s , o f f i c e s o r s h o p s . I n t h e c a s e o f C a r t a g e n a t h e l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a -t i o n is v e r y s u p p o r t i v e o f p ri v a t e i n v e s t m e n t s i n t h e h i st o r ic t o w n , a n d w i t h s o m ef l e x i b i li t y in t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e p e r m i s s i b l e f l o o r s p a c e i n d e x e s i t h a s b e c o m ep o s s i b l e t o c o n v e r t b a c k y a r d s i n t o m o d e r n s t r u c t u r e s , a n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e l a n d u s e .

I n B o m b a y , t h e a p p l i c a t io n o f t h e ( N o r t h A m e r i c a n ) m e t h o d o f t r a n s fe r a b l e d e v e l o p -m e n t r i g h t s ( T D R ) i s b e i n g e x p e r i m e n t e d w i th . a n T D R c a n b e a p p l i e d t o p r i v a t e lyo w n e d l i s te d m o n u m e n t s i n p r i m e l o c a t io n s w h e r e t h e r e is a l o t o f d e v e l o p m e n t p r e s-s u r e ( f o r i n s t a n c e s k y - r o c k e t i n g l a n d p r i c e s a n d d e v e l o p me n t o f h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s i nt h e v i c i n i t y ) . T o e n c o u r a g e t h e o w n e r s t o i n v e s t i n t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d r e n o v a t i o n o fs u c h m o n u m e n t s a n d t o d i s c o u r a g e t h e m f r o m d e m o l i s h i n g t h e s e b u i l d i n g s , t h e y a r eo f f e r e d a l t e r n a t i v e p l o t s o f l a n d f o r d e v e l o p me n t . T h i s i s i n t e n d e d t o c o mp e n s a t e f o rt h e l o s s o f d e v e l o p me n t p o t e n t i a l i n t h e p l o t s o c c u p i e d b y t h e mo n u me n t s , a n d t oc o v e r r e n o v a t i o n c o s t s . A n i n d i s p e n s a b l e p r e c o n d i t i o n i s , o f c o u r s e , t h e a v a i l a b il i ty o fg o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d la n d t h a t c a n b e b a r t e r ed f o r th e T D R a r r a n g e m e n t .I n t h e c a s e o f H a v a n a , a w o r l d h e r i t a g e c i t y w h i c h i s d G o me d t o c o l l a p s e i n r u b b l ev e r y s o o n , s u c h p o s s i b i li t ie s o f c o m me r c i a l i s a t i o n a n d u t i li s a t io n o f th e m a r k e t f o r c e sd o n o t ( y e t ) e x i s t , a s t h e c o u n t r y i s s t i l l d o mi n a t e d b y s o c i a l i s t p a t t e r n s o f e c o n o myand s ta te con t ro l o f l and and inves tmen t . A lso , Ch ina and i t s h i s to r ic c i ty cen t res s t i l lf a c e p r o b l e ms o f t h i s n a t u r e , a l t h o u g h t h e t r e n d o f c o mme r c i a l i s a t i o n o f t h e h o u s i n gs e c t o r w i l l, i n d u e c o u r s e , c o n t r i b u t e t o i n n o v a t i v e f i n a n c i n g me c h a n i s m s f o r r e h a b il i ta -t ion o f h i s to r ic c i ty cen t res . 45

I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e mo d e r n i s a t i o n o f c i ti e s a n d t h e i r h i s t o r i c c e n t r e s , th e r e i s a l s oc o n c e r n f o r t h e o l d , h i s t o ri c t y p e s o f l a n d u s e s . M o s t o f t h e t r a d it i o n a l e c o n o m i c a c ti v i -t i e s ( in c i t i e s l ike Ca i ro , Tun is , Sana ' a , O ld De lh i , e t c . these a re a lmos t med ia~va l -s t y l e a c t i v i t i e s ) w i l l - - o v e r t i me - - b e u n a b l e t o s u r v i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n l o c a t i o n sw h e r e c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d r e h a b i l it a t io n o f h is t o r ic c i ty c e n t r e s h a v e t h e i mp a c t o f g e n -tr i f ica t ion .46

A s c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d r e h a b i l i t a t i o n a r e i n t r o d u c e d , n o t o n l y t h e l a n d v a l u e s o f t h e s ea r e a s i n c r e a s e , b u t a l s o l o c a l r e v e n u e s . S u c h r e v e n u e i n c r e a s e s c a n h a v e a n a d d i t i o n a ls t imula t ing im pac t fo r the rehab i l it a t ion o f in f ras t ruc tu re and o th e r se rv ices in conse rva -t i o n a r e a s . T h u s , r e v i ta l i s a ti o n o f h i s to r i c c i t y c e n t r e s w i l l c o n t r i b u t e b o t h t o t h e m o d -e r n i sa t io n o f t h e p r i v a te c o m m e r c i a l s e c to r a n d t o e n h a n c e d r e v e n u e s . I n c o n s e r v a t io np l a n s a n d c o n c e p t s t h i s a s p e c t o f i n c r e a s e d l a n d v a l u e s a n d p r o p e r t y v a l u e s p l a y s a ni mp o r t a n t r o l e w h i c h i s f u l l y ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , a s d e mo n s t r a t e d i n t h e c a s e o f T u n i so r S i n g a p o r e . ( S i n g a p o r e p r o u d l y a n n o u n c e d t h at p r o p e r t y v a l u e s i n c o n s e r v a t i o n a r e a sh a v e r i s e n b y 8 t i me s a f t e r r e h a b i l i ta t i o n o f s h o p h o u s e s . ) I n o t h e r ci t ie s , s u c h a s

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

10/13

47 lorian Steinberg

Qu i to o r Ca r t agena , t he i nc r ea se o f p rope r ty va lue s i n t he h i s t o r ic c i ty w as no t som u c h p l a n n e d f o r , b u t s e e n a s a l i k e l y o u t c o m e .T o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e as a n i n c e n t iv e f o r th e c o n s e r v a -t i on o f m on um en t s and t he r ehab i l i t a ti on and r ev i t a l i s a t ion o f h i s to r i c c i ty cen t r e s . Towh a t ex t en t t he eco nom ic impac t o f t ou r i sm i s fe l t c i t y -w ide o r on ly w i th in t he h is t o r icc i t y cen t r e i t s e l f depends fu l l y on t he pa r t i cu l a r cha r ac t e r i s t i c s o f e ach ca se and howarea conse rva t i on / r ehab i l i t a t i on i s be ing imp lemen ted . I f t ou r i sm ac t i v i t i e s ( such a sho t e l s ) cou ld be cha rged a he r i t age tax , t h i s cou ld a l so con t r i bu t e t o t he su s ta inab i l-i t y o f u rban he r i t age by boo s t i ng t he f inanc i a l pos i t i on o f a r chaeo log i ca l and o th e rhe r i t age r e l a t ed i n s t it u t ions .Urban aspectsUrba n a spec t s a r e a l so ve ry p rom inen t i n t he cons e rva t i on and r ev i t a l i sa t i on o f o ldc i t y cen t r e s . One can d i s t i ngu i sh i n each h i s t o r i c c it y spec i f ic u rban p a t t e rn s o r f e a tu r e ssuch a s t he na tu r e and dens i t y o f l and u se s , he igh t o f bu i l d ings , w id th and pa t t e rn o fc i r cu l a t i on rou t e s ( r oads , a l l eys , f oo tpa th s ) , bu i l d ing t ypo log i e s , a s we l l a s spec i f i ci n f ra s t ru c t u r e c o m p o n e n t s . T h e s e f o r m t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f th e u r b a n t is s u e . W i th i nthe u rban t i s sue t he s i z e and fo rma t o f i nd iv idua l p lo t s i s a p r ime cha rac t e r i s t i c t ha thas a wid e im pact on th e urban fo rm an d appearance . Fo r a rea conserva t ion and rehabil it a-t i on i t is e s sen t i a l tha t t he m ax im um poss ib l e p r e se rva t i on o f t he o r i g ina l t i s sue pa t t e rni s a p r i m e o b j e c t iv e o f c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s . O n c e t h e t i ss u e p a t t er n i s n o l o n g e rr e s p e c t e d a n d h a s b e e n w i d e ly , m o d i f i e d o b v i o u s l y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e b u i l t e n v i r o n m e n ti s bo un d t o chang e r ad ica l ly . He nce , f o r ma ny ph ys i ca l p l anne r s t h i s is sue o f t he u rbant i s sue i s one o f t he p r im e a r ea s o f conce rn , and i t i s i n t h i s pe r spec t i ve t ha t a ll e f fo rt st o g e n e r a t e n e w u s e s f o r o l d b u i ld i n g s a n d n e i g h b o u r h o o d s n e e d t o b e e v a l u at e d . S o m erehab i l i ta t i on expe r i ences and p ropo sa l s , a s in t he ca se s o f S ingapo re , Ca r t agena , Bhak -t apu r , Ca i ro and Ga l l e , have s t r e s sed t he impor t ance o f t he p r e se rva t i on o f ex i s t i ngu r b a n p a t t e r n s a n d t is s u e s, a n d s o m e h a v e e v e n d e v e l o p e d d e t a i le d d e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s(Bhak t apu r , S ingapo re ) wh ich a r e t o be app l i ed by p r i va t e i nves to r s. The a r ea conse rva -t io n a n d r e d e v e l o p m e n t e x p e r i e n c e in t h e edina of Tun i s i l lu s t r a te s , howev e r , a morel i be r a l app roa ch , w i th it s quas i - t r ad i ti ona l s t y le o f hou s ing dev e lop m en t (midd l e -a n d h i g h - i n c o m e h o u s i n g ) th a t d o e s a w a y w i t h t h e o l d s t r ee t p a tt e rn s , a n d p r o v i d e sm o d e r n i s e d v e r s i o n s o f t h e c l a s si c T u n i s i a n c o u r t y a r d h o u s i n g .

T H E O U T L O O KThe gene ra l p i c tu r e t oday i s no t encou rag ing . Des t ruc t i on o f h i s t o r i c c i t y cen t r e s , o fo l d h o u s i n g s t o c k a n d o f m o n u m e n t s c o n t i n u e s in m o s t d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r ie s , e i t h e r b ya c t iv e p o l i c i e s o f c l e a r a n c e a n d r e p l a c e m e n t o r b y p a s s i v e p o l ic i e s o f d o i n g n o t h i n g t oha l t t he s l ow de t e r i o r a t i on and dec l i ne o f such a r ea s . I n some coun t r i e s t he r e havebeen sm a l l - s ca l e e f fo rt s , bu t o f t en t he se have focused on ly on t he m os t p ro f i t ab l ep ro j ec t s , such a s h i s t o r i c a r ea s w i th t ou r i s t po t en t i a l. The l ow er - i ncom e r e s iden t s havebeen i gno red ( a t be s t ) o r pushed ou t by ex i s t i ng r enewa l po l i c i e s .I f t h i s t r end con t i nues , t he r e i s a r e a l dange r f o r t he fu tu r e t ha t i n t he c i t i e s i nd e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r ie s w e w i l l f i nd t h a t o n l y f r a g m e n t s o f t h e i r u r b a n h e r i ta g e r e m a i n .W h a t i s p r e s e r v e d w i l l b e i s o la t e d a n d w i t h o u t i m p a c t o n t h e l i fe o f t h e m a j o r it y o f t h epopu l a t i on . Rehab i l i ta t i on s t r a teg i e s shou ld , o f cou r se , a im to avo id t he i dea o f s ta t icp r e se rva t i on , and no t a t t emp t t o f o s s i l i se t he pa s t and con ve r t i t i n to a so r t o f open -a ir m u s e u m .T h e r e i s a n u r g e n t n e e d f o r r eh a b i li ta t io n a p p r o a c h e s w h i c h m a i n t a in - - o r b e t te rsus t a in - - t he t yp i ca l and e s sen t ia l qua l it i e s o f t he h i s to r i c c i t y a rea s , and o f the l if eo f t h e r e s i d e n t c o m m u n i t i e s , b u t w h i c h c a n a l so a d a p t t h e s e p h y s i c a l s t ru c t u re s a n de c o n o m i c a c t iv i ti e s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e n e e d s o f t h e p r e s en t . A c o n t i n u o u s a n d

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

11/13

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

12/13

7 Florian SteinbergIdentity Urb an Development, Conservation oflm mo vab le Property, No. 2 ( Ind ian Na t iona l Trust fo r Art andCultural Heritage. /INTAC H, New Delhi, 1989); and A.G. K rishna Me non and B.K. Thapar, Historic TownsHeritage Zones, Conservation of Immovable Property, No. 3 ( Ind ian Na t iona l Trus t fo r Art and Cul tu ra lHeritage/INTACH, New Delhi, 1988).7. B.M. Feilden, Conserva tion of Historic Buildings (Butterworth, London, 1982); B.M. Feilden, Guidelines forConservation: a T echnical Manual (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage/INTAC H, New Delhi,1989) and G.B. Dix , A Sure and Proper Founda t ion -- Conserva t ion and the Fu ture o f Urban Des ign , inPlanning and Conserva tion, Report o f the Third International C ongress on Architectural C onservation and Tow nPlanning (The Heritage Trust, London, 1987).8. J . Abu -Lug hod, Preservin g the Liv ing Heritag e of Is lamic Cities , in Aga Khan Award for Architecture, Proceed-ings of Seminar One (Ag a Khan Award fo r Arch itecture/C oncep t Media, Singapore, 1978) and T.J . Ma rtin, Adap-tive U se: Development Econom ics, Process and Profiles (Ur ban Land Institute , Washington, D C, 1978).9 . B .M. Fe i lden , Arch i tec tu ra l and Urban Conserva t ion , Tow n Planning 56, 2 (1985), pp. 197-221.10 . Uni ted Na t ions Centre fo r Hum an Se t t lements , The Urban Poor and the Rehabili tation of Inner City Areas, andRelocation Policies: Changing Approaches (UNCH S, Nairobi, 1991) and LE. Hardoy, The Inhab itants of Histori-ca l Cen tres: W ho is Concerned Abo ut The ir P l igh t? , Habitat International 7, 5/6 (1983), pp. 151-162.11. ICOMOS, The Venice Charter (ICOMO S, Venice, 1994); Un ited Nation s Educational, Social and Cultural Or-gan isa t ion , Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO, Paris ,1972); United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organisation, Recommendations Concerning the Safeguard-ing and Contemporary Role of Historic Areas (UNESCO , Nairobi, 1976); and International Com miss ion onMo num ents and S i te s, The C harter for the C onservation o f Historic Towns and Urban Areas (ICOMOS, Toledo,1986).12. Ab u-L ugho d (1978), see note 8, and Andrew King, The Politics of Position: Inven ting the Past, Con structin g thePresen t, Imagin ing the Fu ture , Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review 4, 2 (1993), pp. 9-18.13 . S . Can tacuz ino , Blueprin t fo r Conserva t ion in the Third World , Mimar 24 (1987), pp. 19-25; Feilden (1985),see note 9.14. R. I_~wcock, Con servatio n in Is lamic Cair o and The Ara b Bureau of Desig n and Technical Consultations/K.AbdeI-Fa t tab and A.I . Abde lha l im, The Rehab i l i ta t ion and Upgrad ing o f His tor ic Ca iro bo th in Aga KhanAward for Architecture, The E xpanding Metropolis: Coping with the Urb an Growth of Cairo, Proceedings o fSeminar Nine (Aga K han Award fo r Arch i tec tu re /Concep t Media , S ingapore , 1984), pp. 49-5 3 and pp . 54-90 .15. Un ited Nati ons Educational, Social and Cultural Organisation, Plan of Action: Restoration and Preservation ofthe Historic City of Sana'a (Yemen Arab Republic) (UNESCO, Paris /Sana 'a , 1982); R.B. Serjeant and R. Lew-cock, Sana'a, An Arabian Islamic City (London , 1983); and W. Linganau , Sana 'a , Arab ische Republ ic Jemen --Pl~idoyer f'tir eine alte Stadt , TRIALOG 8 (1985/86), pp. 6-13.16. M inistry of Urb an Development, National Housing Policy (Go vern me nt of India, New D elhi, 1992), p. 3 (wh ichs ta tes among i ts ob jec t ives to p rom ote ve rnacu la r a rch i tec tu re and to p rese rve the na t ion ' s r ich he r i tage in thefield o f hum an settlements ).17 . For the case o f Old D e lh i re fe r to Dew an Verma (1995) see no te 4 . In the case o f the ka tras o f Old De lh i, desp i tedetailed p reparation o f an integrated rehab ilita tion project, this has been called off. Fo r reference see IndianHuman Se t t lements Programme, Renew al o f Historic Housing Stock in Old Delhi: Action-Oriented ResearchProject for the Renewal o fKatra s ( IHSP -- Hum an Se t t lement Managem ent Inst itu te , New Delhi , 1988).18 . J .E . Hardoy and M. Gutm an , The Role o f Munic ipa l Gov ernm ent in the Protect ion o f His to r ic C en tres in La t inAm erican Ci t ie s , Environment and Urbanization 3, 1 (1991), pp. 96-108 .19 . UNC HS (1986) , see no te 4 ; EK. Muttag i, Bom bay: Redeve lopm ent o f Old and Dilap idated Areas and S .EA.Sund aram , Bo mb ay Island: Rehab ilita tion of Housing , bot h in Ravindra Prasad (ed.), (1989), see note 6, pp.125-141 and pp. 142-150.20. S.S. Shaft, Shajab anabad : the Walled City of De lhi and M.N. Buch, Shajaba nabad: a Strategy for Urb anRenewal , both in D. Ravind ra Prasad (ed.) (1989), see note 6, pp. 163-17 4 and pp. 175-180; S.K. Saba, Conserva-tion Based Development of Shahjahanabad: the Historic Capital City of lndia, UNC RD Research Report Se riesNo. 9 (Uni ted Na t ions Centre fo r Reg iona l Deve lopm ent , Nagoya , 1995); and E .EN. Ribeiro Urban Conserva-tion and Reh abilita tion in India: Tasks Ahead , in K. Sin gh and E Steinberg (eds.), Urban India in Crisis (N e wAg e International, New Delhi, 1995), pp. 409 -419 .21 . Zhu Xij in , An Opportun ity fo r the Renewal o f the Old Ci ty: Land Leases in the Renewal o f Shangha i ' s OldReside ntial Districts , in M. Le af (ed.), Inner C ity Neighbourhoo d Dev elopment, P roceedings of an InternationalWorkshop, Beij ing , November 24 -27 1992 (Centre fo r Hum an Se t t lements , The U nivers i ty o f Bri t ish Columbia,Vancouver, 1993) , pp . 66-75 and D. McCal lum, Renew al o f Older Hous ing A reas in Shangha i : some Recen tSmall-Scale Projects , China Oty Planning Review (Beijing, 1993), pp. 13-20.22 . E .C. Micand , Urban iza t ion , Urban ism and M edina o f Tunis , International Journal o f Middle Eastern Studies 9(1978), pp. 431--447.23. J . Pieper, Thr ee Cities of Nepa l , in P. Oliv er (ed.), Shelter, Sign and Symbol (Barrie & Jenkins, London, 1975),pp. 52- 69; R.O.A. Becker-Ritterspach, The Restor ation of Bha ktapur , Unasylva 30, 121 (1978), pp. 2-10; andA. Haland, Bhaktapur -- A Tow n Changing (Bh aktapu r Dev elopm ent Project, Bhaktapur, 1982).24. L. Kong and B.S.A. Yeoh, Ur ban Con servation in Singapore: a Survey of State Policies and Popular Attitude s ,Urban Studies 31, 2 (1994), pp. 247 -26 5; Tan Teck Kiam, State of the Art in Conservation: Singa pore 's Experi-ence , paper p resen ted a t the Dia logue on Arch i tec tu ra l Heritage among N GO 's o f ASEAN Countr ies , Indones ianNation al Heritage Trust and the Japan Foundation, Jakarta , 13-16 M arch (1991); Ur ban Re-D evelop men t Auth or-i ty , Implem ent ing the Conserva t ion Mas te r P lan o f S ingapore , in Annual Report 1987-88 (URA, Singapore,1987) and various leaflets of the U rban Re -Dev elopm ent Au thority on its area conservation schemes.25 . In Bom bay the re a re Save Bom bay and Bom bay F irs t . See a lso A People ' s Mo vement , Architecture +Design 6, 1 (1989), pp. 109-111.26. In Delhi there are the Delhi Co nserva tion Society and the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage atthe na t iona l leve l . Refe r a lso to A People ' s Mo vem ent (1989) , see no te 25 ; and M. S ingh, The INTACHHeritage , Architecture + Design 11, 3 (1994), p. 15.

8/13/2019 Steinberg 96[1]

13/13

Conservation and Reha bilitation of Urban Heritage in Developing Countries 75

27 . S i nga po r e ha s t he S i nga por e H e r it a ge Soc ie t y .28 . I n Pe na ng t he r e i s a Pe na ng H e r i t a ge T r ust . Se e a ls o K hoo S i N i n , Streets of George Town -- Penang, anIllustrated Guide to Pena ng's City Streets Historic Attractio ns ( Janus Pr int & Resources , Penang, 1993) .29 . I n Tun i s t he r e is the A s s oc i a t i on f o r t he Sa f e gua r d i ng o f t he M e d i na .30 . I nd i a n N a t i ona l T r us t f o r A r t a nd Cu l t u ra l H e r i t a ge ( I N TA CH ) .31. Indo nes ian Na t iona l He r i t ag e Trus t .32 . I N TA C H , N e w D e l h i ha s f o r m u l a t e d i n 1993 a P l a n o f A c t i on Re ga r d i ng t he P re s e r va t ion a nd P r e s e n t a t ion o fCu l t u r a l H e r i ta ge a nd Tour i s m . Se e a l s o H . B ur ge s s , Tour i s m a nd t he P r e s e r va t i on o f H i s to r i c C it i es : a Ca s eS t udy o f O l d J e dda h , Sa ud i A r a b i a , i n Ara b Urban Deve lopm ent Institute , Preservation of Is lamic ArchitecturalHer i tage ( A U D I , R i ya dh , 1988) , pp . 123 - 135 .33. M. Gre tchen ( ed. ) , Pa stel Portraits: Singapore's Architectural He ritag e ( S i nga por e Co- o r d i na t i ng Com m i t t e e ,Singapore , 1984) .34 . S . Bur t on , H i s t o r y w i t h a Bo t t om L i ne , Time (12 July 1993) , pp. 40- -41 and D. Kam meie r , No te s on UrbanCons e r va t i on in Sou t he a s t A s i a , TRIALOG No. 8 (1985/86) , pp. 34-37 .35 . R . D . E Br om l e y and G . A . Jone s , Cons e r va t i on i n Q u i t o : Po l ic i e s a nd P r og r e s s i n t he H i st o r ic Ce n t r e , ThirdWor ld Planning Rev iew 17, 1 (1995) , pp . 41 - .60.36. A. I . P inhe i ro and V. De l Rio , Cul tura l Cor r idor : a Pre se rva t ion Dis t r i c t i n Do wn tow n Rio de Jane i ro , Braz i l ,Tradi tiona l Dwel l ings and Se t t lements Rev iew 4, 11 (1993) , pp. 51 ~4 .37 . D e pa r t m e n t o f A r c ha e o l ogy , The Conservation of the Galle Fort and its Environs, Anci ent Ceylon No. 15 (Depa r t -m e n t o f A r c ha e o l ogy , Co l om bo , 1992) a nd V . D a ha na ya ke , I n t e g r a t ing a H e r i ta ge S i t e i n t o a M o de r n L i v i ngEnv i r onm e n t - - G a l l e Fo r t , pa pe r p r e s e n t e d a t Organisation of World Heritage Cities Conference, Be r ge n ,28-30 June (1995) .38. D. Mc Ca l lu m (1993) , s ee note 21.39. De wan Verma (1995) , s ee note 4 .40 . The A r a b Bur e a u fo r D e s i gn a nd Te c hn i c a l Cons u l t a t i ons /K . A bde l - Fa t t a h a nd A . I . A bde l ha l i m , The Re h a b i l it a -t i on a nd U pgr a d i ng o f H i s t o r i c Ca i r o , i n Aga Khan Award fo r Archi tec ture (1984) , se e no te 14.41. I l l us tr e M unic ip io de Qui to , Direcci6n d e Planificacidn, D iagnostico d el Centro Historico ( IMQ, Qui to , 1992) .42 . U n i t e d N a t i ons Educ a t i ona l , Sc i e n ti f ic a nd Cu l t u r a l O r ga n i s a ti on (1982) , s e e no t e 15 .4 3 . B . T y m a n a n d A . K 6 n ig , G e o r g e t o w n P e n a n g - - D e n k m a l p f le g e i m S p a n n u n g s f e ld v o n K o m m u n a l p o l i ti k u n dW ohnungs w i r t s c ha f t , TRIALOG 35 (1992) , pp. 18-20.44 . R . M e hr o t r a , The Fo r t A r e a , Bom ba y , Ind ian Arch i tec t Bu i lder 7, 4 (1993) , pp. 8-15.45. N. Lichf i e ld , Economics in Urban Conservation ( Ca m b r i dge U n i ve r s i ty P r e s s , Ca m b r i dge , 1989) .46. N. Sm i th and P. W i l l i ams , Gentrification of the C ity ( A l l e n & U nw i n , Bos t on , M A , 1986) .