Skill Acquisition

All you need to know!

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Topics Skill & Ability

Information Processing

Memory

Reaction Time

Feedback

Motor Programmes & Sch

ema

Loop Control

Motivation & Arousal

Learning Theories

Reinforcement

Phases of Learning

Practice

Guidance

Transfer

Skill & Ability Skill – characteristics

The learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with maximum certainty often with the limited outlay of time, energy or both”

Skill Classifications

Ability – characteristics Gross Motor Psychomotor

Skilful Characteristics

Learnt Goal DirectedAesthetic

SKILLCo-ordinated

Technicalmodel

Controlled Consistent Efficient

Characteristics explained!

Aesthetic - Graceful gymnastics routine Fluent - Movements ease into each other Technical Model - Resembles a technique Goal Directed - Understanding what needs to be

done! Learnt - Tennis player is taught a serve & practices Consistent - Performance is repeated with regularity Controlled - Performance is under control of performer Co-ordinated - Performance is not jerky Efficient - Swimmer moves smoothly through water

Skill Classifications

Open / Closed /

High / Low Organisation /

Continuity Continuum / /

Gross / Fine /

Pacing Continuum /

Environmental Factors

Open

Skill is affected by the environment (weather/opposition)

Skill is externally paced

Performer is reactive Varied Practice

method

Closed

Skill is not affected by the environment

Skill is self paced Skill is habitual Fixed Practice

method

Organisation Classification

High Closely linked

subroutines Not easily broken

down Practiced as a whole

ExamplesCartwheel Running

Low Subroutines can be

separated Skill is easily broken

down into parts

ExamplesSwimming Triple Jump

Continuity Continuum

Discrete Obvious

start and end to the movement ExampleDiving

Serial Discrete

elements linked together

ExampleTriple Jump

Continuous No clear

beginning or end to the skill

ExampleCycling

Muscles Used

Gross Large muscle

groups used. Large

movements ExamplesRunning

Kicking

Fine Small muscle

groups used. Small/fine

movements ExamplesPistol shooting

Darts

Pacing ContinuumExternal

Action is controlled by external factors.

Performer is not in control of the rate of the action

Often open skills ExamplesTackle Rafting

Self Action is controlled

by performer Performer is in

control of the rate of the action

Often closed skills ExamplesTennis Serve Golf

shot

Characteristics of Ability Ability is………

Genetic Comes from our parents

Stable We don’t lose it!

Foundation for skill Base for learning skills

Psychomotor Ability

Psycho - Processing information Motor - Movement Therefore ; processing information

then moving. Eg – a fielder in cricket throwing the ball

at the stumps. P – Where am I in relation to the

stumps?M – Throwing the ball at the stumps!

Gross Motor Ability Movement using large muscle

groups. Types include;

Speed Strength Stamina Balance Flexibility Co-ordination

Information Processing Basic

Schmidt’s Model

Welford's Model

Whiting’s Model

Key Terms

Basic Model

BASIC MODEL

I NPUT

D ECI SI ONM AKI NG

OUTPUT

FEED BACK

Schmidt’s Model•STIMULUSthis is the input from the environment / surroundings•STIMULUS IDENTIFICATIONrefers to the reception and interpretation of sensory information•RESPONSE SELECTIONis responsible for decision making•RESPONSE PROGRAMMINGconcerned with the sending of movement information via the nerves to the muscles•OUTPUTis movement resulting from the process

- STI M ULUS(input)

STI M ULUSI D ENTI FI CATI ON

R ESPONSESELECTI ON

R ESPONSEPR OGR AM M I NG

R EACTI ONTI M E

M OVEM ENT(output)

Welford’s Model

STI M ULI

D I SPLAY

PER CEPTUAL M ECHANI SM

D ECI SI ON M ECHANI SM

EFFECTOR M ECHANI SM

M OVEM ENT(output)

M USCULAR SYSTEM

R ESPONSE

I NTR I NSI C FEED BACK

SENSOR Y I NFOR M ATI ON

DISPLAYrefers to the range of actions and things that are happening in the surrounding environment of the performer PERCEPTUAL MECHANISMthe part of the brain which perceives the surroundingsDECISION MECHANISMthe part of the brain which makes decisionsEFFECTOR MECHANISMthe part of the brain which carries out the decisions and sends messages to the limbs and parts of the body which act out the relevant skill INTRINSIC FEEDBACKfeedback as to what actually happens to the body via the proprioceptors which inform the brain about balance, muscle tensions, limb positions and angles EXTRINSIC FEEDBACKfeedback via the result (response) of the actions madethe results of which feed back as part of the display

Whiting’s ModelRECEPTOR SYSTEMS•refers to the sense organs which receive information

PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM•the part of the brain which perceives the surroundings and gives them meaning

TRANSLATORY MECHANISM•the part of the brain which makes decisions and sorts out and processes the few relevant bits of information from the many inputs from the surroundings

EFFECTOR MECHANISM•the part of the brain which carries out the decisions and sends messages to the limbs and parts of the body via the nervous system

Key Terms Display – The physical environment in which the person is

performing. (eg – display would be team-mates, where are the opposition, the ball, the pitch etc etc)

Perceptual mechanisms – Interpretation of the information received by the senses.

Effector Mechanisms – Motor programmes or schemas are selected and developed. (what and how am I going to do it!)

Muscular System – Muscles receive relevant motor programme or plan of action and a movement is initiated.

Input – information received from the environment via the sense organs – easier with a stronger stimulus (ie loud, bright, unusual)

Visual (see), Auditory (hear), Proprioception (how our body is orientated and the extent to which muscles are contracted or joints extended)

3 parts to Proprioception Touch (feel – pain, temperature, pressure) Equilibrium (sense that tells the brain when your body is

balanced and when it is tipping, turning or inverting) Kinaesthesis (Sense that informs the brain of the movement

or state of contraction of the muscles, tendons and joints)

Memory

Short TermSensoryStore

SelectiveAttention

Short TermMemory(STM)

Long TermMemory(LTM)

Motor Plan

Info from STM is encoded to

LTMInfo from LTM is retrieved by recall,

imagery and recognition.

Short Term Sensory Store

Gets all the information from the display (environment)

Almost limitless Retains information for 0.5-1

second Moves onto Selective attention

part of the process.

Selective Attention

The filtering system of the process. Decides on the relevant from the

irrelevant Relevant information passes into the

Short Term Memory Irrelevant is discarded. This prevents the STM from being

overloaded.

Short Term Memory

Holds between 7(+-2) pieces of information

For 30 seconds Motor plan is initiated by one

decision Capacity is increased by

“chunking” information together

Long Term Memory

Almost limitless Information is encoded from STM Information is retrieved from LTM

to STM in order to initiate movement.

Retention strategies for LTM

Practice, Overlearning, Repetition Link information to that already

stored/relate to past experiences Make information meaningful/relevant Experience is enjoyable/novel/interesting Use of visual imagery/mental rehearsal Reward and reinforce success Chunk/group information together Intensify the stimulus Make information unique/unusual

Reaction Time

Reaction/Movement/Response Time

Hicks Law

Factors affecting RT

PRP

Anticipation

Definitions

Reaction Time Simple (one stimulus/one response) Choice (one or more stimulus/more responses)

Movement Time (time from start of movement to its completion)

Response Time = Reaction Time + Movement Time RUN!!!

Reaction Time : Movement Time………………….--------------------------RESPONSE

TIME------------------------------------------------------

Hicks Law

Choice Reaction Time

As the number of stimuli increases so does RT.

Factors affecting RT

Age RT deteriorates with time

Sex males are generally faster than females

Predictability of stimulus Anticipation

correct anticipation decreases RT and incorrect increases RT.

Intensity of stimulus Psychological Refractory Period

presentation of a 2nd stimulus to react to. Experience

How can coaches improve response time?

Improving Response time

Practice Mental

Rehearsal Experience S-R

compatibility Warm Up Arousal Levels Selective

attention Fitness Cue detection

eg practicing sprint starts Attending to the correct cues Similar to practice – awareness of a

stimulus occurring Normal responses to a stimulus will

decrease RT Preparation of body for activity Optimum level of arousal Focussing on the relevant information

available Improving it! Analysing opponents behaviour and

anticipating future events

Psychological Refractory Period

Or…………….. S1 – Ronaldo taking a free kick R1 – Petr Cech moving to his left to save it S2 – Ball deflects off the wall to the right R2 – Cech trying to go right to save it.

PRP continued

Psychological Refractory Period or PRP is the delay caused because of an increase in processing time when the first stimulus is closely followed by a second stimulus e.g. an attacker pretends to go one way by dropping their shoulder (first stimulus) then pushes off on the other leg (second stimulus) and goes in a different direction.

This explains why a "dummy" or "fake" is so successful. The time delay this causes is the Psychological

refractory period. The time it takes you to change your mind.

This slows the reaction time of the performer, as the first piece of information needs to be cleared before the second can be processed.

Anticipation This is the ability to predict future events from early signals

or past experience. It relies on experience to recognise stimuli and cues that

allow the performer to process information before an event occurs e.g. an experienced batsman would watch the bowlers hand and arm action to guess the type of delivery. A novice would watch the ball bounce before deciding which shot to play.

Benefits of anticipation - reduces your reaction time, leaving you in greater control.

Costs of anticipation - if you are wrong in your anticipation, you have to cancel the first response and reprocess. This increases your reach in time.

How to prevent someone anticipating your action: - be unpredictable

- disguise your action- randomise

Feedback

Intrinsic

Extrinsic

Functions

Intrinsic

Comes from within. The “feel” of the movement

Eg balancing during a headstand Via proprioceptors and Kinaesthesis Mainly used in Autonomous phase of

learning Difficult for Cognitive stage of

learning people – novices.

Extrinsic

From external sources – coaches/teachers etc

Very important for beginners as they have not got the experiences to use intrinsic feedback

Functions

To ....................... reinforce correct actions

To ....................... correct faults To ....................... strengthen S-R

bond To ....................... prevent bad

habits To ....................... increase

confidence

Motor Programmes/Schema

Motor Programmes

Schema Theory

Motor Programmes Are a set of movements that are

stored in long term memory. They contain subroutines The plan is updated after the skill is

performed

Practical example of a tennis serve

Motor Programme example

Tennis Serve

Grip StanceBallToss

Swing ContactFollow

through

Schema Theory

Used to explain how we can “pick up” new skills that have never been attempted before.

A general schema is developed and modifies for different scenarios.

Eg – A schema for throwing. Allows for javelin throwing, darts, bowling, throwing etc.

Schema cntd 4 Parameters to the schema theory (explained using

a football pass) Initial Conditions – What are the conditions I am in?

What is the weather conditions like? Where are the opposition? Where are my team-mates?

Response Specifications – What am I going to have to do? Which direction am I going to pass the ball? How hard am I going to pass? What height is the ball going to go?

Sensory Consequences – What did it feel like? How did the pass “feel” (Kinaesthesis) Was it off the “sweet spot” of the foot? Was it not connected with properly?

Movement Outcomes – Was it successful? Did the pass reach my team-mate? Was it intercepted? Did the pass allow us to attack?

Recall SchemaRecognition Schema

Loop Control

Open Loop

Closed Loop

Open Loop Control

Performer receives feedback but it does not affect the skill until after the movement has finished

This is because the skill is too fast/ballistic Eg – a golf swing.

More likely with closed skills Level 1 control

Closed Loop Control

This is where feedback can be used to alter the skill during the performance Eg balancing on a beam – information is being

received and the body can adapt based on that information.

Changes that happen are from the effector mechanism

Comparison between current performance and memory trace

Level 2 control - subconscious Level 3 control - conscious

Motivation/Arousal

Intrinsic

Extrinsic

Drive Theory

Inverted U Theory

Drive Reduction Theory

Intrinsic

Intrinsic motivation comes from within

Performing for its own sake The enjoyment and self

achievement of an activity Intangible rewards

Extrinsic

This type of motivation comes from an outside source Eg trophies, money, awards

Extremely useful for those in the cognitive stage of learning.

Needs to be kept in check so it does not undermine intrinsic motivation

Drive Theory As arousal increases so does

performance. Novice – performance will suffer because dominant habit is incorrect

Skilled – performance will be enhanced because dominant habit is correct

Inverted U Theory

As arousal increases so does performance. up to an optimum point (zone of optimum

arousal) Before that performance decreases due to

under arosual After the zone of optimum, performance

decreases due over arousal.

Drive Reduction Theory

Shows how new tasks or goals are used to re-motivate the performer Firstly there must be a drive to learn Then the skill is practiced Drive is reduced when skill is learnt Too much practice leads to

boredom A new task/goal must be introduced

to recreate a…

Learning Theories

S-R bonds

Thorndike's Laws

Operant Conditioning

Cognitive theories

Social Learning

S-R Bonds

S-R bonds. S = stimulus R = response

A S-R bond is the link between a stimulus and a response.

Example S = A starters gun in athletics R = GO!!!!

Thorndike's Laws Law of exercise

PRACTICE. The more a skill is practiced the stronger the S-R bond. A performer practices the tennis serve.

Law of Effect SATISFIER/INHIBITOR

If the performance receives a satisfier (praise for example) it strengthens the S-R bond. (a rugby player sees the kick going over)

If the performance receives an inhibitor (criticism for example) it weakens the S-R bond. (a golfer misses the green)

Law if Readiness PHYSICALLY/MENTALLY CAPABLE

Performer needs to be physically able to lift weights! Performer must be mentally capable to process the

offside law in football

Operant conditioning

The process of shaping behaviour Done by performer using trial and

error Done by the coach manipulating

the environment (eg – you can only hit it to the back

of the court) Praise helps learning

Cognitive Theories Intervening Variables

Mental processes occurring between receiving the stimulus and the response

Insight learning Using memory to solve a problem

Perception Interpreting the information on offer

Past experiences Past schema’s or motor programmes can be

used in the situation Whole learning

The skill is best seen as a whole and not in parts

Social Learning Theory

Attention Amount of notice given to the demonstration The higher the status of the model, the more

notice given Retention

A mental picture of the demo needs to be created in order for the performer to remember the skill

Easier if the demo is novel/relevant/meaningful Reproduction

Learner must be physically capable to perform the skill following the demo

Demo’s must link to the competence levels of the performers

Reinforcement

Positive

Negative

Positive

Any action or reward to increases the chance of the behaviour reoccurring. Eg Giving some extrinsic reward when

a long badminton serve is correct.

Negative

Used to ensure that undesirable responses are not repeated

Not to be done with beginners, will de motivate.

Performers in the autonomous stage of learning would be more suited to accept criticism

Phases of learning

Cognitive

Associative

Autonomous

Cognitive

First stage of learning where many mistakes occur

Trial and error Movement pattern maybe very jerky and

lacking fluency The performer has to think about the skill Beginners need accurate demo’s Mental Rehearsal occurs from the demo Performers needs extrinsic feedback as

they do not know the skill. Performer requires positive feedback

Associative

Practicing is important at this stage Smoother actions, less mistakes than

Cognitive stage Kinaesthetic feedback can be used,

but extrinsic feedback is still important The performer has to think less about

the action and motor programmes formed

Autonomous

Movement is fluent/efficient - can be performed automatically

Performer can now focus on tactics/strategies

Performer can refer back to previous stage if needed

Expert can use intrinsic feedback and knowledge of performance

Practice

Massed

Distributed

Varied

Whole

Whole/Part/Whole

Progressive Part

Massed

Practice sessions with no breaks Repeated attempts at a skill,

grooving of a skill More physical work is possible in

one session Good for developing Kinaesthesis Allows the learner to experience

the flow of the skill

Distributed

Practice sessions with breaks involved Good for beginners or less experienced

performers. Or if the task is dangerous/complex/physically demanding

Mental rehearsal can take place in the breaks

Allows sessions to be increasingly demanding

Not as tiring or boring. Allows sessions to be varied.

Varied

Good to experience a wide range of experience

Helps build up schema Good for open skills

Whole learning

Teaching a skill as a whole, not in parts [Cognitive theory of learning]

Benefits of teaching the skill as a whole

Insight of whole skill gained/overview Kinaesthetic feel for skill Skill more fluent/can't be broken down Takes less time Transfer to full/game situation easier

Whole/Part/Whole

Skill is tried as a whole, then the bits are practiced

Then put together again for the whole skill

whole part whole methodABCD --> A --> B --> C --> D --> ABCD

Progressive Part

Teach first subroutine - eg run up in triple jump [A]

Teach second – take off [B] Third subroutine – landing; and add

it to the first [C] Teach final skill as a whole – [A]-

[B]-[AB]-[C]-[ABC] Subroutines are chained

Guidance Visual - demonstration (teacher/pupil/video etc)

Very important in COGNITIVE STAGE demos must be accurate as modelling occurs

Verbal - often accompanies visual guidance used with more component performers not too much – overload of information Can be used to condition a response

Manual - Use of physical support Useful for giving confidence Useful for safety reasons eg – supporting a gymnast

Mechanical - Using a mechanical aid Gives confidence and safety eg – stabilisers of a bike Gives an idea of kinaesthetic sense of movement not to be overdone – performer may become reliant

Transfer of Learning

Types 1

Types 2

Why negative transfer occurs

How can positive transfer occur?

Learning transferThe influence of one skill on another. Positive

Where one skill helps the learning of another skill [over arm throw – badminton clear]

Negative Where one skill hinders the learning of

another skill [badminton wrist action – tennis wrist]

Zero Where the two skills have no interrelation

at all. [horse riding – football]

Transfer of Learning cntd Bilateral

Transferring from one limb to another [using weaker foot for kicking a football from preferred foot]

Proactive The influence of a skill already learnt for

one in the future [tennis forehand – tennis forehand topspin]

Retroactive The influence of a skill being learnt on one

already done [hockey flick – to lifting a hockey push pass]

Why may negative transfer occur?

1) The performer doesn’t understand the task requirements

2) First skill isn't learnt very well 3) Lack of motivation 4) Familiar stimulus is followed by

an unfamiliar response S-R Bond. 5) Coach doesn’t draw attention to

the differences!

How can a teacher ensure positive transfer?

Emphasise the transferable elements Environmental conditions need to be similar Tactics/Strategies/Information processing

elements need to be similar Similar skills Previous skills need to be well learned The more similar S-R characteristics the

greater chance of transfer Positive previous experiences/positive

values assist transfer Reinforcement/Positive feedback/praise