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Exploring learning transfer inL2 writing education

Mark Andrew James

Arizona State University

Mark.A.James@asu.eduhttp://www.public.asu.edu/~mjames6/index.html

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What is learning transfer?

Learning transfer occurs when learning in onecontext or with one set of materials impacts onperformance in another context or with anotherset of materials (Perkins & Salomon, 1994,

p.6452). For example ...

... knowing how to ride a bicycle learning how to ridea motorcycle;

... learning math in school

shopping outside school.

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... a topic of widespread interest

Psychology: Learning transfer has been actively studied

for over a century in psychology (Haskell, 2001).

Education: When students cannot perform tasks onlyslightly different from those learned in class, or when they

fail to appropriately apply their classroom learning insettings outside of school, then education is deemed tohave failed (Marini & Genereux, 1995, p.1).

Human resources development (HRD): U.S. corporationsspent $58.5 billion on workplace training in 2007(Training, 2007), with the obvious expectation that theresults of this training would transfer to the workplace.

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How far learning transfers is important todiscussions of writing and L2 writing pedagogy

Far transfer ...-- Cognitive perspectives onwriting (e.g., Flower & Hayes,1981);-- Process-oriented approaches to

writing instruction (Zamel, 1976);-- General writing skills instruction(GWSI) (Petraglia, 1995);-- English-for-general-academic-purposes (EGAP) instruction

(Jordan, 1997);-- Language-for-specific-purposeseducation (Widdowson, 1984).

Near transfer ...-- Sociocultural perspectives onwriting (e.g., Russell, 1995);-- Genre-oriented approaches towriting instruction (e.g., Swales,

1990);-- Writing-in-the-disciplines (WID)programs (Bazerman et al., 2005);-- English-for-specific-academic-purposes (ESAP) instruction

(Jordan, 1997);-- Language-for-specific-purposestraining (Widdowson, 1984).

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There is a need to understand howlearning transfers in L2 writing education

Positive findings of transfer, near and far, suggest that

whether transfer occurs is too bald a question. It can, butoften does not. One needs to ask under what conditions

transfer appears (Perkins & Salomon, 1994, p.6455)(emphasis mine).

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There is a need to understand howlearning transfers in L2 writing education

The most important question about the validity of genre-based instructional approaches is "whether, to whatextent, and under what conditions skills acquired withinone genre are transferable to another" (Swales, 1990,

p.233) (emphasis mine); this is "a highly significantinvestigative issue" (p.234).

[I]t is assumed that students will transfer skills from the

[EAP class] to the content class examination, and thenultimately to their other content classes. But we do notknow what conditions must exist for this positive transferto take place. (Snow, 1993, p.45) (emphasis mine).

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What do we know about learningtransfer in L2 writing education?

Learning transfer can occur, but it is not inevitable(e.g., Leki & Carson, 1994; Leki, 1995; James,2006).

There is no guarantee that skills and strategieslearned in an ESL program actually will be applied innew situations (Spack, 1997, p.50);

[T]ransfer from one domain to another is, at the very

least, difficult for learners (Tardy, 2006, p.92).

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Learning task

Learning context

Elements of learning transfer situations(from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

Transfer task

Transfer context

Learner

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Learning task

Learning context

Elements of learning transfer situations(from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

Transfer task

Transfer context

Learner

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Learning task

Learning context

Elements of learning transfer situations(from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

Transfer task

Transfer context

Learner

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Transfer context/task

In studies of ESL students' interactions withinstructors and classmates, ESL students havedescribed: a wall between themselves and native English-speaking (NES)

classmates due to different background knowledge and values(Harklau, 1994);

NES classmates lack of interest in ideas put forth by ESL

students during collaborative group work (Cheng & Fox, 2008;Leki, 2001);

relatively little effort by NES classmates to complete assignments(Leki, 2003);

instructors desire to deceive students, refusal to provide

information to students, or lack of understanding of students

questions (Leki, 2006).

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Transfer context/task

Transfer climate is the support for learningtransfer that an individual perceives in the targetcontext of instruction (Burke & Baldwin, 1999).

... for example, in EAP writing instruction, transfer

climate involves students perceptions of support forlearning transfer from instructors and classmates, andperceptions of outcomes (e.g., grades, work efficiency)of learning transfer.

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Transfer context/task

Researcher: How do you think your professors [in mainstreamcourses] feel about freshman writing courses?

Participant: Some I would say, my math teacher, she doesn't feeltoo good about it, kind of negative, being in math and all.

Researcher: How do you know that?Participant: I remember when she said, the writing, she said,

this is the only writing, I'm sorry, this is the only writing you will

ever have to do in math. I was never good in writing. She

was explaining the course. She said, in this part of the course,

you'll have to do a little bit of writing, and I'm sorry for that.(Participant 23)

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Learning task

Learning context

Elements of learning transfer situations(from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

Transfer task

Transfer context

Learner

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Learner

[S]ignificant and general transfer is primarily theconsequence of personality and other dispositionalcharacteristics such as attitude, motivation, and feeling(Haskell, 2001, p.116) (emphasis mine).

L2 education researchers have suggested that learningtransfer is influenced by motivation-related factors likestudent effort (Leki & Carson, 1994), value students place

on skills (Hansen, 2000), and students socio-culturalattitudes (Waters, 1996).

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Learner

Transfermotivation

=

Desire to transfer

Favorable attitudetoward transfer

Effort to transfer

+

+

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Learner

Participant: I hate doing, I hated doing in [the EAP writingcourse], doing the visual arguments [assignment]. I hated it. Itwas bad. It was complicated. Way complicated. And of courseif I'm going to apply visual argument in another class, I'm goingto feel stressed. I'm going to feel tension, I'm under pressure.

I didn't like it the first time, why should I do it again. I'm doing itagain, am I doing it right? Should I do it in another way? Whatshould I do?

(Participant 25)

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Learning task

Learning context

Elements of learning transfer situations(from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

Transfer task

Transfer context

Learner

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Learning context/task

Learning transfer can be enhanced by: the integration of academic tasks in an EAP writing

course (Braine, 1988; Carson, 2000; Meyer, 1996);

the provision of a range of conceptual activities in an EAP

writing course (Currie, 1993); having students use disciplinary portfolios (Hirvela, 1997);

training students in ethnographic methods (Johns, 1988;1990);

having students compare and contrast a variety of texts infamilar and unfamiliar genres (Johns, 1997; 1999);

having students reflect on strategies they use to completewriting tasks (Johns, 1997; 1999).

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Learning context/task

Teaching-for-transfer techniques (Perkins &Salomon, 1988):

Hugging = designing learning tasks/context to appearsimilar to target tasks and contexts

Bridging = designing learning tasks/context tostimulate abstract thinking

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Future directions?

How can we most effectively identify learning transfer?

Where should we look? (all writing vs. some writing)

When should we look? (immediately vs. delayed)

How should we look? (low-road vs. high-road)

How do various learning outcomes in L2 writing educationcompare/contrast in terms of learning transfer? (e.g., nearvs. far; low-road vs. high-road)

How do elements of transfer situations interact with actuallearning transfer? (e.g., transfer climate; transfermotivation; teaching-for-transfer techniques)

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References (2 of 5)

Haskell, R.E. (2001). Transfer of learning: Cognit io n, instru ct ion, and reason ing. San Diego, CA: Academic

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Hirvela, A. (1997). Disciplinary portfolios and EAP writing instruction. English fo r Specif ic Purposes, 16, 83-

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James, M.A. (2006). Transfer of learning from a university content-based EAP course. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 783-

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James, M.A. (2007). Interlanguage variation and transfer of learning. In ternat ional Review of Appl ied L inguist ics,

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Johns, A.M. (1993). Reading and writing tasks in English for academic purposes classes: Products, processes,

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Johns, A.M. (1997). Text, role, and context: Developing academic li teracies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

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Johns, A.M. (1999). Opening our doors: Applying socioliterate approaches (SA) to language minority

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References (3 of 5)

Jordan, R.R. (1997). Engl ish for academic purposes: A g uide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK:

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Leki, I. (1995). Coping strategies of ESL students in writing tasks across the curriculum. TESOL Quarterly, 29,

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Leki, I. (2001). A narrow thinking system: Nonnative-English-speaking students in group projects across the

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Leki, I. (2003). Living through college literacy: Nursing in a second language. Writ ten Commu nicat ion, 20, 81-98.

Leki, I. (2006). Negotiating socioacademic relations: English learners reception by and reaction to collegefaculty. Journal of Engl ish for Academic Purposes, 5, 136-152.

Leki, I., & Carson, J.G. (1994). Students perceptions of EAP writing instruction and writing needs across the

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Leki, I., & Carson, J.G. (1997). Completely different worlds: EAP and the writing experiences of ESL students in

university courses. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 39-69.

Marini, A, & Genereux, R. (1995). The challenge of teaching for transfer. In A. McKeough, J. Lupart, & A. Marini

(Eds.), Teaching for transfer: Fostering generalizat ion in learning(pp. 1-20). Mahwah, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Meyer, L., (1996). The contribution of genre theory to theme-based EAP: Navigating foreign fiords. TESL

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Perkins, D.N., & Salomon, G. (1988). Teaching for transfer. Education al Leadership, 46, 22-32.

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References (4 of 5)

Perkins, D.N., & Salomon, G. (1994). Transfer of learning. In T. Husen & T.N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), Th e

international encyclop edia of education(second edition), (vol. 11, pp.6452-6457). Oxford, UK: Pergamon.

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Reconceiv ing wr i t ing, reth inking w r i t ing instruct ion(pp.xi-xvii). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Russell, D. (1995). Activity theory and its implications for writing instruction. In J. Petraglia (Ed.), Reconceiv ing

wr i t ing, reth inking w r i t ing instruct ion(pp.51-77). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Snow, M.A. (1993). Discipline-based foreign language teaching: Implications from ESL/EFL. In M. Krueger & F.

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55). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath & Co.Spack, R. (1997). The acquisition of academic literacy in a second language: A longitudinal case study. Written

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Swales, J.M. (1990). Genre analysis : English in academ ic and research sett ings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

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Widdowson, H.G. (1984). Explorat ions in appl ied l inguist ics 2. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Zamel, V. (1976). Teaching composition in the ESL classroom: What we can learn from research in the teaching

of English. TESOL Quarterly, 10, 67-76.