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Physiological Changes In Pregnancy

oPatientPlus articles are written by UK doctors and are based on research evidence, UK and EuropeanGuidelines. They are designed for health professionals to use, so you may find the language more technicalthan the condition leaflets.

Pregnancy is associated with normal physiological changes that assist fetal survival as well as preparationfor labour. It is important to know what 'normal' parameters of change are in order to diagnose and managecommon medical problems of pregnancy, such as hypertension, gestational diabetes, anaemiaandhyperthyroidism.

See separate articles on Antenatal Careand Minor Symptoms of Pregnancy.

Endocrine system (non-reproductive)See also the separate article on Gestational Diabetes.

Pituitary

FSH/LH fall to low levels.ACTH and melanocyte-stimulating hormone increase.Prolactin increases.

Thyroid and parathyroid[1]

Thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) concentrations rise due to increased oestrogen levels.T4 and T3 increase over the first half of pregnancy but there is a normal to slightly decreased amount offree hormone due to increased TBG-binding.TSH production is stimulated, although in healthy individuals this is not usually significant. A large rise inTSH is likely to indicate iodine deficiency or subclinical hypothyroidism.Serum calcium levels decrease in pregnancy, which stimulates an increase in parathyroid hormone (PTH).Colecalciferol (vitamin D3) is converted to its active metabolite, 1,25-dihydroxycolecalciferol, by placental1-hydroxylase.

Adrenal and pancreas[2]

Cortisollevels increase in pregnancy, which favours lipogenesis and fat storage.Insulin response also increases so blood sugar should remain normal or low.

Peripheral insulin resistance may also develop over the course of pregnancy and gestational diabetes isthought to reflect a pronounced insulin resistance of this sort.

Cardiovascular system[3]

Progesterone reduces systemic vascular resistance by about 20% early in pregnancy. Postural hypotensionmay result.Diastolic and systolic blood pressure tend to fall during mid pregnancy and then return to normal by week36.Venous return in the inferior vena cava can be compromised in late pregnancy if a woman lies flat on herback. This is relieved by lying in the left lateral position.

Increased circulating angiotensin II encourages water and sodium retention, leading to an increased plasmavolume (to 50% by 30 weeks) and predisposing to oedema. This enables increased uterine blood flow tomeet growing nutritional and oxygenation needs of the fetus. It also enables blood loss (average 500 ml) atdelivery to be met without physiological decompensation.Advise women not to take up unaccustomed, vigorous exercise in pregnancy as there is a risk of diversionof uterine blood flow to the skeletal muscles.
http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/gestational-diabeteshttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/antenatal-carehttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/common-problems-of-pregnancyhttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/hyperthyroidism-in-pregnancyhttp://www.patient.co.uk/healthhttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/hypotensionhttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/gestational-diabeteshttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/common-problems-of-pregnancyhttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/antenatal-carehttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/hyperthyroidism-in-pregnancyhttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/anaemia-in-pregnancyhttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/gestational-diabeteshttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/hypertension-in-pregnancyhttp://www.patient.co.uk/health


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Blood flow to kidneys, skin and mucosa increases.Cardiac output increases by 30-50% with 15% increase in heart rate and 25-30% increased stroke volume.Much of this adjustment occurs prior to 12 weeks of gestation and so impaired cardiac function is likely topresent problematically in early pregnancy or with the sudden increase in pre-load in the third stage oflabour.

Cardiac examination in pregnancy:

Many women have a third heart sound after mid-pregnancy.Diastolic murmurs should be considered potentially pathological.

Systolic flow murmurs are common.ECG - left axis deviation is common, sagging ST segments and inversion or flattening of the T wave in leadIII may also occur.

Respiratory system[4]

Tidal volume increases by about 200 ml, increasing vital capacity and decreasing residual volume. In laterstages of pregnancy, splinting of the diaphragm may occur with some decrease in tidal volume. Respiratoryrate does not alter significantly.Increased oxygen consumption by approximately 20%.State of compensated respiratory alkalosis - arterial pCO2 drops, arterial pO2 remains unchanged anddecrease in bicarbonate prevents pH change. Lower maternal pCO

2facilitates oxygen/carbon-dioxide

transfer to/from the fetus.Many women complain of feeling short of breath in pregnancy without explanatory pathology. Themechanism of this is not fully understood

Alimentary system

Appetite is usually increased, sometimes with specific cravings.Progesterone causes relaxation of the lower oesophageal sphincter and increased reflux, making manywomen prone to heartburn.Gastrointestinal motility is reduced and transit time is consequently longer. This allows increased nutrientabsorption. Constipation is common.

The gallbladder may dilate and empty less completely. Pregnancy also predisposes to the precipitation ofcholesterol gallstones.Gums become spongy, friable and prone to bleeding. Good dental care is important.

Urinary tract[5]

The increased blood volume and cardiac output during pregnancy cause a 50-60% increase in renal bloodflow and glomerular filtration rate (GFR). This causes an increased excretion and reduced blood levels ofurea, creatinine, urate and bicarbonate.Mild glycosuria and/or proteinuria may occur because the increase in GFR may exceed the ability of therenal tubules to reabsorb glucose and protein.Increased water retention causes a reduction of plasma osmolality.

The smooth muscle of the renal pelvis and ureter become relaxed and dilated, kidneys increase in lengthand ureters become longer, more curved and with an increase in residual urine volume.Bladder smooth muscle also relaxes, increasing capacity and risk of UTI.Approximately 5% of pregnant women have bacteriuria, often asymptomatic, and there is a greater risk ofdeveloping pyelonephritisin pregnancy.

Haematological

Dilutional anaemia is caused by the rise in plasma volume. Elevated erythropoietin levels increase the totalred cell mass by the end of the second trimester but haemoglobin concentrations never reach pre-pregnancy levels.

A modest leukocytosis is observed.A normal pregnancy creates a demand for about 1000 mg of additional iron. This equates to 60 mgelemental iron or 300 mg ferrous sulfate per day.Serum iron falls during pregnancy whilst transferrin and total iron binding capacity rise.Levels of some clotting factors (VII, VIII, IX and X) and fibrinogen increase whilst fibrinolytic activitydecreases. These changes protect from haemorrhage at delivery but also make pregnancy a
http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/pyelonephritishttp://www.patient.co.uk/search.asp?searchterm=URINARY+TRACT+INFECTION++UTI+&collections=PPsearch


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hypercoagulable state with increased risk of thromboembolism. See also the separate article on VenousThromboembolism in Pregnancy.One study found that during early pregnancy: antithrombin activity remained unchanged, protein S activitydecreased significantly and there was a potentially biologically significant increase in protein C activity (seethe separate article on Thrombophilia).[6]

Serum alkaline phosphatase increases during pregnancy - due to placental production.Serum albumin decreases.

MetabolicChanges in energy requirements in pregnancy remain controversial - healthy levels of fat deposition andvariation in women's physical activ ity levels cause uncertainty as to the recommendations that should bemade for this time.[7]

The basal metabolic rate increases slowly over the course of pregnancy, by 15-20%.In women with normal BMIs, energy requirement does not increase significantly during the first trimester,increases by about 350 kcal/day in the second trimester and 500 kcal/day in the third.[7]

Active energy expenditure tends to fall over pregnancy.Normal weight gain is approximately 12.5 kg (usually at a rate of 0.5 kg per week for the final 20 weeks). 5kg is the fetus, placenta, membranes and amniotic fluid and the rest is maternal stores of fat and proteinand increased intra- and extra-vascular volume.

Skin

Hyperpigmentation of the umbilicus, nipples, abdominal midline (linea nigra) and face (chloasma) arecommon due to the hormonal changes of pregnancy.Hyperdynamic circulation and high levels of oestrogen may cause spider naeviand palmar erythema.Striae gravidarum ('stretch marks') are common.

Musculoskeletal

Increased ligamental laxity caused by increased levels of relaxin contribute to back pain and pubicsymphysis dysfunction.

Shift in posture with exaggerated lumbar lordosis leading to the typical gait of late pregnancy. [8]

Interpreting blood test results in pregnancy[9]

Trend in normal

pregnancy (compared to

non-pregnant state)

Pregnancy

normal

values

(ALWAYS

USE LOCAL

REFERENCE

RANGES)

Abnormalities and possible

interpretations

Haemoglobin Decreased 10.5-13.5 g/dL Consider dilutional anaemia of pregnancy.

White cell

count

Increased 8-18 x109/L Always consider in the light of the patient's

clinical status.

Platelets Unchanged/slightly

increased

200-600

x109/L

Always consider in the light of the patient's

clinical status.

Sodium Slightly decreased 132-140

mmol/L


clinical status.

Potassium Slightly decreased 3.2-4.6

mmol/L


clinical status.

Urea Decreased 1.0-3.8 Increased in deh dration h eremesis
http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/palmar-erythemahttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/spider-naevushttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/thrombophilia-prohttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/venous-thromboembolism-in-pregnancy


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. .

mmol/L

, ,

late stages of pre-eclampsiaand renal

impairment.

Creatinine Decreased 40 - 80 mol/L Increased in renal impairment and the late

stages of pre-eclampsia.

Fasting

glucose

Unchanged 3.0-5.0

mmol/L

Increased in gestational diabetes.

Total calcium Decreased 2.0-2.4 mmol/l Increased in primary hyperparathyroidism.

Magnesium Unchanged 0.6-0.8

mmol/L

Decreased if there is vomiting or

hyperemesis gravidarum.

Albumin Decreased 24-31 g/L Decreased further if there is malnutrition,

recurrent vomiting or hyperemesis

gravidarum.

Bilirubin Decreased 3-14 mol/L Increased in obstetric cholestasis, HELLP,

the late stages of pre-eclampsia, acute

fatty liver, viral hepatitis. See the separate

article on Jaundice in Pregnancy.

ALT Unchanged/slightly

decreased

1-30 U/L As for bilirubin.

AST Unchanged/slightly

decreased

1-21 U/L As for bilirubin.

ALP Increased 125-250 U/L Increased further in metabolic bone

disorders or rare pregnancy-associated

conditions - eg, chronic histiocyticintervillositis.

TSH

Slight decrease in the first

trimester, normal in the

second trimester, slightly

raised in the last trimester

0.1-4.0 IU/L Less than 0.05 in Graves' disease or


fT4 Unchanged 10-25 pmol/L Increased in Graves' disease or


fT3 Unchanged 3.5-6 pmol/L Increased in Graves' disease or hyperemesis gravidarum.

Provide Feedback

Further reading & references

Jamjute P, Ahmad A, Ghosh T, et al; Liver function test and pregnancy. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009Mar;22(3):274-83.

1. Lazarus JH, Premawardhana LD; Screening for thyroid disease in pregnancy; J Clin Pathol. 2005

May;58(5):449-52.2. Butte NF; Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in pregnancy: normal compared with gestational diabetes

mellitus.; Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 May;71(5 Suppl):1256S-61S.3. Thornburg KL, Jacobson SL, Giraud GD, et al; Hemodynamic changes in pregnancy.; Semin Perinatol.

2000 Feb;24(1):11-4.4. Chesnutt AN; Physiology of normal pregnancy.; Crit Care Clin. 2004 Oct;20(4):609-15.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15388191http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10709851http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10799399http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15858112http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=19330714http://www.patient.co.uk/feedback.asp?ref=%2fdoctor%2fphysiological-changes-in-pregnancyhttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/Jaundice-in-Pregnancy.htmhttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/viral-hepatitis-particularly-d-and-ehttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/steatohepatitis-and-steatosis-fatty-liverhttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/hellp-syndromehttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/obstetric-cholestasishttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/nausea-and-vomiting-in-pregnancy-including-hyperemesis-gravidarumhttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/hyperparathyroidism-prohttp://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/pre-eclampsia-and-eclampsia


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5. Physiological changes of pregnancy; Anaesthesia UK6. Said JM, Ignjatovic V, Monagle PT, et al; Altered reference ranges for protein C and protein S during early

pregnancy: Implications for the diagnosis of protein C and protein S deficiency during pregnancy. ThrombHaemost. 2010 May;103(5):984-8. doi: 10.1160/TH09-07-0476. Epub 2010 Feb 19.

7. Butte NF, Wong WW, Treuth MS, et al; Energy requirements during pregnancy based on total energyexpenditure and energy deposition. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Jun;79(6):1078-87.

8. Foti T, Davids JR, Bagley A; A biomechanical analysis of gait during pregnancy. J Bone Joint Surg Am.2000 May;82(5):625-32.

9. Tran H; Biochemical tests in Pregnancy, Australian Prescriber 2005;28:98-101

Disclaimer:This article is for information only and should not be used for the diagnosis or treatment ofmedical conditions. EMIS has used all reasonable care in compiling the information but make no warrantyas to its accuracy. Consult a doctor or other health care professional for diagnosis and treatment of medicalconditions. For details see our conditions.

Original Author:

Dr Chloe Borton

Current Version:

Dr Colin Tidy

Peer Reviewer:

Dr John Cox

Document ID:

740 (v26)

Last Checked:

25/01/2013

Next Review:

24/01/2018
http://www.patient.co.uk/authors/dr-colin-tidyhttp://www.patient.co.uk/disclaimer.asphttp://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/28/4/98/101/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10819273http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15159239http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=20174758http://www.frca.co.uk/article.aspx?articleid=100601

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