Speech production reSource - Kainos Print · Deaf Children was a series of documents prepared by...

Speech

production

reSource

Speech

production

reSourcephonetic to phonologic

Achievement

Second edition

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contentSpreFAce ..................................................................................................................... vii

introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

The Work of Daniel Ling ................................................................................................. 1Stage 1: Spontaneous Vocalisation ........................................................................ 2Stage 2: The Bases of Suprasegmental Patterns ..................................................... 3Stage 3: Vowels and Diphthongs ............................................................................ 3Stage 4: Consonants by Manner ............................................................................ 4Stage 5: Consonants by Place ............................................................................... 5Stage 6: Consonants by Manner, Place and Voicing ................................................. 5Stage 7: Consonant Blends ................................................................................... 5

Overview of this Resource ............................................................................................. 6

Section A ................................................................................................................. 13

Assessment ................................................................................................................. 14Auditory (Speech Perception) Evaluation ............................................................... 14Oral-Peripheral Examination ................................................................................. 14Phonetic Level Evaluation .................................................................................... 15Evaluation at the Word Level ................................................................................ 17Evaluation at the Phonologic Level ....................................................................... 17

Developing Speech Production through Listening ....................................................... 19Whispering ......................................................................................................... 19Appropriate Voice Levels ...................................................................................... 20

Selecting Goals for Specific Learning ...................................................................20Teaching Strategies for Specific Speech Teaching .................................................22Strategies to Promote Generalisation ......................................................................... 25

Puzzles and Written Activities ............................................................................... 25Games ............................................................................................................... 26Conversation ...................................................................................................... 29

Section B ................................................................................................................. 31

Vowels and diphthongs ........................................................................................... 33

Word Lists .................................................................................................................... 35Front Vowels ....................................................................................................... 35Mid Vowels ......................................................................................................... 39Back Vowels ....................................................................................................... 44Diphthongs ......................................................................................................... 47

consonants ............................................................................................................... 56

Consonants – Step 1 ................................................................................................... 57p/b – Bilabial plosive .......................................................................................... 57p/b – Bilabial stop .............................................................................................. 76m – Bilabial nasal (voiced) ................................................................................... 88w – Bilabial semi-vowel (voiced) .......................................................................... 105h – Glottal fricative (unvoiced) ............................................................................ 116f/v – Labiodental fricative .................................................................................. 128th/th – Fricative ................................................................................................ 153

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Consonants – Step 2 ................................................................................................. 171t/d – Alveolar plosive ........................................................................................ 171t/d – Alveolar stops (unploded) .......................................................................... 190n – Alveolar nasal (voiced) ................................................................................. 207y – Palatal semi-vowel (voiced) ........................................................................... 226l – Alveolar lateral or liquid (voiced) .................................................................... 234sh/zh – Palatal fricative ..................................................................................... 254s/z – Alveolar fricative ....................................................................................... 272

Consonants – Step 3 ................................................................................................. 303k/g – Velar plosive ............................................................................................ 303k /g – Velar stop ............................................................................................... 321ng – Velar nasal ................................................................................................ 336r – Palatal liquid ................................................................................................ 345ch/j – Palatal affricate ....................................................................................... 361

Consonants Step 4 – Voicing Distinctions ................................................................ 388Phonetic level subskills ..................................................................................... 388

Blends ...................................................................................................................... 392

Initial Blends ................................................................................................................ 393Step 1. Two-organ sequential blends – sm, sp, sw ............................................... 393Step 2. Single-organ sequential blends – sk, sl, sn, st, thr ................................... 397Step 3. Two-organ co-formulated blends – bl, br, fl, fr, kw, pl, pr, tw ......................... 403Step 4. Single organ co-formulated blends – dr, gl, gr, kl, kr, shr, tr ........................ 414Step 5. Complex initial blends – skr, skw, spr, spl, str .......................................... 423

Final Blends ................................................................................................................. 428Step 6. Continuant–continuant blends –

fs, lm, ln, lz, mz, ns, nz, ngz, vz, ths, sl, sn ....................................................... 428Step 7. Continuant–stop final blends –

ft, ld, lp, lt, mp, nd, nt, ngk, sk, sp, st, vd, zd .................................................... 435Step 8. Stop–continuant final blends –

bl, bz, dl, dz, gl, gz, kl, ks, pl, ps, tl, dn, tn, ts ................................................... 441Step 9. Stop–stop final blends – kt, pt, gd, bd ..................................................... 448Step 10. Complex final blends –

fts, kts, nts, ndz, tnz, nst, spt, skt, blz, plz, tnd, mpl, ngkl, mblz ......................... 451

AppendiceS

A. The Production of Speech ..................................................................................... 457

B. Manner, Place and Voicing .................................................................................... 475

C. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and English Spelling .................................. 476

D. Summary of Oral-Peripheral Examination .............................................................. 477

E. Phonetic Level Speech Evaluation ........................................................................ 478

F. Phonologic Analysis: Consonants ......................................................................... 490

G. Phonologic Analysis: Vowels and Diphthongs ....................................................... 491

H. Hand Analogies ..................................................................................................... 492

I. Positional Guidance Cues ..................................................................................... 493

J. Determining Goals Following an Assessment using the 108 SWAT ................... 494

K. 108 Single Word Articulation Test (108 SWAT) and record forms ........................ 529

L. Phonologic Process Analysis to accompany the 108 SWAT ................................. 545

reFerenceS .......................................................................................................... 546

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preFAceGlendonald School for Deaf Children, Kew, during a relatively short period from 1951 to 1992 played a significant role in the history of deaf education in the state of Victoria with a broader influence throughout Australia, along with achieving international recognition for its many achievements. While commencing as an Education Centre for Deaf Children encompassing many services, including the Training Centre for Teachers of the Deaf, the full significance of the role Glendonald played in the development of other services is best understood within the context of deaf education and the general education challenges of the time. The school’s history is well documented in More than a school. Glendonald School for Deaf Children 1951–1991, Paul Duerdoth & Nicholas Viahogiannis (1992).

Significant among Glendonald’s achievements was the pursuit of excellence in the teaching of oral communication and its influence in the development of ideas and programs for the necessary curriculum and teacher skills for this task. This was achieved through consistent leadership, input from many consultants engaged by the school, and the inspiration of so many teachers associated with the school during its lifetime. Many of these teachers continued to influence deaf education after the school closure, even to the point of pursuing the completion of this document which is now a fine legacy to the work of Glendonald.

From its early days the work of the school and the philosophy of the Education Centre for Deaf Children were influenced by the work of Dr Daniel Ling and his passion that a natural spoken language was possible for deaf and hearing impaired students. He clearly articulated the foundations on which teachers could base meaningful and developmental spoken language programs.

The forerunner to this publication SPEECH PRODUCTION RESOURCE Glendonald School for Deaf Children was a series of documents prepared by teams of teachers within the school with input from consultants, and other professionals in the wider field of deaf education: The Glendonald Speech Statement The Glendonald Oral Language Statement The Glendonald Written Language Statement The Glendonald Auditory Training Statement The Glendonald Telephone Training Statement

Such successful collaboration was widely acknowledged with the documents forming the basis of the school’s oral teaching program and other programs across Australia in the 1980s. Such innovation also influenced the series of National Language Workshops organised by Dr Des Power from Mt Gravatt College of Advanced Education (now Griffith University) and Anne Hollingshead, a teacher at Glendonald, at the time.

These activities reflected the previous 30 years of oral teaching and communication at Glendonald, and also laid the foundation for the auditory oral approach of the 1980s and 1990s developed from the work of Dr Norman Erber while he was a consultant at the school in 1981 and 1982. Teacher response to his ideas further advanced the development of student listening and speaking skills and competence.

Throughout the development of Glendonald’s ideas and programs for achieving communication competence for deaf students, remained the underlying belief and understanding that specific teaching of particular communication aspects is an essential component. If speech is part of

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a child’s communication repertoire, then speech production needs to be clearly understood. To achieve speech intelligibility, students are dependent on good teaching which utilises quality resources. This document has the detail and organisational framework to qualify as an effective and efficient resource for remediating aspects of speech production.

The basis of this document was prepared by Jenny Dowell, who was employed by Glendonald School Council to collate information and material prior to the school closure in 1991. Jenny, as a skilled teacher of the deaf, brought to the task her clear innovative ideas, competent writing skills and expertise as a teacher of speech. Some 15 years later, in 2005, it was recognised that this remained a valuable resource. Consequently the process of completing the task began. This involved working from the single 15-year-old typewritten document, updating the content and preparing the completed material for publication.

In addition, acknowledgement is given to these teachers who contributed along the way to deaf students through so much dedication and innovative curriculum development in the area of oral communication teaching at Glendonald: Carole Bennett, Anne Hollingshead, Tess Hodgens, Jenny Reid (Davis), Susan Wright.

We also owe a great deal of gratitude to Dr Louise Paatsch for her willingness to share her expertise in speech production and language development, and reflections from her research projects in these areas. We value and appreciate her willingness for us to use material from ‘The Production of Speech’ chapter of her Doctor of Philosophy thesis.

Finally it has only been with grants from the Deafness Foundation (Victoria) that we have been able to bring this project to completion and we sincerely and gratefully acknowledge this support. In addition we were fortunate to engage Libby and Katharine Shade from CCE Design who so patiently and skillfully reproduced this new document from the original 1990–91 document along with all our alterations and additions. The original document had been diligently typed by Lyndall Mulready, administration officer at Glendonald at the time of the school closure.

With pride and relief we present the updated and completed document.

Preface to Second EditionFollowing a number of professional learning sessions, teacher feedback indicated that more detail would assist in determining goals in speech production. Appendix J uses case studies to illustrate how such decisions might be made.

Teachers also indicated a need for updated pictures to accompany the 108 Single Word Articulation Test (Paatsch, 2007). We thank Dr Louise Paatsch for her permission to allow us to update both the pictures and the record forms. These can be found in Appendix K. Appendix L contains a Phonologic Process Analysis record form using information from student performance on the 108 SWAT. This provides the teacher with some tools for greater analysis of student performance to aid goal setting. We have also made minor corrections and added further information under auditory strategies for eliciting target sounds.

We have been grateful for the positive feedback received and we trust the additional information provided in this edition will continue to develop understanding of, and practices in, teaching speech production.

Marie FramGwen rosengren

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introductionSince 1980 when Glendonald School for Deaf Children published Teaching Speech to Deaf Children, possibly the greatest changes in the teaching of children with hearing loss have been in the use of audition as a means to developing spoken language, and the significant improvements in hearing technology including digital hearing aids, FM systems, cochlear implants and bone anchored hearing aids. Children with hearing loss now have greater access to spoken language and to programs which have allowed the development of age appropriate, or close to age appropriate, spoken language by school age. Many children with hearing loss, however, require intervention in the development of speech production and listening skills.

The work of Daniel Ling (1976, 1989) was selected by Glendonald as the foundation upon which its speech teaching practices and procedures could be based. The program was implemented throughout the school by teachers, with the support of speech specialists. It was complemented by the work of Norman Erber in 1981 and 1982 which was the impetus for the development of a school program in the area of auditory learning and speech perception intervention. This encompassed auditory communication across the curriculum coupled with specific teaching where students were provided with practice in directed auditory tasks. The acoustic properties of speech sounds were integrated into auditory strategies used in teaching suprasegmentals, consonants, vowels and diphthongs for speech production.

the Work of daniel Ling

There are 7 major aspects of Ling’s system of the development of speech production in deaf and hearing impaired children: 1. The seven-stage model of speech development (progression and recursiveness in

acquisition at both phonetic and phonologic levels).2. Criterion-referenced evaluation (targeting the first six phonetic or phonologic items failed for

immediate attention).3. The selection of the most appropriate sense modality as the channel for input and feedback

of any pattern.4. The provision of a set (moving from the known to the unknown).5. Working towards automaticity by ensuring accuracy, speed, economy of effort, and flexibility

in the use of the targeted pattern.6. Ensuring generalisation of a targeted sound from one context to another.7. Ensuring that the speech learned with professional help is carried over into everyday

communication through spoken language (Ling, 1989; p. 224).

In Ling’s approach to speech development, evaluation and teaching, speech is divided into 2 levels:1. The phonetic level which is concerned with the student’s capacity to produce sound

patterns.2. The phonologic level which is concerned with the student’s systematic and meaningful use

of these sound patterns in a linguistic context. Working within a linguistic context that is meaningful to the student allows the teacher to integrate goals from other areas of spoken language.

This can be represented in the table on the next page (adapted from Ling, 1989, p. 225).

Speech Production Resource

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phonologic Level Stage phonetic level

Uses vocalisation as means of communication

1 Vocalises freely and on demand

Uses different voice patterns meaningfully

2 Bases of suprasegmental patterns

Uses different vowels to approximate words

3 All vowels and diphthongs with voice control

Some words said clearly with good voice patterns

4 Consonants by manner with all vowels

Some phrases said clearly with good voice patterns

5 Consonants by place with all vowels

Some sentences said clearly with good voice patterns

6 Consonants by voicing with all vowels

All speech intelligible and voice patterns natural

7 Initial and final blends/clusters

In each of these stages there is individual variation in the order of phoneme acquisition and the concurrent mastery of several distinct speech patterns. Each developmental stage provides the foundations for the acquisition of speech patterns at the next and subsequent stages. As an example, control over vocalisation and voice patterns (intensity, duration and pitch) are necessary for the later development of vowels and consonants.

Appendix A ‘The Production of Speech’ (Paatsch, 2010) is included to provide a complete explanation of the terms used in this document. She has outlined:• the production of speech• the classification and acoustic properties of phonemes (vowels and diphthongs and

consonants according to manner and place of articulation, and voicing)• the classification and acoustic properties of the suprasegmentals of speech• phoneme acquisition and phonologic development.We value and appreciate Louise’s permission to use this section from her book.

Stage 1: Spontaneous Vocalisation

If the results of the phonetic and phonologic evaluations show that a student does not vocalise freely and on request, it is necessary to commence teaching at this stage. Most school-aged children are beyond this basic level. The subskills and strategies for this early stage are clearly outlined in Ling (1976, 1989) and are not included in this publication.

At this stage the child is encouraged to use his voice as much as possible. The actual vowel or consonant he uses to communicate ideas or feelings is not the focus of intervention.

Vocalisation on Demand Using voice to attract attention and to fulfil needs is expected only when the child can vocalise freely.

Introduction

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Stage 2: the Bases of Suprasegmental patterns (Ling, 1976, p. 199)

There are three target behaviours required at this stage:1. Gross control over duration of voicing.2. Control over voice intensity. 3. Control over voice pitch.

Vocal Duration (Ling, 1976, p. 201)Subskills1. Sustain a vocalisation for at least three seconds.2. Imitate separate vocalisations differing in duration, each on one breath.3. Imitate up to four separate vocalisations differing in duration, all on one breath.

Vocal Intensity (Ling, 1976, p. 203)Subskills1. Brief, loud utterances.2. Brief, quiet utterances.3. A whisper.4. Loud, quiet, or whispered utterances of at least three seconds in duration.5. A series of several discrete, but breath-grouped, vocalisations varying in intensity.

Vocal Pitch (Ling, 1976, p. 206)Subskills1. Discrete vocalisations on separate breaths, approximating the highest and lowest points in

the desired vocal range.2. Vocalisations continuously varying in pitch between these 2 points (low-high, high-low).3. Discrete vocalisation, on separate breaths, approximating the high, low and mid points in

this range.4. Vocalisations continuously varying between the high, mid, and low points in the child’s pitch

range (high-mid, mid-high, low-mid, mid-low).5. Discrete vocalisations on one breath, approximating each of the 3 established points

(high-mid-low, low-mid-high, mid-low-high, and mid-high-low), independently varying in vocal intensity.

Stage 3: Vowels and diphthongs

At this stage the student must be able to produce all vowels and diphthongs with controlled duration, pitch, and intensity. At the most basic level, the student’s vowel and diphthong system should consist of ar (as in car), ee (as in sheep), aw (as in dawn), ie (as in pie) and ow (as in cow) released with a consonant such as ‘b’. This should be established before progressing to Stage 4. The back vowel sound ‘ow’ is included in this set rather than Ling’s recommended ‘oo’ sound because some students with little access to the high frequencies above 1600 Hz may find it difficult to discriminate ‘ee’ and ‘oo’. Some of the acoustic properties of these 2 sounds, when produced by Australian speakers are similar. Teachers should be aware that Australian vowels are quite different in acoustic properties and production from English and American vowels, and material published in either country needs to be adapted to Australian vowels. See Bernard (1970), Cox (1998), Cox (2006) and Harrington et al. (1996) for details.


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Subskills (Ling, 1976, p.230)1. Differential shaping of the vocal tract to produce the required formant structure.2. The ability to maintain each vocal tract configuration for at least 3 seconds.3. Rapid repetition of each vowel target.4. Rapid alteration of the articulators so that they can assume their target positions for each

vowel easily from whatever position they previously occupied.5. Independent control of the larynx (source) and the articulators (filter).

The order of teaching: • Step 1: ar (as in car), ee (as in sheep), oo (as in loop), ow (as in cow), ie (as in pie).• Step 2: aw (as in dawn), oy (as in toy), e (as in wet), oo (as in book), i (as in bit) .• Step 3: a (as in cat), u (as in cup), o (as in hot), oa (as in boat), ay (as in play).• Step 4: ur (as in burn), e (as in father).

The diphthongs are taught by combining two vowels, for example ow (as in cow) is comprised of the vowel sound ar (as in car) and oo (as in loop). To assist a student to produce the diphthong ‘ow’, Ling recommends that the student should alternate ‘ar’ and ‘oo’ at a fast rate. This will produce the ‘ow’. For further strategies for diphthong production see Ling (1976, p. 119, 223, 152).

Stage 4: consonants by Manner

At this stage the student is expected to produce consonants by manner commencing with the vowels ar (as in car), ee (as in sheep), and aw (as in dawn), then to progress to place and voicing distinctions.

Manner distinctions are developed initially followed by place differences to establish the main feature contrasts that underlie all consonant production. Step 1 consonants are therefore all produced by front articulation (lip, teeth, tongue combinations) and develop the contrasts such as nasal/non-nasal and continuant/non-continuant that provide the basis for future consonant development.

Teaching Step 1Initially the target sounds are contrasted by manner of production, but share place of production (at the front of the mouth). At this step, voicing is not differentiated although many students will distinguish between voiced and unvoiced sounds automatically. It is recommended that:• plosives are introduced as voiced sounds (e.g. ‘b’)• stops are introduced as unvoiced sounds (e.g. ‘p’)• fricatives are introduced as unvoiced sounds (e.g. ‘f’, ‘th’)but either voiced or unvoiced sounds are acceptable in the student’s production at this stage.

It is recommended that all or most targets at this step are introduced concurrently to:• allow the student to experience success on several patterns even if another pattern is

proving difficult• permit one target sound to be contrasted with another• allow the student to progress more rapidly• prevent boredom for student and teacher.

To build teacher confidence the target sounds are ordered and 2 or 3 are tackled simultaneously. In many cases, students are able to produce several of the Step 1 consonants spontaneously and therefore are not retaught these sounds.

Introduction

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The order initially selected for Step 1 consonants may be:b (or p), stop consonants b (or p), m, w, f (or v), th (or th)

Consonants can be taught through the use of audition; however, visual and tactile strategies can be used if necessary.

The aim is for the student to perform each subskill accurately and automatically. Only then is it expected that this knowledge will be applied to other consonants of similar manner but different place, and the skill will be transferred to everyday speech.

Stage 5: consonants by place

Teaching Step 2At this step, the focus of production is with the alveolar-palatal consonants. Again, no voicing distinction is expected. Most of the consonants in Step 2 are produced in the same manner as those introduced in Step 1, but differ in place of production. Because many share manner of production with those consonants in Step 1, some important pre-requisite behaviours have been established. Sounds within each of the teaching steps may be taught concurrently.

The order within Step 2 is generally d (or t), stop consonant d (or stop consonant t), n, y, l, sh (or zh), s (or z).

Teaching Step 3A further place distinction is introduced in this step with the focus on the production of velar sounds. The order within Step 3 is generally g (or k), stop consonants g or k, ng, r, ch (or j).

Stage 6: consonants by Manner, place and Voicing

Teaching Step 4At this stage voicing distinction is made to complete the consonant repertoire: b, d, g are contrasted with p, t, k

stop consonants b, d, g are contrasted with stop consonants p, t, k f, th, sh, s are contrasted with v, th, zh, z ch is contrasted with j

See Appendix B for a chart of English consonant sounds classified according to manner and place of production, and voicing (Paatsch, 2007).

Stage 7: consonant Blends (Ling, 1976, p. 127)

The final teaching stage at the phonetic level is consonant blends. Blends or clusters are formed when 2 or more consonants occur adjacent to each other and where each consonant is articulated in words, as in ‘smoke’, or between 2 words as in ‘hat rack’. These blends are divided into 3 groups, the most important of which are:1. initial blends2. final blends.

Two consonants occurring adjacent to each other as in th, ng, sh and ch are not considered blends.


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In addition there are medial blends as in ‘hospital’, ‘conference’ and ‘basket’, and interlexical blends (those occurring between words in running speech) as in ‘it’s not what you think’ and ‘a hot rod’. The initial blends are divided into 5 types which are then ordered for ease of acquisition:

1. Two-organ sequential blends sm, sp, sw The tongue and lips are involved to formulate blends sequentially where it is necessary

to complete the production of /s/ before the second component of the blend can be formulated.

2. Single-organ sequential blends sk, sl, sn, st, thr Only the tongue is involved to formulate blends sequentially.

3. Two-organ co-formulated blends bl, br, fl, fr, kw, pl, pr, tw The tongue and lips are involved to formulate blends simultaneously where the second

component of the blend is formulated prior to the completion of the first component.

4. Single-organ co-formulated blends dr, gl, gr, kl, kr, tr, shr The tongue formulates blends simultaneously.

5. Complex initial blends skr, skw, spr, str, spl These blends contain 3 components where type 2 and type 4 blends or type 1 and type 3

blends are combined.

The final blends are also divided into 5 types which are then ordered for ease of production:

1. Continuant–continuant blends fs, lm, ln, lz, mz, ns, nz, ngz, sn, vz, ths, slContinuants are sounds that can be prolonged, and where the 2 sounds involved are not changed significantly by the proximity to the other. This form of blend includes plurals.

2. Continuant–stop blends ft, ld, lp, lt, mp, nd, nt, ngk, sk, sp, st, vd, zdThe first sound is a continuant and the second sound (the stop which may or may not be released) cannot be formulated until the continuant is completed. This form of blend also includes plurals.

3. Stop–continuant blends bl, bz, dl, dz, gl, gz, kl, ks, pl, ps, tl, dn, tn, ts, tmThe stop is not released prior to formulation of the continuant.

4. Stop–stop blends kt, pt, gd, bdThis form of blend includes the past tense of many regular past tense verbs.

5. Complex final blends fts, kts, nts, nds, tnz, nst, spt, skt, blz, plz, tnd, mpl, ngkl, mblzThese blends include combinations of the above 4 types of blends where production must be achieved prior to mastery at this level.

overview of this resource

Ling’s model of teaching speech to students with hearing loss follows a ‘bottom up’ approach whereby small steps are achieved within a developmental, sequential framework. This approach needs to be integrated with a ‘top down’ approach where phonetic level goals are integrated

Introduction

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into meaningful language. This may include integrating other spoken language goals in the area of pragmatics, syntax, morphology and semantics with those at the phonologic level. The language used will be authentic and natural to the topic at hand. Both approaches together are essential as students gain experience in the range of communicative tasks with a variety of intents and purposes. Ling’s ‘bottom up’ approach is balanced with the need for students to be communicating through and about the curriculum, and generalising their speech production skills at the phonologic level.

The most authentic setting for the development of spoken language is conversation. The transition from the phonetic to the phonologic to the higher levels of spoken language is not always achieved developmentally and some intervention is often required. Recent research has confirmed that many children with hearing loss still require individual speech programs. Paatsch, Blamey & Sarant (2001) found that, while children developed phonemes at the phonetic level, further practice was needed for them to generalise skills at the phonologic level. They recommended a systematic speech production program that includes strategies for generalisation to discourse. Furthermore, careful selection of goals within such a program will increase the students’ morphological awareness, vocabulary development and speech perception skills (Bow, Blamey, Paatsch & Sarant, 2004; Paatsch, Blamey, Sarant & Bow, 2006).

Effective teaching and adequate experience are essential for the development of speech production skills. The initial teaching takes place at the phonetic level, but this is only a small part of the total process of becoming a confident and competent communicator. Linking goals at the phonetic level to practise with activities designed to generalise from the phonetic to the phonologic level is required. In this publication the bulk of the material included pertains to the development of the phonologic aspect of the students’ speech production by placing phonetic level targets in a linguistic context, heightening morphological knowledge and use.

This resource material has been compiled for teachers working with students who require additional assistance in the development of their speech production skills. The intention is to provide a resource for teachers to assist students in transferring phonetic level skills to their phonologic repertoire. The extensive listings of pictures of words for each consonant in initial and final positions, word pictures with simple phrases, words with each consonant grouped with front, mid and back vowels, phrases, sentences, minimal pairs, 2, 3, or more syllable words grouped according to the preceding or following vowel, and suggestions for games and activities will allow teachers to develop an appropriate program with specific individual targets that incorporate activities that aim to develop speech production skills at the phonologic level. It is not intended that this publication be applicable for developing the early stages of vocalisation or suprasegmental patterns. Teachers should therefore look to other resources for assistance when working with students at these early stages of development.

There are a variety of resources available for teachers to use in the implementation of programs to teach speech production. Two different programs will be familiar to many teachers: THRASS (Teaching Handwriting, Reading and Spelling Skills) (Davies & Richie, 1988) and Cued Articulation (Passey, 1990). Each program provides a visual resource, complementing strategies provided in this document: • THRASS uses cue words to link the English spelling system to the 44 phonemes of English.• Cued Articulation uses a system of hand shapes and movements to remind students of the

place and manner of sound production, and whether voice is used.


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This document contains:• An introduction.• A section on information about assessments, and goal-setting.• A section containing listings of vowels, diphthongs and consonants with word lists and

sentences.• Appendices on the production of speech, assessment record forms and other useful

information.

Throughout this document a decision was made not to use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), to make the book more teacher- and student-friendly. The document is intended, not as a text book, but as a resource for developing a program for teaching speech production skills. As a result, each vowel, diphthong and consonant which would have an IPA symbol is written in English spelling. Appendix C provides an IPA chart for reference.

Section A

Section A contains an outline of some assessment procedures:• Auditory (Speech Perception) Evaluation.• Oral-Peripheral Examination.• Phonetic Level Evaluation.• Evaluation at the Word Level.• Evaluation at the Phonologic Level.

Following the description of assessment procedures, consideration is given to:• specific speech teaching – developing speech production through listening• whispering• appropriate voice levels• selecting goals for specific learning• teaching strategies for specific speech teaching.

Section B

Section B is an adjunct to Section A in that it contains the targets and subskills together with specially grouped and ordered phonologic level material. The aim of Section B is to provide items that may assist in the setting of practice tasks for individual student programs in listening and speaking. The targets are examples of the kind of tasks that can be used with students working on a particular phonologic contrast.

The order in which targets are presented does not indicate the progression that is used in individual programming. Rarely should all the items listed on a target be used with an individual student. Ideally targets are a guide to the types of linguistic items that a particular student may need to work on. Words, phrases, and sentences should be selected or adapted on the basis of having particular relevance to a student’s speech needs.

Although Section B has been organised according to Ling’s (1976) levels and stages, it is important to emphasise that this is not meant to indicate a set sequential progression for programming purposes. Even when using Ling’s approach, Stage 1 does not represent a starting point for every student. Careful assessment must be carried out to determine each student’s strengths and weaknesses in order to select target areas.

Introduction

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Vowels and DiphthongsThe vowels and diphthongs resource section contains listings for each sound. These listings have lists of regular spelling, alternative spellings, phrases, and sentences.

ConsonantsConsonants are ordered according to Ling’s steps. Because most consonants are not sounds that can appear in isolation but are merely the ways of releasing and arresting vowels, the syllable rather than the consonant is the nucleus of speech. It is therefore important that the student with hearing loss is able to produce consonants with back, central and front vowels in order to develop appropriate intelligible speech. It is also important that the teacher be aware of the range of a student’s hearing in order to maximise the auditory channel as the most appropriate and direct avenue for speech development. Certain vowels and diphthongs are basic to the development of consonants and should be regarded as a minimum vowel system. The vowels ar (as in car), aw (as in dawn) and ee (as in sheep), together with the diphthongs ie (as in pie) and ow (as in cow) should be developed prior to the consonants. and the range expanded as consonant work continues.

The material on each consonant is ordered in 10 steps.

(i) Auditory, visual, and tactile strategies to elicit the target Preceding the phonetic strategy area for each sound is a list of strategies that the teacher

may find useful in eliciting that particular target sound in isolation. Ling (1976, p.266) refers to audition as being ‘inherently superior to either touch or vision as a means of learning speech’, hence the first item is the degree of hearing required to hear the particular target sound. The teacher should have a thorough knowledge of the student’s unaided and aided audiogram or speech-o-gram, if available, to enable predictions to be made of the student’s potential to detect the target sound. The audiogram is only an indicator of auditory potential and the teacher should use observations and other formal and informal assessment procedures to ascertain whether a student hears a particular target sound. It must be remembered however that sounds are not produced in isolation, but in the context of running speech. This affects the acoustic properties of the speech sound. In addition, acoustic properties vary according to factors such as the speaker and the rate and intensity at which it is spoken. For example, a phoneme such as /s/ in isolation requires hearing from around 4000 Hz if spoken by a male, but up to 6000 Hz if spoken by a child or female. However, in the context of a word such as ‘bus’, the /s/ follows a central vowel. This may be a facilitative factor in perceiving the sound. For a description of the use of aided thresholds and speech-o-grams, see Toe (2008). See Section A for an outline of formal assessment procedures.

Other hints listed include visual and tactile means by which a target sound may be elicited. The list is by no means exhaustive and teachers are encouraged to note down successful strategies employed.

It is certainly not necessary for each student to progress though all strategies or even through every part of each strategy, but by having such a range it is possible for teachers to assess more accurately the area of difficulty for a particular student.

(ii) Phonetic area targets


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(iii) Phonetic to phonologic area targets For many students a bridging set of subskills is necessary between the phonetic level and

the phonologic level, and so the phonetic to phonologic transfer lists were developed.

(iv) Pictures of single words for each consonant (initial and final positions)

(v) Word pictures with simple phrases

(vi) Word lists with each consonant grouped with front, mid and back vowels The word lists of simple one-syllable words are broken into front/mid/back vowel groupings

with words of similar vowels being grouped together. Words containing diphthongs are grouped separately.

Front vowels ee (as in sheep), i (as in bit), e (as in wet) and a (as in cat) Mid vowels ar (as in car), ur (as in burn), oo (as in loop), u (as in cup) and

e (as in father) Back vowels aw (as in dawn), oo (as in book) and o (as in hot) Diphthongs ay (as in play), ie (as in pie), oa (as in boat), oy (as in toy), ow (as in cow),

ear (as in fear), air (as in pair), ire (as in shire) and our (as in tour)

It is hoped that this grouping of consonants allows the teacher to assess if the student has particular ease or difficulty with specific consonant-vowel combinations. This would allow for greater success in subsequent teaching or would indicate the need for more work with particular transitions.

(vii) Phrases and short sentences

(viii) Sentences

(ix) Minimal pairs grouped according to feature differences These are grouped according to 3 feature differences (voice/place/manner), 2 feature

differences (place/manner; voice/manner; place/voice), 1 feature difference (manner, voice, place).

Ling chose these broad groupings as appropriate for educational application of• manner (the plosives /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, and /g/; stops /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/,

and /g / in the final position; fricatives /f/, /v/, /th/, /th/, /s/, /z/, /sh/ and /zh/; affricates /ch/ and /j/; nasals /m/, /n/, and /ng/; semi-vowels /w/ and /y/; and liquids /l/ and /r/)

• place (bilabial /p/, /b/ and /m/; labiodental /f/ and /v/; lingua-dental /th/ and /th/; alveolar /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /l/ and /n/; palatal /sh/, /zh/, /y/, /r/, /ch/ and /j/; velar /k/, /g/ and /ng/; glottal /h/; and labio-velar /w/)

• voicing (pairs of consonants where one of the pair is voiced, such as /b/, and the other is unvoiced, such as /p/).

At the word level, minimal pair contrast and word family targets have been developed to emphasise the necessity for making phonologic contrasts to achieve intelligibility.

Introduction

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An example of a minimal pair which differs by:• 1 feature difference (voice) is bath/path• 1 feature difference (manner) is dog/log• 1 feature difference (place) is boat/goat• 2 feature differences (place and manner) is tin/chin• 2 feature differences (manner and voicing) is toes/nose• 2 feature differences (place and voicing) is veal/seal• 3 feature differences (manner, place and voicing) is dairy/fairy.

Word family targets might include a single syllable target consonant with a vowel or diphthong. For example /n/ might be listed with:• the front vowel /ee/ as in knee, need, neat and niece• the mid vowel /ur/ as in nurse and nerve• the back vowel /aw/ as in north, nought and gnaw• the diphthong /ie/ as in knife, nine, nice, night, knight and ninth.

Minimal pair work at both the receptive and expressive level may be the starting point in achieving certain targets in both individual speech production and listening programs. Teachers are able to check whether the child can discriminate and identify these differences auditorily and whether they can produce them appropriately.

(x) 2, 3 or more syllable words grouped according to the preceding or following vowel A greater variety of two, three or more syllable words are listed. These words are also

grouped according to the preceding or following vowel (front/mid/back) and with words of the same vowel grouped together. Where appropriate, words of initial/final and medial targets are also grouped together.

Differentiation between voiced and unvoiced consonants does not occur until Teaching Step 4. Strategy subskills have not been included for Step 4 targets apart from the phonetic strategy area as these differences are included in the previous levels within the strategy areas. Within the strategy area for minimal pairs, there are specific lists of words differing in their voicing. In Teaching Steps 1, 2 and 3, production of either cognate (voiced or unvoiced) is acceptable even though many students may be able to produce the correct cognate at this early level. At Step 4 the student is expected to differentiate between the items.

Lists of blend targets and their strategy areas are ordered as follows:(i) Phonetic subskills.(ii) Single words.(iii) Phrases and sentences.(iv) Sentences.(v) Word strings.

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Section A


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AssessmentIn order to develop a program to improve a student’s speech production it is important to carry out a comprehensive assessment of speech perception and speech production so that the current level of performance is established. Information about what a student is able to detect, discriminate, identify and comprehend through audition alone will indicate what auditory cues the student is able to access and use in order to be able to monitor his/her own speech production. The results of such assessments will provide information to assist in setting specific goals to allow improvement in every aspect of speech perception and speech production.

Speech production skills should be assessed at the phonetic and phonologic levels. Evaluation at the phonetic level determines whether the student is capable of producing the tested vowel, consonant or consonant cluster. Evaluation at the phonologic level determines what the student is able to produce in the context of single words, conversation or running speech. Assessment of speech production skills using spontaneous speech determines the level of fluency in spoken language. The same language sample will be valuable to assess other areas of spoken language development such as syntax, morphology, semantics, and pragmatics in addition to speech production skills.

Auditory (Speech perception) evaluation

Aided and unaided seven sound test: m, or, ar, ee, oo, sh, s (adapted for Australian purposes from Ling’s 1989 five sound test)

Cummings, P., Johnston, M. & Boardman, L. (1998). Listen & Learn: A Listening Skills Program. NSW Department of Education and Training

Glendonald Auditory Screening Procedure (1985). Glendonald Auditory Training Statement. Glendonald School for Deaf Children, Kew

Erber, N. P. (1982). Auditory Training. Washington: A.G. Bell Association for the DeafRomanik, S. (1990). Auditory Skills Program Book 1 for Students with Hearing Impairment.

NSW Department of School Education, Special Education & Focus Programs DivisionRomanik, S. (1990). Auditory Skills Program Book 2 for Students with Hearing Impairment.

NSW Department of School Education, Special Education & Focus Programs DivisionRomanik, S. (2008). Auditory Skills Program for Students with Hearing Impairment. Disability

Programs Directorate. NSW Department of Education and Training

oral-peripheral examination (Ling, 1976)

It may be necessary to examine the student’s oral and peripheral speech mechanism to ensure the prerequisites for speech development are present. This examination should be a brief check of the student’s speech organ structure and function. If the teacher suspects that the child’s speech organs are atypical, referral to a speech pathologist, doctor or dentist is recommended so that further assessment and the necessary referrals may be carried out. Specific exercises and activities will then be devised.

The areas assessed are:• facial structure• jaws and teeth• tongue• hard palate• soft palate• larynx.

See Appendix D for an example of a form to use as a summary of an oral-peripheral examination.

Section A

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phonetic Level evaluation (Ling, 1976)

The Phonetic Level Evaluation (PLE) is a test of speech production skills at a phonetic level, not of speech perception, which assesses the student’s performance through listening alone. The teacher should ensure that the student has access to visual and auditory skills.

The purpose of the PLE is:(a) to determine the level of motor speech skills attained(b) to specify what speech production targets should next be developed(c) to determine whether teaching has been successful.

The PLE assesses the following:• Non-segmental aspects

(a) Vocalisation(i) spontaneous(ii) on demand

(b) Vocal duration(i) sustained(ii) brief(iii) varied

(c) Vocal intensity (i) loud(ii) quiet(iii) whispered(iv) varied

(d) Vocal pitch(i) low(ii) mid(iii) high(iv) continuously varied(v) discretely varied

• Vowels and diphthongs. Each vowel and diphthong is assessed as to whether it can be produced in the following conditions:(a) sustained(b) intensity

(i) loud(ii) quiet(iii) whispered

(c) repeated (3 per second)(d) alternated 3 per second with any other vowel(e) pitch control

(i) high(ii) mid(iii) low(iv) varied


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Vowels and diphthongs are assessed in 4 steps.– Step 1: ar (as in car), ee (as in sheep), oo (as in loop), ow (as in cow), ie (as in pie)– Step 2: aw (as in dawn), oy (as in toy), e (as in wet), oo (as in book), i (as in bit) – Step 3: a (as in cat), u (as in cup), o (as in hot), oa (as in boat), ay (as in play)– Step 4: ur (as in burn), e (as in father)

• Simple consonants– Step 1: p or b, stop p or b, w or w, f or v, th or th, h, m– Step 2: t or d, stop t or d, sh or zh, s or z, n, y, l– Step 3: k or g, stop k or g, ch or j, ng, r– Step 4: p and b, stop p or b, t and d, stop t or d, k and g, stop k or g

• Word initial blends with varied intensity and pitch of voice while repeating any set of these syllables.– Step 1: Two-organ sequential blends

smar-smee-smoo, spar-spee-spoo, swar-swee-swoo– Step 2: Single-organ sequential blends

skar-skee-skoo, slar-slee-sloo, snar-snee-snoo, star-stee-stoo – Step 3: two-organ coformulated blends

blar-blee-bloo, brar-bree-broo, flar-flee-floo, frar-free-froo, kwar-kwee-kwoo, plar-plee-ploo, prar-pree-proo, twar-twee-twoo

– Step 4: Single-organ coformulated blendsdrar-dree-droo, glar-glee-gloo, krar-kree-kroo, shrar-shree-shroo, trar-tree-troo

– Step 5: Complex blendsskrar-skree-skroo, skwar-skwee-skwoo, sprar-spree-sproo, strar-stree-stroo

• Word final blends– Step 1: Continuant–continuant blends

ifs, ilm, iln, ilz, umz, uns, inz, ungz, usl, iths, isn, ivz– Step 2: Continuant–stop blends

oft, old, ulp, olt, ump, ond, ont, ungk, osk, usp, uvd, uzd– Step 3: Stop–continuant blends

ibl, abz, idl, idz, igl, igz, ikl, aks, ipl, aps, itl, itn, itm– Step 4: Stop–stop blends

akt, apt, agd, abd– Step 5: Complex blends

ifts, akts, emblz, ampl, ondz, oynts, ankl, uplz, oskt, atnd, ispt, itnz

Immediate teaching goals can be formulated on the basis of such evaluation since the items are arranged in the order that appears to support the most efficient acquisition of skills. The first 4 to 6 items in which the student is unsuccessful become the first 4 to 6 items to be taught. Generally it is not necessary to complete the entire evaluation since the items are sequential and early difficulty implies problems with later items. However, given the improvement in technology and the availability of acoustic cues, some later phonemes (for example, ‘s’ and ‘ch’), may have been developed.

Initially the evaluation may take 20 minutes to administer and may warrant 2 sessions, particularly for young students. As the teacher’s confidence and familiarity increases, an adequate view of the student’s level of competence should be apparent in 5 minutes of testing. It is recommended that an audio or videotape of these evaluation sessions be made. Video is

Section A

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often better because it may show characteristics such as mouthing, tongue protrusion and so on, which are not available through audiotape. Following the initial testing, the PLE only needs to be repeated to ascertain new targets or as a review to measure improvements in phonetic level performance.

See Appendix E for a sample of phonetic level evaluation. This format was designed by Paul Jennings, a former lecturer in Speech and Language at the Institute of Special Education and Paramedical Studies at Victoria College, Burwood (now Deakin University, Burwood campus). It is consistent with Australian vowel production. It is much more detailed than the format outlined in Ling’s (1976) Speech for the Hearing-Impaired Child but it is generally easier to administer and evaluate.

evaluation at the Word Level

There are a number of assessment materials that can be used in assessing speech at the word level:Atkin, N. & Fisher, J. (1996). Articuation Survey. Royal Children’s Hospital, MelbourneGoldman, R. & Fristoe, M. (1972). Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation. Circle Pines, MN:

American Guidance ServicePaatsch, L. E. (1997). The effectiveness of the Auditory Skills Program in developing auditory

skills in severe to profound hearing impaired children. Unpublished Master of Education, the University of Melbourne, Australia. This reference contains the 108 Single Word Articulation Test (108 SWAT). See also Appendix K in this book.

Schmitt, P. & Owens, J. (1990). The phonetic and phonologic speech analysis (PPSA). Course material developed for the Graduate Diploma of Special Education (HI), Victoria College, Faculty of Special Education and Disability Studies, Burwood, Australia

Vardi, I. (1990). Phonological Profile for Hearing Impaired Children. WA: Edith Cowan University

Often students produce better speech in isolation, or in individual words than in discourse. The production of consonants will vary according to the vowel that follows or precedes them. Vowels and diphthongs may provide acoustic cues to assist in the production of consonants. The development of coarticulation skills is important in developing intelligibility. ‘All consonants vary according to vowel context. Accordingly, ability to coarticulate a consonant with one vowel does not imply ability to coarticulate it with any other.’ (Ling, 1976, p. 317).

evaluation at the phonologic Level

The aim of any spoken language program is to develop the student’s speech production and listening skills. In the process, it is important for any skills mastered to be placed in its linguistic context as soon as possible. To determine how effectively phonetic level skills are transferring to the student’s linguistic behaviour, it is necessary to undertake an evaluation at the phonologic level.

An evaluation of speech production at the phonologic level involves taking a sample of the student’s conversational speech and analysing it in the context of everyday communication. It is important that someone familiar to the student is used to allow engagement in conversation to ensure that the sample is representative of the student’s level of performance. Approximately 50 to 60 representative utterances at the discourse level of spontaneous conversation are then analysed to ascertain the presence of various features. The conversational sample may also be used to determine particular aspects of English


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morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics, as well as to assess speech production.

Usually 10 minutes is ample time in which to collect an adequate sample. It is recommended that the sample is videotaped in a quiet environment to enable accurate analysis. Videotaping will ensure the teacher is attuned to the student’s speech performance during taping in order to note any errors in speech production that may not be apparent in an audiotape (e.g. an overbite in the production of ‘f’). A sample of spoken communication should be collected at regular intervals.

When analysing the tape it may be necessary for the beginner to transcribe the tape in phonetics or the English spelling used in this document before making a note of each correct production, distortion, substitution, or omission. An experienced analyser may only need to use the pause button on the recorder. It is then necessary to mark each supposed occurrence of a sound with a symbol indicating its status (correct or omitted).

‘The Computer Assisted Speech And Language Analysis (CASALA) (Serry, Blamey, Spain et al., 1997) program is an Australian software program that contains a phonetic dictionary of words obtained from the Macquarie Dictionary (Delbridge et al., 1997), and a complete set of phonetic symbols based on the International Phonetic Alphabet (Ladefoged, 2001). CASALA requires orthographic and phonetic transcriptions of participants’ speech samples to be entered. Each phoneme in the child’s speech is compared with the ‘target’ phoneme derived from a phonetic dictionary, to determine the correctness of the phoneme. In addition, any errors are labelled and analysed using the custom set of 44 phonological processes contained in the program. The phonological processes used in the development of the CASALA program have been drawn from a number of different works (Grunwell, 1982; D. Ingram, 1976; Khan, 1982; Shriberg & Kwiatkowski, 1980; Weiner, 1979). Phonological processes are automatically calculated and analysed using the Relative Index of Unintelligibility (RIU). The RIU is calculated by dividing the number of phonological process occurrences by the total number of words in the sample. The higher the RIU value, the greater the number of occurrences of that particular process, and the greater the detrimental influence on intelligibility (Crary & Comeau, 1981). CASALA generates a number of reports that include a tally of the number of words in the sample, as well as the number and percentage of correctly produced words. It also computes a percentage correct score as well as a total score for individual monophthongs, diphthongs, consonants, and consonant clusters.’ (This paragraph is taken, and has been used with permission, from Louise Paatsch (2007, p.113). CASALA is available from www.hearworks.com.au.)

One means of eliciting a greater quantity of utterances is to use the prompt ‘tell me about…’ as this should avoid 1- or 2-word responses. Another means might be to ask the student to describe one of a set of pictures to enable the correct picture to be chosen. It may be necessary to model such an activity first. It might be possible to use Show & Tell sessions of the student’s report on an excursion or weekend activity to an uninformed/unfamiliar listener.

A sample form for consonants is provided in Appendix F. For most students it is not necessary to test vowels in this way. Unlike the form used by Ling (1976, pp. 160–2), it also allows the teacher to see the number of instances of a sound sampled in the utterances taped, and the proportion correct, incorrect, or omitted. From this the immediate, specific areas of concern and immediate teaching goals can be deduced and selected. Appendix G contains a form for use with vowels and diphthongs at the phonologic level. These procedures are initially very time-consuming and are dependent on an experienced and reliable listener with a video camera. The tape can then be used as a record of the student’s linguistic level of development. The rules used to separate utterances in these conversation samples include change of speaker,

Section A

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rising and falling intonation (indicating the end of an utterance), a pause of two or more seconds, and/or a single thought constituted as a single utterance (Paatsch et al, 2001).

From the analysis, common errors may emerge and patterns of difficulty or success become apparent to enable more effective and targeted teaching.

developing Speech production through Listening

Where possible, audition should be the primary mode employed for speech teaching. It is necessary therefore for teachers to assess each student’s ability to detect and identify speech sounds through audition alone. At every level of speech teaching the teacher should first check whether the child is able to detect the sound being taught. If it is a continuant sound (e.g. ‘s’) it may be tested in isolation. If the sound is a non-continuant (e.g. ‘b’) test if the child can discriminate it in the context of a vowel, from the vowel alone – that is, can the student discriminate ‘ar’ from ‘bar’?

The audition required for the detection of consonants is listed in Section B for each consonant under auditory, visual, and tactile strategies in ‘Eliciting the target’. If the student is unable to detect the presence of the target sound, other modalities need to be employed, and these are also listed.

The overriding principle is that audition is the primary avenue for developing speech production skills. 1. Speak close to the hearing aid or cochlear implant of the better ear.2. Use plenty of variety in pitch, intensity, and rhythm to provide low frequency auditory

information.3. Whispering enhances auditory information – particularly the first and second formants and

the transition between consonants and vowels.4. Begin and end with attainable targets to ensure success.5. Reinforce targets you want, not those you don’t.6. Let the student know when the production is correct.7. If visual or tactile cues are necessary to elicit a target, immediately reinforce it through

audition alone.8. When a target is produced, use repetition to develop motor sensory feedback and

reinforcement.9. Contrast the student’s error with the correct pattern.10. Encourage the student to self-monitor and self-correct.

Whispering

Whispering may initially be regarded as an inappropriate technique for use with students with hearing impairment but it has great advantages when teacher and student are close together. Sound is 6 dB louder when the distance is halved; for example, 56 dB at 6 metres becomes 62 dB at 3 metres and 68 dB at 1½ metres.

Whispering also, and most importantly, makes formant transitions clearer. This means that the consonant to vowel transitions are easier to hear and students are more likely to be able to predict the consonants even if they cannot hear them. Whispering also reduces the voicing component of the sound.

Section A

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Some ideas for other dice games

t/d

m

ee/oo

dad did it.

tiptoe

i didn’t do it.

two teeth

did you do it?

don’t talk.

ten toes

i’ll do the dishes.

turn it down.

Sit down.

don’t do that.

i don’t know.

she

twoSue he

bee

shoe

moo

tree

feed

true

who

see

boo

tea

me

food

me

mouth

mummy come

swim

mine

combman

farm

lamb

home

arm

my

warmmum

namemoreSt

Art


~ Page 28 ~

Card GamesSnapWrite the practice words on cards with 4 cards of each word. Play Snap using the usual rules except that the student must say each word as the card is placed on the pile. The degree of difficulty may be increased by asking the student to say a sentence with each word.

Memory or ConcentrationMake as many pairs of practice words on cards as the student can cope with (4–6 pairs for younger students, 10–15 pairs for older students). Shuffle the cards and spread them face down on the table. Each time a card is turned over, the word or sentence must be produced. Penalties for misproduction may include missing a turn, returning a pair or repetition of the target.

6 x 6Make a set of 36 cards, 6 with the number ‘1’ on one side and 6 with ‘2’, 6 with ‘3’ etc. up to 6 with ‘6’ written one side. Write a word or sentence on the other side of each card. Place cards in their numbered piles with the number side up. Throw a dice and pick up the top card with that number on it. Read the word or sentence on the other side.

FishMake a set of cards with 2 cards of each word or sentence. Shuffle and deal 5 cards to each player with the remainder face down in a pile. The player asks ‘Have you got -------?’ in an attempt to make pairs which are placed on the table. If the other player asked does not have the requested card he/she says ‘No, go fish’ and the other player picks up a card from the pile. This game may be played purely auditorily or with visual cues.

Other Games and ActivitiesFishingMake fish shaped cards with a word on each. Put a paper clip on each card and use a magnet on a string to pick up the ‘fish’. The student reads the word or the sentence.

BingoUse words rather than numbers. The student must repeat the words or change places with the teacher and call out the word.

Noughts and crossesPut a word in each square of the grid. Either draw over the words, reading them on each turn or use counters representing the nought and cross to permit the game to be used again.

I Spy‘I spy with my little eye something beginning with --------’ using target sounds.

Guess the wordThe teacher or student announces ‘I’m thinking of a word that rhymes with bake’. All alternatives thought up by the other students are listed on the board; after the supply is exhausted, announce the correct word.

Word and picture listsPrepare large charts in the shape of the target consonants with pictures collected from magazines commencing with the target sound.

Section A

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ShoppingPrepare cards by pasting pictures from supermarket flyers on cards. A variety of games can be played with these cards.

1. Deal the cards. Ask the students to listen. ‘Can I buy some ------- please?’ The student with the item requested hands it over then has a turn.

2. Memory game. The first student places a card face up on the table and says ‘I went shopping and I bought a/some -------------.’ The next student places a card on top of the first and says ‘I went shopping and I bought a/some --------------- and a/some -------------------.’ etc. The cards selected for play may all contain the target sound(s).

Alphabet game‘I went to the zoo and I saw an (ape)’. The next student says ‘(Sue) went to the zoo and she saw an ape and I saw a b---------.’ etc. through the alphabet.

Word treesStick word cards all containing a target sound or common phonogram group on a tree.

Word wheelsPrepare wheels to make words with a common sound

e.g.t

b t

m e n

l d

n

conversation

In addition to the activities above, it may be helpful to provide situations where conversational strategies can be modelled and practised. The skill of the teacher is for conversation and communication to be a two-way shared process with natural turn-taking and not be teacher dominated. Contributions will be meaningful, contingent on what has been said before and will continue the topic. While older students may interact using a topic-related approach initiated by the teacher, for younger children the teacher may follow the student’s lead.

Topic conversationsAn example is utilising familiar topics to consolidate current vocabulary and language in a variety of contexts. Following are examples of some topics with which students may be comfortable and familiar:• Current affairs• Sport (see example below)• Weather• Cars• Fashion


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Sport:Teacher: Soccer’s my favourite game. What about you?Student: I don’t like soccer. I like football.Teacher: But soccer is football too.Student: I mean Australian Rules/AFLTeacher: Do you play football?Student: Yeah, I play on Saturdays.

Role Play ConversationsAnother example is utilising role play of specific social interactions, including receptive and expressive aspects. The role play example below focuses on meeting a friend after school.

Friend 1: Hi. Good to see you.Friend 2: Yeah, you too.Friend 1: What have you been up to lately?Friend 2: I’ve been on holidays.Friend 1: Oh, where did you go?Friend 2: I’ve been camping with my family.Friend 1: What else have you been doing?Friend 2: I’ve just seen a good movie.Friend 1: What was it?Friend 2: ------------------------- (movie title)Friend 1: What about we see that new -----------series (such as Harry Potter) or (actor’s name) movie sometime?Friend 2: That’d be great. I’ll text you/ I’ll give you a ring/I’ll email you.

Other role play situations could include:• Making an appointment• Job interview• Transport directions

For further ideas, see Stone (1998) Blueprint for Developing Conversational Competence.

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Section B

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Speech Production Resource (2014). The purchase of this resource entitles the right to reproduce this page for teaching purposes.

VoWeLS AnD DiphthongSAustralian vowels and diphthongs vary considerably from both their British and American counterparts and therefore reference material published overseas may not always be immediately helpful when teachers seek assistance in classifying local vowel production and intervention strategies. Bernard (1970) provides the reference for acoustic classification of vowels for this publication and therefore will result in some necessary modification of the teaching order when following the Ling (1976) recommended steps.

The order for teaching followed by Ling is:Step 1: ar (as in car), ee (as in sheep), oo (as in loop), ow (as in cow), ie (as in pie)Step 2: aw (as in dawn), oy (as in toy), e (as in wet), oo (as in book), i (as in bit) Step 3: a (as in cat), u (as in cup), o (as in hot), oa (as in boat), ay (as in play)Step 4: ur (as in burn), e (as in father)

While this order may be followed, teachers must be aware of the different acoustic properties of some vowels and diphthongs and should be aware that there may be some difficulties for some students. Also there are differences among speakers and between males, females and children. It may be preferable to teach ‘ar’, ‘ee’ and ‘aw’ as the first 3 vowels, particularly for those students who are unable to discriminate between ‘ee’ and ‘oo’ auditorily.

However teachers wish to proceed, it is not the intention of this publication to repeat the material published by Ling. Teachers attempting to assist students with faulty vowel systems or attempting to develop a vowel system in very young children should refer to Ling and other texts.

Generally, however, the phonetic level targets and subskills for all vowels and diphthongs may be described as:1. Vocal tract shaping for the target vowel or diphthong2. Maintenance of the vowel for 3 seconds (long vowels only)3. Repeat the vowel or diphthong 3 times in rapid succession (initiated by ‘b’ or other

consonant)4. Alternate the vowel or diphthong with another vowel or diphthong5. Produce the vowel or diphthong with differing intensity and speech patterns.

To assist teachers in reinforcing correct vowel usage in older students, included in this section are listings of regular and alternative spellings for various vowels. These extra listings allow teachers to broaden students’ awareness of the variety of English spellings, and to assist in the development of phonemic awareness. In addition, older literate students may find the lists useful in their own speech maintenance program.

For this section, the vowels are listed in the order maintained throughout this publication, i.e. vowels grouped according to place of production.

Front - ee (sheep), i (bit), e (wet), a (cat)Mid - ar (car), ur (burn), oo (loop), u (cup), e (father)Back - aw (dawn), oo (book), o (hot)Diphthongs - ay (play), ie (pie), oa (boat), oy (toy), ow (cow), ear (fear), air (pair), ire (shire), our (tour)

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At the beginning of each individual vowel and diphthong page reference is made to the position of the tongue, the positioning of the jaw, and vowel length. This information is presented in table form below.

Step 1 Vowelstongue archingJawVowel length

ar (car)lowopenlong

ee (sheep)highcloselong

oo (loop)highcloselong


aw (dawn)midhalf closelong

e (wet)midhalf closeshort

oo (book)highhalf closeshort

i (bit)highcloseshort


a (cat)lowopenshort

u (cup)lowopenshort

o (hot)midopenshort


ur (burn)midhalf closelong

e (father)midopenshort

The diphthongs, being a blending of two vowels, ay (play), ie (pie), oa (boat), oy (toy), ow (cow), ear (fear), air (pair) and our (tour), and the triphthong, being a blending of three vowels, ire (shire) have features relative to their component parts.

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WORD LISTSFRONT VOWELS

ee (sheep) – long front vowelTongue arch: high Jaw: close

Regular spelling (ee)

beefeekneeteeseeLeeeel

threefreetreecoffeefleebeepdeep

beenbeetbeefpeelpeekmeekmeet

heelfeetfeedwheelweekkneelsheen

sheepteenseencheepcheekkeenkeel

greenbreedstreetfreedsteedcreepcreek

Alternative spellings

(ea)beamcreamseatneat

(i-e)machinepolicemarine

(ie-e)believepiecefriezeniece

(ei)deceiveceilingeitherconceive

(ie)fieldbeliefchiefyield

(e-e)evetheseconcreteserene

(eo)people

(ay)quay

(y)*sunnymummychillyhappy

(ey)*keyhoneymonkeydonkey

(ae)anaemicencyclopaediaCaesar

(i)Ritalitre

(e)evilheevenshe

(oe)amoebaPhoebe

* Although these words end in ‘ee’, in running speech the sound is shortened to ‘i’.

phrases

three sheepfree wheelingcoffee with creamgreen fieldsgreen tea

these feeta three wheelercream cheesea piece of beefchief of police

a concrete pathan even patha jar of honeyan evil mana crowd of people

Sentences

Believe me.Feed the sheep.Meet the people.See the Queen.He’s happy.

She’s been to see the Queen.He’s breeding sheep.The sheep eat the green leaves on the trees.The police chief has the key.We need to buy a piece of beef for tea.

Word Lists: Front Vowels

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i (bit) – short front vowelTongue arch: high Jaw: close

Regular spelling (i)

fishfillfigfistpigpippinpit

millmitminthillhintwillwinthis

nicknipdintipticktinliplick

shipshinsipsickkisschipchinring

riptricktripsticksnipflipdripdrink

clipgripslipstripstrictscriptinkinch


(ui)builtguiltguildbuild

(i-e)sincelivegiveprince

(y)gypsymythrhythmcymbal

(o)women

(u)busy

(e)vinegarprivilegepretty

(ie)sieve

(y)*sunnymummychillyhappy

(a-e)managepackagecourage

(ey)*monkeydonkeyhoney

* Although these words in isolation end in ‘ee’, in running speech the sound is shortened to ‘i’.

phrases

three little pigsfish and chipsfinger licking gooda big shiptwo dim sims

busy womenchicken and chipsin Brisbanea sunny morninga chilly morning

thin crispsthree womenan old gypsya bottle of vinegara jar of honey

Sentences

Lick your lips.Lick your fingers.Give it to him.Will you win?Give me a kiss.Hit it for six.

It’s a sunny morning in Brisbane.I built a cubby house for the children.Ring the fish and chip shop, I’m busy.Will you buy two dim sims, some fish fingers and chips?

Put the lid on the honey.



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e (wet) – short front vowelTongue arch: mid Jaw: half close

Regular spelling (e)

wetwhenwellwebfellmetmenmesh

henthenbellbedbestpenpetpeck

necknestnetdendecksendsetshed

shellyelltelltengeljestkeptred

restwreckchequechestgetguestguessend

stretchspeckspellFredtrendtrekpresseleven


(ea)headdeafbreakfastready

(ei)heiferleisure

(u)bury

(eo)leopard

(ai)saidagain

(ae)haemorrhageanaesthetic

(a)manyanyoneanyhowanywhere

(ay)says

(ie)friendlieutenant

phrases

red heada pet henmy deaf friendmany mena crowd of men

a deck chaira nest in the treemany shellsmy best friendten pencils

a spider webwet weathermany timesanywhere anytimespell check

Sentences

When will you be ready?The man fell off the deck.I kept my pencils in my desk.The hens peck me when I enter the hen house.

I got wet when I fell in the river.Fred sent his best wishes for the wedding.

Wear your best dress.Tell me when.Breakfast is ready.I sent a cheque.When’s breakfast?I’m ready for bed.Get the net from the shed.


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a (cat) – short front vowelTongue arch: low Jaw: open

Regular spelling (a)

manmatmapmashpanpatpadpal

batbaghandhatwagfanfatthat

thanktapdancedadnaggnatlambshall

yapcapgashcashragratchatjam

cramflatspantrampramshamcrabstab

flabstraptrapclapquackslackappleblack


(ai)plaidplait

(a-e)have

phrases

a fat cata fat manan old manthat mana flat pancake

a hand bagtap dancea traffic jama hat standa hand stand

cash for cansan apple treea map of Africaa leather strapthank you

Sentences

Pat the cat.Thank the man.Pack your bag.Grab your hat.Have a chat.

The man with the pram had a chat with Jan.Dan clapped when the man tap danced.I have a map of Amsterdam.Trap the rat in the pantry.The cat sat on the mat.

Word Lists

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MID VOWELS

ar (car) – long mid vowelTongue arch: low Jaw: open

Regular spelling (ar)

armarcbarnparkhard

harmfarfarmdartdark

gnarldarntarlarkyarn

sharpsharkcarpcharmalarm

cardjarlargegardenstar

sparksmartstarchstarkharbour


(a)fastbathnastygrass

(a-e)vase

(are)are

(arrh)catarrh

(al)calfhalfpalmpsalm

(aar)bazaar

(ear)heart

(ah)galah

(au)draughtlaugh

(arre)bizarre

(er)sergeant

phrases

baa baa black sheepa car parka sparkling starthe grass in the gardena dark car

a large cara large sharka fast cara large gardena smart sergeant

half a jara large vasethe farmer’s cara sharp darta spark in the dark

Sentences

Park the car.Play cards.Water the garden.Set the alarm.Visit the farm.Calm down.

Don’t harm the galah.I parked the car in the large car park.The farmer cut the grass in the farmhouse garden.

Sharp claws will harm your arm.The sergeant saw a shark in the harbour.

Word Lists

Word Lists: Mid Vowels

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ur (burn) – long mid vowelTongue arch: mid Jaw: half close

Regular spelling (ur)

urnburnburpfur

furlhurthurlturn

turkeylurkchurncurb

curlslurslurpspurn

blurblurtburstcurtain


(er)herfernherd

(or)wordworkworthworld

(ir)sirbirdfirstthird

(urr)burrpurr

(ere)were

(our-e)Bourke

(ear)pearllearnearlyheard

(err)err

(ur-e)pursenursecurseBurke

(olo)colonel

(our)journeycourtesy

phrases

first wordsthe first world warearly birdfirst turna fur coat

a loud burpa loud purrthird in lineher pearlshis first journey

Burke and WillsBurke Roada courtesy cara million dollars wortha journey around the world

Sentences

The early bird catches the worm.What in the world is it worth?Journey to the ends of the earth.I cursed the traffic in Bourke Street.Turn on the urn.

Learn your words.Turn the corner at the curb.They were early.The colonel was first.I heard the birds.



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oo (loop) – long mid vowelTongue arch: high Jaw: close

Regular spelling (oo)

boobootboothboommoo

moodpoolhoopfoolfood

doomtootoothshootcool

coopgoochooroofroot

roombroomsloopspoolswoop

brooddroolgloomsmoothspook


(ew)blewflewthrewcrew

(oe)shoemanoeuvre

(oo-e)noosesoothegoosemoose

(ui)suitfruitrecruit

(o)todo

(oux)roux

(ou)youyouth

(ough)through

(ui-e)juice

(ue)bluetruegluecruel

(eu)rheumatic

(u-e)rudefluteruleprune

(wo)two

(u)ruralruinglucosetruth

(ou-e)route

In addition, there are many words that contain ‘oo’ in the form of ‘yoo’ as a blend:

(ew)fewnewknewrenewstew

(u-e)tunepurefuseperfume

(ue)dueduelcue

(eue)queue

(u)musicfuneralpupilunit

(ewe)ewe

(iew)viewreviewpreview

(eau)beautbeauty

(eu)Europefeudalpneumatic

(ieu)adieulieu

phrases

a beautiful viewnew shoestwo shoestrue blue

pure fruit juicea new pupilthrough the hoopa new classroom

my bedrooma tube of gluetoo fewthe ship’s crew

Sentences

In music I learned a few tunes.

You need to recruit two new pupils.

Two students can sweep the rooms with the new brooms.

The goose flew up to the roof.

The crew of the sloop drink pure fruit juice.

Who’s telling the truth?Who’s got the broom?Who rules New South Wales?He’ll go through the roof!Soothe the baby.

She rules the roost.That suits you.You’ll ruin it.Who threw the fruit?Prune the fruit trees.The crew waited in a queue.Who won the duel?


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u (cup) – short mid vowelTongue arch: low Jaw: open

Regular spelling (u)

upunderbutbunbuckmudmuckmush

punpuffhuffhullhushfunfusstuck

tugduckdumbyumyukshunshutsun

suckgungullcupcutrunrutrush

chumchucktrucksmugspudspunkskunkskull

slugslushsnugglestrugglestrumthrushbluntgrunt


(o)soncolourovenmother

(ou)touchyoungdoublecountry

(o-e)donelovecomesponge

(oe)does

(oo)bloodflood

phrases

too much moneyhoney bunfunny bunnyMonday to Sundayyoung blood

my young cousinhuffing and puffingup the countrya lovely coloura duck in the mud

a dozen bunsfun in the countrymother and sona young chumdouble up

Sentences

My truck is stuck in the mud in the country.He huffs and puffs after he runs.I’d love a cup of tea and a bun with honey.The mother duck and her young ducklings went under the tree.

I cut my tongue with the blunt knife but there wasn’t much blood.

Don’t touch the oven.Come to London.I’m stuck in the mud.I love sponge cake.He won the running race.Shut the oven door.Come to the country.

Consonants – Step 1 – Bilabial plosive – p/b

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3. pictures with single words – p (initial)

panda polar bear peacock

pumping paper penguin

pig pencils pen

popcorn puppet pyjamas


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3. pictures with single words – p (initial) (continued)

possum purse pastie

pear peel pour

picnic paper clips padlock

pelican pineapple pins

3. pictures with single words – b (initial)

balloon bark beetle

baby bat bird

beak book building

bear bone bow


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3. pictures with single words – b (initial)

balloon bark beetle

baby bat bird

beak book building

bear bone bow


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3. pictures with single words – b (initial) (continued)

bikini butterfl y bug

ball bee belt

bike bull boy

bag band bathers


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4. pictures with phrases – p (initial)

paper don’t tear the paperfold the paperwhite papercoloured papera ream of paper

pyjamas warm pyjamasblue and white pyjamaspyjama bagpyjama pantspyjama top

pencils sharpen the pencilsblunt pencilscoloured pencilsa packet of pencilspencil case

possum a baby possuma ringtail possuma possum in the treecatch the possumsee the possum

peel peel the potatoespeel the mandarinpeel the carrotsorange peellemon peel

pastie cook the pastieeat the pastiepasties for lunchvegetable pastiepastie with sauce

3. pictures with single words – b (initial) (continued)

bikini butterfl y bug

ball bee belt

bike bull boy

bag band bathers


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4. pictures with phrases – b (initial)

baby a baby boya baby girla happy babyfeed the babypick up the baby

boy a big boya silly boya brave boya boy with brown haira boy with freckles

book a big booka thick booka school booka library bookopen the book

bow tie the bowa hair bowa big bowa purple bowundo the bow

bird a blackbirda baby birdfeed the birdsdon’t feed the birdslisten to the birds

ball a footballa basketballbounce the ballthrow the ballcatch the ball

Speech production reSource - Kainos Print · Deaf Children was a series of documents prepared by...

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Transcript of Speech production reSource - Kainos Print · Deaf Children was a series of documents prepared by...