Should We Mind the Gap

8/23/2019 Should We Mind the Gap

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Should We Mind the Gap?

Gender Pay Dierentials and Public Policy


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j . r s h a c k l e t o n

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isbn 978 0 255 36604 5

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typ i s by MGuu ld

[email protected]

Pid d bud i G Bii by hbb Pi

About the author 7

Foreword 8

Acknowledgements 12

Summary 13

List of tables and gures 15

1 Ituti 19

2 Wat i te ee pay ap i te UK? 24

t big piu 24

Vii 27

3 Iteatia mpai 34

4 Te ea piti 40

5 Expaii te vea pay ap 45

cmpig diffi 46

Diimii 48

emi yi f py gp 53

lify, pf, iud, xpi 60

conTEnTs


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7

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8 s u we reallymi te ap? 93

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six impib ig bf bf 103

I ui 104

References 106

Aut te IEA 114

Ordering IEA publications 127

ThE AUThor

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emi affi wi Training Too Much?, Trouble in

Store?(wi ty Bu)dEmployment Tribunals.


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p h i l i p b o o t h

Editorial and Programme Director

Institute of Economic Affairs

Professor of Insurance and Risk Management,

Sir John Cass Business School, City University

augu 2008


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sUMMArY

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AcKnoWlEdgEMEnTs

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Pid d P Uwi.


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TAblEs And FIgUrEs

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1 InTrodUcTIon


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4 BBc wbi: p://w.bb..u/2/i/up/6904434.m.


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25

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2 26 ju 2008.

2 WhAT Is ThE gEndEr PAY gAP In ThE

UK?

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qud gu. o i bi, Uk gd gp i uy -

ig1 w 17.2 p i api 2007. ti gu i fquy

1 Mud m m ig miu m fm ig, xpd pg f m m ig: [(e

m e

f)/e

m]*100. t d ud fm

Figure 1 The full-time gender pay gap in the UK

Note: See explanation in note 1. These figures are for full-time hourly earnings excluding overtime.Source: Authors calculations from Office of National Statistics data

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

0

5

10

15

20

25

Mean

Median


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8 Idd, d fm lbu F suvy ugg mdi py gp iuy giv f i g gup i wd, wm i fu-im mpy-m m m (l, 2008).

9 t u f if-y d ff wi dpd iviz f diff g .

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m iy i pubi , i 12.5 p , i -

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p , w su-e, wi m w n

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i wi fw 25 mpy w 12.4 p bu

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2008).

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30


31

wi id w 38.3 u; wi p- id

25.4 (Pu, 2008).

Table 1 Meia uy eai a ee pay ap u-time

wki-ae empyee, ApiJue 2007Median hourly

earnings

male

Median hourly

earnings

female

Gender pay

gap %

All 10.70 9.47 11.5

Married/cohabiting/

partner

11.54 9.87 14.5

Single/widowed/

divorced/separated

8.72 8.82 1.1

No dependent children 10.23 9.41 8.0

1 dependent child 10.63 9.32 12.32 dependent children 12.49 10.63 14.9

3 dependent children 11.54 9.35 19.0

4 or more dependent

children

11.22 7.24 35.5

Source: Labour Force Survey data, rom Leaker (2008)

t i imp pi m i i pid

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ub idid, iidy, by f i 29 p

f Uk ud wm mu m i m

p (Berr, 2008: 11).

12 ov 70 p f Uk wig-g wm f Bgdi igi mi-y iiv.

Table 2 Mea uy eai a ee pay ap i u-time wk,

20012005

Ethnic group Male earnings () Female earnings

()

Pay gap (%)

White British 11.59 9.65 16.7Indian 12.45 10.28 17.4

Pakistani 9.32 8.31 10.8

Bangladeshi 7.05 8.94 26.8

Black Caribbean 10.34 10.50 1.5

Black Arican 10.17 9.38 7.8

All minoritygroups

11.07 10.07 9.0

All ethnic groups 11.57 9.73 15.9

Note: All earnings fgures in 2005 s

Source: Labour Force Survey data, calculated rom Platt (2006)

ti b giv fu fd f ug.11 ni i pi-

u w i w w i gup w gd py gp i

ppy vd, wi B cibb m ig

B cibb wm d Bgdi m gig

Bgdi wm. t mi f i iuiv f

yi f py gp. B cibb wm b

quid i m quiv; y d mdy b

i d uiviy. B cibb wm miy b ud i i

11 I pp by P (2006) fm wi gu , py gp p-d diffy: y d by mpi wi wi Bii m.ti m dd pp, ug pp vig f bif wiBii m gup piuy pivigd. I f ug vi-i i py f wi Bii m, my f wm pid vy bdy. n m f Idi iiy mdy m vg wi Biim.


18/64

34

i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n s

35

v b wig bf yu py piu. t iw b piiv i bw fm bu

f piipi d iz f gd py gp (oecD,

2002), iud i Figu 2.

cui u Iy d spi, wi w fm pii-

pi , d v f xib bu m

m i wwi f mpy iu f ig

w-id mpy d f w-id w

3 InTErnATIonAl coMPArIsons

W d Uk pp dipy ivy g

gd py gp i i ui. ti d b

quid. t idb d pbm w mpig

diff ui: f xmp, ashe md f uig x

d wud b ib i ui u G d

Iy, w vid ugg ig v f x

vi (eup cmmii, 2004). nv, mp-i ivib d u f d, my lbu

F suvy, wi dud mpb bi

eup, b ud. t m d f 2006, pubid

by eu, ugg y Gmy, cypu, ei d

svi mg eU ui v g m gd py

gp.1

Bu d i m wm gig piuy

w d i Uk? n iy. F ig, diud

i, ig mdi m py gp wud ivii bw ui. W d b w

py gp, igy gggd ii mu, i div

by f immdiy bviu u bv.

F xmp, imp bu imp pi m i yu

1 a eup ui w w fu-im gd py gp. ti gp , w-v, b fig i iz v im eU (eup Fudi f Impvm f livig d Wig cdii, 2006).

Figure 2 Female labour force participation* and the gender paygap in nineteen EU countries, 2006

*Percentage of females aged 1564 who are economically active. (Source: OECD)The figures used to calculate this are full-time gross hourly earnings; note that this is a slightlydifferent measure from that used in Figure 1 because of the need for comparability with data fromacross the EU.Source: Eurostat

0

5

10

15

20

25

45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Genderpaygap(%)

Female labour force participation (%

f(x) = 0.38x 9.34R? = 0.33

)


19/64


36


37

gd quiy, i i dui i gd py gp

umbiguuy gd ig. W i y u f biw i Gmy, f Bi W m dw,

w -pi f i ggg py gp? F i w

gy qu f xi f g umb f -

id fm wf i umpym iiviy (hu,

2002). o, ypi mig m, wud i b

bd ig if fm bu f piipi i Bg-

di mmuiy v ug i wud m iy d

igy xd b. s m fm w w i spi d Iy

iy b ivy igy id d dud;

d i difu iy uwdig g w.2 t -

qu i ui gd py gp m, bu

y mp ig f m f i v wi f miiy f ivy igy id fm. By , u-

i u Uk, Gmy d Dm, wi pvid my

ppuii f ivy w-pid w f wm, xibi

g gd py gp. s i i x, py gp ud

b ud i ii ummi uy dg f gd

quiy iquiy m pi w md i i

Bgdi wm i pviu p.

t pi i fu div m by eubm

dig iud i Figu 3. suvy pd eup Ui w d i 2006 y w y bivd

x diimii i i uy b vy widpd, fiy

widpd, fiy vy . Iy d spi, dpi

i md py gp, w p f gu i m f

pivd diimii, wi 56 p d 55 p f

pd pivy yig i w fiy vy widpd i

i uy. By ppi f diimii i

Uk w dw eU vg f 40 p , wi Gmy,

dpi vig g gd py gp mg meU ui, pd xmy w gu f 21 p

(eup cmmii, 2007).

If gd py gp i pf idi f uy

2 t xm xmp f i pm fm uid eup: Bipp v positive gd py gp f ud 40 p . t i, wm vg mu m m. Vy fw wm w, bu y -d i w-pid b (ItUc, 2008: 12).

Figure 3 The gender pay gap* and national perceptions of genderdiscrimination in the EU, 2006

*Defined as in Figure 2.Percentage of population saying gender discrimination in their country is widespread or verywidespread.Source: Eurobarometer

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Perceiveddiscrimination(%)

Gender pay gap (%)

ItalySpain

SwedenFrance

PortugalCyprus

Hungary

Malta

Greece

Czech Republic

UK

Slovenia

Belgium Lithuania

Luxembourg

SlovakiaRomaniaNetherlands

Austria

PolandEstonia

DenmarkIreland

FinlandBulgaria

Germany

Latvia


20/64


38


39

pubi i piv , mid i. t g

pd f uy ig diibui,5 g

pib iz f i py gp (wi i i iy pib f

fm d m ig p pdu g m py

gp i wi mpd diibui, i i uiy u p f ig ).

Ii mpi, f, ugg Uk

gd py gp i uiquy g, d gi mpi

ddii idi y i d m pp

mpi. Vii i dmgpi f w m

wy mi idi v.

5 My f wi p v py uu d u dg f m-pi. t wi iud idui uu d x f mpi-i. Diff iv bgiig gim my v imp. I F,f xmp, w v 90 p f py i ivy bgid f, uiy py m f i pig py uu i Uk.

i gd py gp, i u, -

quid wm d wf?

My udi v d f guii i -uy

mpi. amg dig, i m iz f

uy gd py gp i piivy id wi i fiiy, wi ubdwif g gp mig, d

mgi f im x.3 t dig m w

y ug ug. t ig fiiy , g

vg umb f id i mig pip, d

g im wm i iy pd u f wf

mig u i iy v mid u

b pgi d pmi ppuii, d my d

i v dpid. t ig ubdwif g diff-

, m iy i i ubd wi b ig m wif, d dmi divii f bu wi

i pii, wi m piiig i bu m iviy d

wm fuig dmi iviy (y iv i f

bu dig du ud im). t ig

mgi x , iv i wi b f wm w

xp pd im u f wf iv i du-

i, iig d fm f um pi, d i

ig pw wi b w.

Fiy, m b m vid f giv -ii bw py gp d dg f mpi f

wg uu.4 agi i m puib: i i m

f piip wi pdu m Uk gd py gp i

3 P d Xig (2006).4 Bu d k (1992). Bu oecD y mmd i

pp b iy du fw ui wi wg dipi f fm oecD vg (oecD, 2008: 147).


21/64

40

t h e l e g a l p o s i t i o n

41

bid equ oppuii cmmii (eoc),

d wi miig impmi f w, dvi

pmi f qu m f m d wm d iig

mpi. t eoc, mgd i 2007 wi cmmii f

ri equiy d Dibiiy rig cmmii fm equiy d hum rig cmmii, w f my y

m ppgdi f fu xi f quiy.

t eup equ Py Diiv, ipd wiu

mu uim i Uk w by t gvm i

1983, bid piip f qu py v m

w ... w wi qu vu i ibud, piip

mu wid impii f py dmii, f

wm v iiy dd w i diff b fm

m. t p f qu vu, w mpbw, i diud i i pp.

I Uk fu gii pmd quiy i

wp, m y ug Gd equiy Duy,

wi fm 2007 quid pubi uii (vguy

dd, bu gig wy byd gvm d

uii iud nhs, d uivii)

pm gd quiy d mv miig x diim-

ii. I ddii i ig f mpy qui i

b bu w i py mp wi i gi-i dig imi w.2

m, d i pvii f gd d vi vd.2 a mpi mpy f w pi qui bu py

i dd fm. empym ibu dw dv ui fmimp viv w. I ju 2008 gvm ud iwud gi fu p i py. I pui, ug ppvig, xpi, hi hm, Mii f Wm d equiy, di mpwig fu (Financial Times,26 ju 2008).

4 ThE lEgAl PosITIon

equ py b fu f Uk w i 1970, w

equ Py a md i uwfu f mpy m d

wm uquy i m f py d dii, w i

w idd ug v-y pid f g m

i did bm piv ui 1975. o iig

eup cmmuiy ( eup Ui) i 1973, Uk

igd up eup w, bid ud ty frm, ai 119 ( ai 141) f wi bid pi-

ip f qu mui f qu w bw m d

wm w. t dpi f eup w gd Uk

giiv pvii, ai 141 dp wid di-

i f mui equ Py a. a qu,

i w eup cu f jui uig wi bug pi

m wii p f py quiy.

t sx Diimii a 1975 md uqu m

uwfu i p f mpym, f xmp ui-m, pmi, f bw b, iig, dudy

d dimi. a f, f u, v impii

f py d u v gd py gp. 1 t a

1 t a, mdm, v u m xu m w w i b bug gi fw mpy w m-py. td ui b md w i pi ug bdiimiy. Viu fm f pi diimii uid wp f xmp, i uivii d , i ub d p f i-


22/64


42

t h e l e g a l p o s i t i o n

43

o g iiiiv wi v qu py iud

miy ig. t empym Pi a f 1975

idud uy miy py d b pi f

imid pid duig miy v f wm w d b

wi i mpy f w y (fu im) v y (p

im). a 1994 eup cu f jui dii xdd ig wm w v wd duig pgy. t pid f

pid v b xdd m 26 w i

2005 d wm fu upid v d i

i b pi.3

t i ig im ff w f ig

3 sm imid piy v w idud i 2003 bu b i ud.

An employer contesting a claim has to prove that the

dierence between your pay and that o the comparator

results rom a genuine material actor other than gender.

Such a actor cannot arise rom indirect discrimination (e.g.the requirement to possess a particular qualifcation which is

not strictly necessary and which one gender is less likely than

the other to possess). Possible deences might include market

conditions, movements up an incremental pay scale, previous

job evaluations or pay protection under a red circling

arrangement though in each o these cases tribunals and

the courts have taken a narrower view over time as to what is

a permissible deence.

A fnding in your avour can lead to a rise in pay to that o

the comparator, plus compensation in the orm o back payor up to six years.

Equa pay aim

You can make a claim or equal pay by comparing your job

with that o a member o the opposite sex (the comparator)

in three ways:

Like work

Your job must be the same, or broadly similar: minor

dierences will be examined to see whether they justiy

dierent pay.

Work rated as equivalent

A valid job evaluation scheme, compatible with the Equal Pay

Act, has rated your job as equivalent to the comparator.

Work of equal value

Your job has not been evaluated, but (though it can be very

dierent in nature) is claimed to involve the same level o

skills as that o the comparator: an employment tribunal will

appoint an independent expert to evaluate the job.

The comparator must be a person o the opposite sex.

Note that men can claim equal pay with a better-paid

emale: though such cases are rare, they are not unknown.

A comparator could be a predecessor (or a successor) in the

same job role. He or she must be employed by the same orassociated employers, though the ull meaning o this has

still to be established because o ambiguities between UK

and European law. Comparisons can be made with dierent

elements o a contract. For instance, you can make a case i,

although your basic pay is the same as your comparator, you

receive a smaller bonus.


23/64


44 45

pibiii d ig qu xib wig. ti w

idud by cviv i empym rig a

f 1996 d i b xdd. I i diud i

pp.

a pvii iy v im ff py by migi i f wm i i xiig mpym fwig

idbi. Wm f iy u by vig

im u f wf d piby vig u w

f py ( cp 6).

5 EXPlAInIng ThE oVErAll PAY gAP

W v w bid i f bu Uk py

gp, d wy i wi i i ub w. I i p

viu pib xpi f diff i m d

fm ig xmid.

W ud bgi by ig w dmi py, i g

m, i mpiiv m. I u m w wud

xp vybdy m. I u, wg dmid impy by uppy d dmd. If i udd

i i dmd f ui w bu w

udgud i i big bui, d imid uppy f

wi y i, wg wi i. Bu i g m,

m w wi b d i ui, pp fm

bd, w i upi wi i. lg m,

i i pib big py diffi pi if pp p

uiqu i i ig dmd cii rd,

Md v j r. M viy, ig py b miid if ii y i d f

mpym. smim i wi b u f g bi

y i pfi d wy, f xmp bu i i

f bd by pfi bdi d ui, wi bby

f ig bi y p i pivig.

s h o u l d w e m i n d t h e g a p ? e x p l a i n i n g t h e o v e r a l l p ay g a p


24/64


46

e x p l a i n i n g t h e o v e r a l l p ay g a p

47

cmpeati ieetia

ev w pp f w-pid d f mpy-

m, wv, y my d . lg g adm

smi, i i Wealth of Nations, p u v wy

m w iy m . hi igfm bi f md id f mpig diff-

i w b uiv my v b wdd

wi ig py if y ufi w.

o f i w smi d difuy d xp

f ig b. sm fm f mpym qui y f

iig, dui d w xpi giy d

um pi (B, 1993). t quiii f um pi

ypiy ivv m i i m f im d

fg ig, v if di pid by mpy, d w wi xp b mpd by

ig py. ti i y v diui f gd py

gp, bu wm iy diff fm m i i

i um pi.

n, wv, mu f x py quid wi

vy, smi gu, wi gb digb

f b. appy dmi b i ig-ig

dpm oxfd i ufi ud ff ig

y bib i uivii (B ., 2002). By, n s i ig, f xmp, wi my

b pid m imiy id wig i iy. Bu

w pmium i pid, d i iz, wi dpd

d pf f idividu. If, v im, oxfd bm v-

wdd d iv iy, uiviy wi v py

m b dmi. If f dvp

f wig , i pmium wi dimii dipp. ti

i pi diui f py gp, f wm pf

i i b my diff ymiy fm f m,

w .

I i y diud i db v py gp, bu p

f xpi f m ig vg py ud w b i mpig diffi f iv wig

dii.1 M m iy w uid i w.

ty m iy w ui u.2 tiy-ix p

f m mg w m 48 u w; gu f

wm mg i y 18 p .3 M uff mu ig

f idui iuy.4

lig my w, w wm

b i: i m fm nvmb 2007

juy 2008, w 3.4 dudi p ud fmmpy; gu f m w 5.3. Wm m iy

g mpy-pvidd iig: 13.6 p f fm d

ivd b-d iig i fu w i id

qu f 2007, gi 11.3 p f m. ty v

mmuig im w (Wm d W cmmii,

1 Mnbb (1989) d , ig f um pi vib, mu w- bi wg pmium f ivi u, b iuiy d ufvu-b wig dii.

2 a g ppi f m f wm w sudy, f xmp (eu-, 2008: 86).3 n m d w v, iudig dmi w, wm

dpi ppu bif. ni tim U uvy idi m gd 2544pd igy m im i i w, b pid d upid, wm(ibid.: 111).

4 I 2006/07, m w w d f im m iy wm uff m iuy w. Dvi . (2007) d vid f igi mp-ig py diffi f i f m id i, f xmp, p,p d miy upi i Uk. Gzi (2007) d imi uf i f d wid i f mpyd ppui.



25/64


48


49

2006) d m im ff w. n wd, pp,

y p g b ifi m (B d v

ou, 2008).

t impii f i i u gd py gp my b

mud , m py my iud mf mpi f iv wig dii. ti i

igd i my mpii udi d i i iu mii.

diimiati

Diimii i f imp xpi f

gd py gp. t p d m ii bf w

i bif.

Diimii i wd gd i mmmig. W i w mig wy f pi

i mbdy dipyig diimii bw pi-

ig pi f mui i w uuy m mig ufi,

upb d, i iig umb f , ig.

emi yi f ub ffivy bg wi

w f Gy B i 1950 (B, 1957). I B

yi, mpy, fw mpy d gvm my

gg i diimii, wi ip m-

iy uuid pf f gup v , u mmb f fvud gup wud b m iy b

giv b, b pid m, wi d b

gup gup. B piu iig w

i pf, i f diimii, ud b

d i if, mig f id

diimi. F xmp, mpy mig pf i m

fm w v if i w m xpiv. I

i p B diffd fudmy fm Mxi d

ii f piim w w diimii m f

xpiig ubdi gup b f diimi.

If i f diimii xi, i may b mifd

i xi f py gp. ti i iy ,wv. If igu w pv wm big pid

m, diimiig m my impy i fw wm, bu

y wi b pid m m. s B yi upp

pi md i i i Iy d spi: iz f

py gp i if d y vy mu bu x f

diimii.

Fm B yi, igiy ppid i diff,

i fwd diimiig m wud i wi w,

py m ig wg, b w f idi upi pduiviy ii. Bu, d, i bv-

iu wud i . If mpy w w u-bid

d m, y wud b b udu diim-

i d gi mpiiv dg.

Fm i, B gud , i mpiiv m w

-diimi w f , diimii wud b

uiy pi f g.5 I ud b fud w m d

mpy pw;6 i ud b fud w d ui

xid pw p wi w gi b, , i u

5 U, oecD pi u (2008: 151), diimi diffd ymi-y fm -diimi i wy fvud i mpiiv f i, dipyig g pui biiy. Bu m b-viu upp i b .

6 W m i dmi mpy i , i my b b gm b m d py diff diff gup f w wiu bigudu by m. su iui ud i if gd ggiud u f mpy b i.



26/64


50


51

x, m gi wm.7 Bu B, cig mi,

gud m pw ui diimii i uiy

pi f y xdd pid if f y f m i wd d

ui pw i imid. tf y uid diimiy

pw i b ibud gvm if i fm. apid su afi i bviu xmp. ad i

Usa, -d jim cw w i su uid bu

m diimii f my y: w y w bid

w big i i iv py f b w

dui i wi/b py gp i b -

ivy md (epi, 1992).

I u u x, i ud b mmbd gv-

m diimii gi wm w f qui xpii i

Uk ui mid-wi uy, wi diff py f m d wm ivi v d , quim

ig mig, d pibii wig i i

b.

a qui diff pp mi f diimi-

i w by aw (1972) d Pp (1972). I i viw,

mpy diimii w u f imp

pudi. r, i w i p impf w-

dg bu ii f idividu b ppi. ti

d i-v mpy p wi yp, wi

7 t iy my i i p w ui v impiiy x-piiy pd gup f m w gi diui by fm, d w dmd f fmiy wg fud m ud d. t im vid fm b Uk d aui di i ui gi 1970 i iiy id wi di i gd py gp(B d rii, 1998; P, 2003). M gy, x uip iid fm uid, d wm m iy f i - gy, y my xb py gp.

mig b u iu, f mm gup ii.

supp d i i u, wv i u wm

vg m im ff w m f i, mpy

mig d i gi fm b ppi v if, uw

mpy, idividu d w i i. suii diimii wud b miy i v if

ufi idividu i piu .8

a i B ig, wv, f mpii ug

du diimii. sm m mig d i i

qui m ifmi bu idividu, wud

b ppd m, bu y fd diff

d dmd dii. n m, f, wi bv

i m wy. Fum, idividu piv. ty

ig m ifmi bu mv d m m-v m ffivy pi mpy. o wy y ud

i piip d i i ff w f py duig i

pid. I m dvpd ui, wv, u i g-

m difu if impib bu f gii qu

py, miimum wg d mpym pi. agi, gv-

m my b p f pbm.

sm upp i giv mm B d aw/

Pp i f mpii d imi diimi-

i, wi m fm f gvm ivi i i, by pp by P d Xig (2006). t u d

8 I i pib dvp m piid vi f ii diimiii mui-g md. F xmp, B (2008) w quy idw fm diff i gd gup wi v diff pbbiiif ig p b i gii dpdig diff i vg iv, pii wi wi y ig i i pi ig bu m, d fquy wi wi y ig i i bfy.



27/64

52 53

ui wi g mi mpii, mud by

emi Fdm Idx, dipy w gd py gp. t

oecD y d imi ui, wi ddd

iig pdu m gui my b imp

f, by pig dippiy m iid fm w. I d guy bi mpii xpi

bw 20% d 40% f uy/im i vii i

gd wg gp (oecD, 2008: 161).

a v diimii i w ig, di vid f i

xi i d m by. sm udi v ud pd-

, w i m imid vid md b

ppii fm fm d m ii m iviw ff

f m. a xmp i f bid mui udii

wi ugg wm d b if y i pyig i d.9ad fu dumi f pi i, f i, u-

i idi pudi gi fm mpy. 10 Bu i

f vid i p.

t ig vid f diimii mig pi

g umb f mpym ibu v x diimi-

i d qu py iu vid f pbm. I i

iy u umb f u i y:

bw 2004/05 d 2006/07, umb f x diimi-

i pd by ibu fm 11,726 28,153, wiqu py fm 8,229 miv 44,013. t

b i did yi f gw f , bu i i

w w pi f id wi g i

9 Gdi d ru (2000) d wm muii igiym iy b id w y udiid bid igd i idd.

10 c . (2004).

w, d wi dv f -wi, -f wy. I i i-

ig, iidy, dippi umb f

gi pubi mpy,11 ug w v

gd py gp i mu m i pubi . t miy

f im w muip im bug gi ui-i d nhs, pdxiy u f idui

f jb evui sm imd ig py gp. ti i

diud i p.

lig piv , ug, i i y

m ppi f qu py d x diimii im

ud. t Wm d W cmmii xmid piv

qu py im fm 2000 2004 d fud y 25

d dii g, wi ppi wiig i y v

.Dpi i gwig umb, ibu bug

by y iy ppi f wf d y d

mu xpi ggg pm f v gd

py gp. ty f pdu iu m

fudm m: i f x diimii ibu

im y f bu iu u xu m,

buyig d ff iu diy d

py.

Emeti aayi te pay ap

Giv imid vid f di diimii, i yig

y py iquiy v iigy d

11 Vuy mpy v-pd mg ibu pd-.



28/64

54 55

mi w.12 a ubi iu i d wi

pig u p f v gd py gp

b ud f by v mi ii 13 d

idu p wi ud piby b ibub diimi-

i dd pyig diff mu m d wmf idi i d biii, d uuy iu

uiu bviu by miguidd mpy.

t g umb f udi v b md f py gp

i my diff ui vy idby i mdgy d

ui, bu m mm d. M udi u

ii iqu dvpd m imuuy

by ox d Bid (ox, 1973; Bid, 1973). ti dm-

p gd py gp i w p. t mp i

diff i py id wi diff i bvbii u xpi d dui. t d i

idu, wi my py u fm diimii.

t pdu ivv imig wg qui, 14

wi gim f wg y f dui, w

xpi d g f pduiviy-d -

ii vib i piu d i

uig. I ff fi f imd qui idi

w mu bu m py f ii. o

qui my b imd f m, d gifi ud u w wm wud v d

d i ii b wdd m py

12 emi u ii md y d iip bwmi vib.

13 su wi w w i cp 2 b id wi vii i iz f py gp.

14 Uuy d Mii fui f jb Mi, w dvpd iiqu, pid by B d ciwi (1966).

m. ti ypiy du py gp bw m d wm

qui igiy, vig uxpid m diff-

i u pduiviy-d ii f m

d fm.15

a wg qui my b imd fm d wm ig; fi i i gi b

ppid w m wud v d if i ii

d b pid m f wm. ti

b ud giv pib im f ppi f py

xpid by w ii, g wi idu

piy ibub diimii. aivy pd

gi my b ud (num, 1988).

si y udi, m piid mdig

dvpd. o pbm wi oxBid ppi mp i bi. W uig gd py gp,

uig d m d wm w i mpy-

m. My wm, wv, piy wi w v f

i d quii wi i i , my dp

u f wf d iv b d/ i-ud

f fm p. s wm w w my b uypi

f wm y m id d mmid fm,

15 a wy dib i, u by h (1996), i fw:t gim f wg i dmid by(1) g w

m= b

mX

mf m, w X

mi f pduiviy-d i-

i d bm

fi ii(2) g w

f= b

fX

fi pdig qui f wm

(3) t py gp bm: g wm

g wf= (b

m b

f)X

m+ b

f(X

m X

f).

t m ig-d id i diff i u -ii f m d wm, wi d m p diff i m f m d fm ii (.g. y f w xpi). t m i uxpid diff i u wi i f uy ibud diimii.



29/64

56 57

wi mpyd m wi v f wid pum f biiy

d mmim. t iz f udyig wg gp bw

w m d wm ud my f b ud-

imd, d ii xpi f gp u.

t hm i g ud i pbm by uig vib im pbbiiy f mpym f m d

wm, d u i fu xpy vib i wg

qui (hm, 1979).

o m v ivvd dvpm f i-

i mpi ug ju, Mupy d Pi

mdgy (ju ., 1991). ti pp um ii-

uii viw uu f py (iudig iv

bgiig ym) ff gd diffi. I ivv dm-

pig dw -uy diff i gd py gp byig uy bm, d yig py gp i

ui wi f py uu f uy.

s dmpii ivv xpiig diff i py gp

by f gd diff i bvd ii,

mp id wi -uy diff i wg

uu d uxpid m. sm iig w

b d wi i pp (oecD, 2002: . 2).

I i w mpiig gi y u-

imu i i i f mdig gy.16

ad quiy dvg f d ud i diff udi f v mu

b did. Wi m udi ugg i izb

uxpid idu py gp, i vi idby i iz,

d ppi f xpid gp id wi v

idividu d b ii.

16 s Gimw d ruby (2002) f iiqu f oxBid d ub-qu pp.

a diff pp dmpii i ud i w

d by Wdy o d syvi Wby f equ oppui-

i cmmii. a i b widy qud i Uk db, i

i w dibig i m di. o d Wby dp v

pp wi vid m f pbm y piv wi oxBid iqu. ty pf im ig

qui f m d wm wi pdu im f f-

i g f xpy vib. ty big u

iz f mi mp f py gp by imuig

ypi g wi wud b dd big wm

v f mp i i wi f m (o

d Wby, 2004: 24). ty u d fm Bii hud

P suvy (BhPs),17 d i u ummid i tb

3 vf.hw d i pp w? ti wg qui w

igi iip bw uy ig d, f xmp,

ppi f m i upi. ti ppi i

idi f gd ggi w, 18 wi i bivd by

my b m i ppuig py iquiy. t f-

i i vib i 0.13, wi m , ig

big qu, py i by 1.3 p f vy 10 p m

m i upi. s o d Wby imu ff

f iig ppi f m i vy fm-dmid17 t BhPs gd d f ifmi bu w iy, fmiy mmi-

m d , d i u ufu d u. eim f ggg wpy gp fm BhPs imi fm m widy ud nes/ashe d lbu F suvy.

18 If d f ggi xi i i iy pib f mpy di-imi bw m d wm i ig py, ug i i u wy ipibiiy wud if g py diffi. su diffi i iy f u w uv id wi iv ggpid upi mbiiy, wi uppy-id, mpy, ii.



30/64

58 59

upi gy 50 p . ti i w y m by

uggd wf. If i w b d, y d,

ig i gi wud i by vg f 2.5 p

, bu 10 p f mud py gp i i udy.

Table 3 dempi te ee pay ap i geat bitai, 2002

Factors associated with GB gender pay gap %

Women have less ull-time work experience 19

Interruptions to emale employment (childcare, etc.) 14

Gender segregation (concentration o women in emale-dominated

occupations)

10

Education (older women have less education than males) 8

Institutional actors such as frm size (women tend to be in smaller

frms) and union membership

8

Years o part-time working (women have more part-time work

experience: this has a negative eect)

3

Being emale (unexplained, possibly discrimination and

preerences/motivation)

38

TOTAL 100

Source: Olsen and Walby, 2004

ti fu udy i w gi uxpid py

gp, ug i gd d m m i udi,

w y iy ppi f gp w xpid (cyd Ggy, 2007: 165). t g iz f uxpid gp

i m f udi i f u f p pxy

d. F xmp, w xpi i ud i imig wg

qui, bu ifmi w iy i f miig

imp d m udi u diff bw

u g d g (umd) mpi f ig

pxy f i. F my wm, d m m, wi pid

uid wf, i wi xgg u x f

i w xpi. ti i u wi d f xp-

i i xpiig py gp big udimd bu diffi i xpi bw m d wm i i-

uy mud. Mv, y xpy vib

i wg qui, dui, i f u mud by y

f ig, w i i w yp d piy

ub f quii imp, piuy i ig

dui. Wm d udy m ub m

uiviy, tb 4 w. ov, i 2006, wm ud

Table 4 sujet tuie i ie euati y UK wme, 2006

Women areover-represented (> 58.9%)

% ofstudents

who are

female

Women areunder-represented (< 58.9%)

% ofstudents

who are

female

Subjects allied to

medicine

82.7 Medicine and dentistry 58.4

Education 75.5 Mass communication and

documentation

56.4

Veterinary science 74.9 History and philosophical

studies

55.0

Languages 68.0 Business and administrativestudies

49.7

Social studies 64.2 Physical sciences 41.6

Biological sciences 63.9 Mathematical sciences 37.2

Combined studies 61.9 Architecture, building and

planning

29.1

Agriculture and related

subjects

61.2 Computer science 21.7

Law 60.5 Engineering and technology 15.0

Creative arts and design 60.2

Source: Derived rom Higher Education Statistics Agency data



31/64

60 61

f 58.9 p f Uk ud ppui, bu pp-

i f wm i m ub w vi id-

by. Wm igy ud-pd i m ub

d v-pd i .

ti i if mig m if diff ub wwdd quy i bu m, bu i i .

F xmp, udy f ry siy f cmiy (Pi-

wup llP, 2005) wd idividu

f u m wy dd dg vid widy. egi-

ig, miy d pyi, w wm iuy

ud-pd i ud ppui, ff f u

igiy bv vg. By , pygy dg

(w m 80 p f 66,000 ud i 2006 w

fm) d iguii, egi iu d ci udi (w72 p f v 70,000 ud w fm) giv u

mdy vg.

Vii i f u mig diimii

ymi udvuig f b f gdu i w

wm dmi. Bu m bviu uu f

w. o i i wi diff yp f gdu

iy w. ov qu f wm i ig dui

udyig uig dui. t v miy f gdu i

wi w i pubi : ivy fwigy pid b i gvm mpym.

lietye, peeee, attitue, expetati

af wig f f, i p f py gp f

uxpid ibub diimii, my im? W,

piby, bu i ddii yp f f id i tb 3

i w mii ubvb g-

iy. h i m diff i iud, pf d

xpi wi u ppy imiy quid d

xpid idividu bv vy diffy.

ci him, igi w w pfy d m vy, im , i ui

u Uk, wm w v wid g f ify pi 19

d y b id i ivy dii gup

by i pf w m-d, w

w-d d w dpiv.

t gup, wi im b ppximy 20

p f Uk wm, piii fmiy if d id, d

pf w i bu m (ug y d , y

-div). W-d wm, gi bu 20 p, iy b id, mmid i d

wi ig v f ivm i quii d iig. t

g gup, dpiv, ud 60 p f Uk wm,

w w, bu y w fmii. ti d b

m i.20

him id u i uvy wi idid

wm xpd pf w gd pdi f i

mpym u, w, pp upiigy, i du-

i quii w : m w-quid wm w i19 him gu v b m g i iy d bu

m, pduig quiivy diff f pi d ppuiif wm. t g idi piv vui, d-vpm f x diimii d qu ppuii gii, xp-i f wi- d vi upi, i f b f dy, d iig imp f ify i i fu ii(him, 2000).

20 adig him, gup fud i dvpd mi, -ug ppi my diff fm uy uy.



32/64

62 63

m-d mp. s gu pf y

xpi iuig x diffi i bu m bviu

(w, bu uv, i f b ) d

i py gp (him, 2002: 1).

him i iv m upp fm w faud cvi (2004; 2007), w u d iud d

xpi dm w dd mi yi f

gd py gp f mid by vig g uxpid

py gp wi i iy ibud diimii.

hi w i bd uvy v m 10,00021

Uk gdu w f uiviy i 1995 d pvid d

42 m fwig gdui. Uuuy, i ddii

ifmi wg, dui im d b iy, i

pvid d fmiy bgud, ub f dg d, mimpy, iud d xpi. t uvy d wy

qui, dd v-pi , bu i, mi-

vi d xpi.

t d idid m w gd py gp f 12.6 p

f i gup f yug gdu. cvi miuu mui-

g p iu vy y g idu py gp

fud i my udi i iy b u f md mipi-

i bu f mii f xpy vib.

W cvi d i fiig. I piu- dvpm f w py gp i viu g,

w w ddig ifmi bu idividu xpi

m d m f diff i ig. hi p i

u vy bi pii uig bu m xpi,

21 aug, bu f fu f i udy fu-im mpy d d imi imp d, i mi yi dw u v vud d.

g gdui, iiy d gi f id xp-

y vib. My widy id udi f gd py gp

d b d fw vib u . a mig

b xpd, giv gup i fiy mgu i

viw f m vig dg d big ivy yug, imp md xpi vy i, y bu 20 p , f

bvd py gp bw m d wm.

h g iud fu xpy vib u

a-v , dg u, yp f ig dui iiu-

i d pgdu quii. t idi dd

i, bu vy mu, xpy pw f md.

addig i f ub i wi yug pp

gdud, wv, i xpy pw f

md vy igiy, wi v 50 p f py gp wud f.

a fu ii xd md iud biv

d u ii (iz d ) f wp,

yp f , d fmiii f upi. ti

i ppi f wg gp wi i xpid 65 p

. t ddii f d umb f b d i gdu-

i mu f mbiiy dd mi im

pii xpy pw.

t pii iud ifmi vu gdu b d i xpi. M d

wm diff igiy wi gd ii:

m m iy dvpm d i

wd vy imp, d mu m iy d

mv vy mbiiu, wi wm mpi b i-

fi, big vud by mpy d dig iy ufu b.

tw-id f wm i i mp xp b



33/64

64 65

f fmiy ; 40 p f m xp i p d

i, bu y 12 p xp d i mv.22

W iudi vib ddd pi-

i, u i 84 p f wg gp w b

xpid. ti ugg my f md gg uxpid wg gp, d fm wi -pii

fquy if igi m f mpy diimii,

impy mipid. ty u d ip ufi

xpy vib f ify yi f u f

gd py diffi.23

hw xy d iud d vu d wm

big pid m? o wy i ug diff idi-

vidu i f pi mpy. a uvy f yug

gdu w wm i f pfd mpy vy diff fm f m (td, 2008). of p 25

id mpy f wm, wv w i pubi vuy

, gi y fu u f 25 f m. t p id

mpy f wm gdu w i pubi .

su pf m my big wm dib-

y ig b w y ig ig impib

uiy. ty y gd p f b g

f m pup, pp? o myb g b uiy,

22 I vy uy m ypiy my/p wm w yug m, d f iy b ig f . a pidu pviuy, if vig id qui p pd im uf wf, mi gi wud di p wi gig pw ud iu i mpym d idd, vidmid i ugg, v i i u f w d ff.

23 o udi p v pygi diff bw m dwm, f i i i f-m, i vi, iud mp-ii d ii (Mig d swfd, 2008).

d ivy gu pi pvii24 ff-

ig dud f vy ig ig. ti i mp-

ig diffi piip ud i.

a wy i wi mpy iud iu ig

um my b ug diff pp py g-ii d pmi ppii. Piuy m i

v, py ff mpy m my b gib if,

i, mpy gi. I i b Women

Dont Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide,ami dmi

lid B d s lv im wm vy

u gi v i. I Us udy ig im

my m wm gduig wi m dg gid

i i, ddig vg f 7.4 p i ig

py. ti iii gp i iy pi d gw v im. ti ipy bu wm my v w xpi: B d

lv (2003) p udy uggig wm y xp-

i f i b igiy w f m

gig f imi b.

I Uk, yi f py gp mg dmi

mi idi m iv m pmi d

ig pig py , d f f i-

d wi i i ip f uid ff. M iv m

uid ff wm d u b gi i pyupwd (B ., 2002). ty m m py-id

mv bw b wm.25

24 Pi pvii i vy imp m f mui p-g i my p f pubi ig, f xmp, w mpyibui ubi d dd 2025 p ig. Idd, v uggd pubi pi w bu wi fi ibui ( rd, 2006).

25 Mig d swfd (2008) p 47.1 p f m vig y-



34/64

66 67

s ui w dw fm mpii yi f

fu-im py gp i ig ppi f i gp b

ud f, giv ufi ifmi idividu d b

ii d iud d xpi f mpy.

M d fm m diff i i bu m,i m f d-ff bw py d b i-

i, i f dui, i f upi d iud

w. t gy iu ig. empy iud d

diimii m b y imp piii

d bbyi v uggd.

b d i bu y pmd mvig b b;y 43.6 p f wm vig u b d f i gi.

6 ThE PArT-TIME PAY gAP

Bu d i ui d f p-im w, 1

w vwmig miy i fm d py gp i

mu g d iig m wy?

t iui d diff wi p-im. F

xmp, w xpi i my umd dd um

pi, d u ig pw; i w umpi

udyig Mi qui. t ypid i bwddd xpi d ddii ig pw y m b

b u, wv, by xpi f fu-im mpy i

Uk. a w w i tb 3, p-im xpi m v

negative ff py, if yig.

t p-im py gp f wm i 1970 w f ugy

m d f mgiud f fu-im wm: w i i

m wi g. af p di i 1970,

p-im py gp i 1980 (h, 1996), d, ug

fig gi, i mi ubi, Figu 4 w.

1 P-im, iidy, i -u gy. t oecD gd ppwig fw 30 u w p-im. t ashe id biu fw qu 30 d p-im w bu 25 u i u-ff f . lbu F suvy (lFs) pd d p-im fmv d lFs p-im dii xud ud.

s h o u l d w e m i n d t h e g a p ? t h e p a r t - t i m e p a y g a p


35/64

68 69

Te pat-time pay peaty

ti gu w gp i i fu-im m mpy,

bu i i imp iip bw

py f fu-im d p-im fm mpy w b

md p-im py py. Wm w w p im

v uy py i m 20 p f

i fu-im i.2 a Mig d Pg (2008) pi

2 Iigy, wv, p-im wm uy m vg p-im m. ad m p-im f py py uy igyg f m f wm. M p-im, m miiy f p-im wf, miy yug (piy ud) dw fm mi-id; wm p-im, d, dw fm gg.

u, wv, i b , m m v d,

idi f py iud by wm wiig fm

fu-im p-im py. Wm w w p im v vy

diff p ii fm f fu-im wm,

d y d vy diff b, tb 5 w.3

Table 5 ditiuti wme empymet etwee u-time apat-time wk, 2000

Ranked occupation % of all full-timewomen

% of all part-timewomen

1 Teachers 8.7 4.5

2 Other proessionals 5.2 1.7

3 Nurses 4.8 4.64 Other associate proessionals 9.3 5.2

5 Corporate managers 13.1 3.4

6 Higher-skill services 3.2 1.6

7 Higher-level clerical 13.2 11.1

8 Other managers 3.5 0.9

9 Skilled trades 2.3 1.1

10 Lower-level clerical 14.2 12.6

11 Caring services 7.6 15.8

12 Other personal services 3.4 6.1

13 Sales assistants 3.6 14.7

14 Other low-skill occupations 6.9 7.615 Cleaners 1.0 9.1

100 100

Source: Excerpted rom Connolly and Gregory (2008)

3 t upi ii i tb 5 d by quii quid.

Figure 4 The part-time gender pay gap* in the UK

*Mean male full-time hourly earnings minus mean female part-time hourly earnings expressed as apercentage of mean male full-time hourly earnings. All figures excluding overtime.Source: Office of National Statistics

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

s h o u l d w e m i n d t h e g a p ? t h e p a r t - t i m e p a y g a p


36/64

70 71

Mig d Pg (2008: F30) p u diff

bw fu-im d p-im fm mpy:

Wm wig Pt m iy Ft wm b-dud, d, wi, i up wi dpd

id w b umu d yug, b wigi m bim, i p, d u,i mpy b, wi w b u d i w-vupi. 28% f Ft wm i pfi mgi upi mpd 11% f Pt wmwi 52% f Pt wm i p vi, my upi mpd 24% f Ft wm.am i fu Pt wm w i, p i .

W diff d f, u pi u, p-im py i ud 3 p (ibid.: F47).

t b piu bu wy i wi

m wm w wi fm fu-im p-im mpy-

m i u w f idbi uff di i

upi u, d pumby py. ti b d

idd bi di d w f wm i.

cy d Ggy (2008: F53) im vy

14% d pbby -qu f wm wiig fm

fu p-im w mv upi w v f

quii. r fuigy, wv, igi

umb f wm w upgd y wi fm fu-im

p-im w, ig b ud b id wi

upwd pgi. I uvy 17 p f

wiig fm fu-im p-im w w up i up-

i u.

cy d Ggy dw piu i wy i

wi wm mg wi w-u b bmig

p im:

Dwgdig ff my 29% f wm fmpfi d p mgm b ... m

fqu viim f dwgdig, wiig wi, wm i m- mgi pii, iu, d p, m f f wm di mgi d upviy pibiii d v big dd p vi i. (Ibid.:F72)

Bu i i giim wm viim, v if

wd i i ivd mm? swiig p-im mpym

b, Pu (2008: F8) d, pim p

i fd by wm w id ig p-ibiii imi im vib f pid w. P-im g-

m uuy xib d w wm - w

i w m. ad i uy iy m f

bvd dwgdig f wm upi f u

w i diby . Giv i w fmii, wm my

diby u b y pibiiy

d . ty my p d-ff f w u d

py i u f m vi wig u, ppuiy

w m, v. t x i i u,

upi dwgdig i wm. If y

w b bigd u i d b, v p-im

bi, y mig i m b w ff. t upp i viw,

i g vid pvidd by B d v ou (2008),

mg , wm i p-im mpym ppi

w m d pp m igy ppi

wm w w fu im.



37/64

72 73

Iigy, wi my parti pris u i i d,

B d v ou d i dd wm y p-im w,

uggig y diid i big m ... if

... iy m i d f m mbi w d fmiy, by

pvidig i ipppi id by iiuiiigw fm py, i i dy upiig wm wi w

w fw u i m (ibid.: F95).

t u pp i viw wm w

i y dig wi umu d m

gd m vig vy i i i i bviu d

p f mpym. t iy my wm w

pi igy id by fmiy bgud, i w

upbigig d dui i, bu i m

uiy pimii viw f pi f miy fwm uy wig p im.

7 PolIcIEs

Big i mid w i w bu u d u

f Uk gd py gp, w pii v b ppd

du i d w ffiv y iy b?

Pay auit, equa vaue a mpaae wt

Uk qu py gii i impy d wi yig u m d wm pid m f idi b.

a w v , i 1983 i b gid m d

wm f d vy diff b, d gii

ppi w f qu vu, y d mpb

w, p m mmy w i n ami.1

I y, mpi w f qu vu

id. t pubi b quid du py

udi w m d wm dig b f qu vu

d quy. t w m imp i wi i

d agd f cg i ni h svi

d sig su agm f uii. I

, b vui m v fud gy.

1 I 1980, mpb w w big iu i Usa. Pid rg,w ppd p, mmby d i mmi id. sm wid-ig ppii f piip w vuy dfd i u, bui vivd y wi hiy ci d B obm b vigdvd w gii.

s h o u l d w e m i n d t h e g a p ? p o l i c i e s


38/64

74 75

jb vui m mp ify b i gi-

i i iy, f pi bi, wi ig pi

big id wi pii w idd py .

o w-w pp, dvpd 60 y g, i hy

ym, bd wd by hy Gup. ti i yim, wi w w pvid m df gi

qu py im i f f mpym ibu. a gup f

hy y, wig fm b dipi d if-

mi, pdu p ud mi dig w-

w, pbm-vig d ubiiy. kw-w mb

wdg, i d xpi (um pi, i mi

gug); pbm-vig ivv mpxiy f iig

d yi quid; wi ubiiy pi-

biiy f p d i dg f umy i dii-mig.e m i b dw fu i viu v.

I uiu wy i mi pp

i-uy bu y f vu, iu ipi-

i f Mxim d bi f py uu i svi b.

t id i mig iii bu w p

ud dmi py i dpy d; i yp f yi

w i iu f m f, f idividu

pfm: i i bu ii f b, wi

i dud i f di m, f wi b

giv pi .

If vui m bi d uify

i u, y xpd w up mi i xiig

py m. Giv pi f xi i impv

wm py, i i upiig y d . t y i

py f m my f v b dud. ti pdi-

by u idb uppi d i. evui

m id u by uii ud sig su

agm v pdud xmp f m u i py f m

ui w (miy m bu iudig m fm), my

f wm w piuy igy pid i p.2

ad - qu v b igy pbm-i. Ui v id b d d-i xiig

i f m w i du b u, pig i

py f imid pid. ti f u dd f b

vui xi, wi eup cu f jui

id by quim bd ig py f wm f

ix y.

Fd wi ug bi gvm ffd i

i wy f x i p uii d

wi vig m b u. Ui v mpd di ff by mig d p i w py m gduy.

Bu -wi, -f wy v mvd i up f

wm w pi py gi v b dud by ui

gm; ui v b mbd d mv

ivig d f diimii d qu py i f

f mpym ibu.3 ti i f f ug

i i ibu im i i qu py, fm 8,229

i 2004/05 44,013 i 2006/07, wi w d i. t

g vy mpid udgm, wi f g

2 I Buy, li, m ff v fd py u f 5,000. I y 2008, 25p f sffdi cuy cui ff w dud iv py u( gi 45 p giig). simiy i Bimigm 3,000 ui wu f 19,000 w uff dui i py.

3 I ju 2006, wm mmb f GMB w gi i ui f i-di diimii by pig m py duig sig su gii;iiy GMB gi w f wm. t vdi w, wv,vud pp.



39/64

76 77

pp: i 2006/07, 37 p f empym app tibu

d pubi iu.

ev w du xi f i id,

iy b g-m pbm. F py v dmid

by b vui uiy b m-ig. If py fui f w (miy fm) i id i

i pp wig wi bi fy ip (miy

m), iy um i m wm wi f

ig b4 p vib, wi

wi b g f pp wiig w bi ipig

pmi. expi ugg gii wi y

g ud py uu wi dvi u m upp-

m gd f w i uppy. ti my

udmi py quiy w pup f w y xi. ad mpy my y u umb f

b i d w i bm m xpiv i w:

wm my d b ppuii wi ui dyig up d

d up ig w-pid b i piv . s g-

m qu f py vui m f gd py

quiy mbiguu. a i my , ppy udb

id impv wig f m d qu

fuy iipd by i pp.

Dpi pbm id wi ppii f

qu py f w f qu vu i pubi , my

ui d d piii pig f py udi d

b vui i piv . D simp f amiu

id i 2006: py gp bw m d wm i du

4 Pdxiy, by mig diiy fm b m iv, vuim my d if, dimii, y gd ggi i bu m.

diimii by mpy bu wm m bd

i ... wiu mpuy py udi, wm wi

wi i dmdy f qu py. t tUc id: Md-

y qu py udi wud p i py i py

ym i piv w py gp mi ig.su ad f cBI, wv, gud u udi

umbm, bu- d u-iiv d d

dd udyig u f gp. t Wm d W

cmmii, f, id wy fm mmdig mpu-

i. s gvm: i ppd pg f mu

pm gd quiy, ud i ju 2008, vidd udi

f piv .

Bu w mig pp if mdy udi were idud?

cd m xpi f i. oi idud mmpiv mpb-w piy i n ami i 1987

wi i Py equiy a. ti ppid y pubi

bu piv m wi m mpy.

t gii w piv. r fm mpy

vig m y w udpid, mpy i

m wi m udd mpy w quid

pubi py-quiy p idifyig pdmiy m d

pdmiy fm b wii m, ud b

vui bi f i, ff, pibiiy d wig

dii, d py im f y qu

wd dig fiy ig imb.

a , m/fm b mpi w b md wii

bim, mpig b wi b. l, wv,

a w mdd dmi mpi, i piu

pxy md f ig mp uid immdi

gii, f xmp uig Mi-y gi iig



40/64

78 79

m ig b ii pdi w wm py

ud b.5

t vid6 idi oi w did ud

i duig gd py gp. t w f mpi

mg m m, ddi w mid by g m(piuy i ui m v dggd i i

ppvig m), ud u b ivy i ud-

vud fm w i g m, d w g f

m mp f fm b. of u, gii d

y within m, w-pyig m iud b w-pyig

m v w d b m dui i i py

iquiy. ad m wi pdmiy m wf ud

iu i py. t w m vid mpy-

m gw w w f fm i m-dmid b df m i fm b.

I ddii, m fud py quiy p b dmi-

iiv bud, uig i igi idi . t w

mub ffig ff pduiviy d m. ay

dvg wm i diiy fm upi w

py ff by didvg miiy f wm i di-

iy m upi w py w d b ig.

t uggd ui f u f gi-

i i wig py gp ivvd iig wg d-

mii, impig x vui m. t oi

gvm bd ff, wv, d mmdd wiig

id mpi-bd ym.

5 su gi v b ud i u i Usa gig di-imii ud ti VII f civi rig a 1964. t difui f uigm i vid diud by epi (1992: 37585).

6 s, f i, B d Fi (2004).

gvemet puemet piie

I b uggd by tUc d by Wm d W

cmmii gvm pum pii ud b ud

m pm py quiy. ty ... pu-

m igi ppuiy pd gd pi g f qu ppuii ... Bui d uggd

u pum ud b m ffiv iiv

gui g bviu (Wm d W cmmii,

2006: 93).

Gvm pum fm piv pd

md , gig b udd f y. I igi

w id i 1980 d 1990 by dvpm f

ig u f pubi vi duig t d M

dmiii. ti w p f cviv mp b up pubi mpi d pw f pubi

ui, bu piip w iud by nw lbu. aug

i d m imp i duig , ig u

b iigy dgd ud wi quim py

xiig f py, d y w i dg f big

didvgd by f f mgi pibiiy w

ubiy pd by b Bii d eup w.

t idui f pimiiy md b vu

gim f pum i 1997 pdxiy wd pubi

uii wid dii f ii f ufu

d. a qu gwig umb f i ii

b ipd i pum pii f gvm

d uii.7 t of f Gvm cmm

7 nw w bu 125 bii, dig hu f cmm Bui,epi d rguy rfm cmmi (2008: 32).



41/64

80 81

iud guid i. t guid8 i iu

b ipd i pum w y v

d ppi ub m f , ug

i pi u y d b ddd i wy i

i wi vu f my piy, Uk pum gu-i d eU ty piip d pum diiv.

aug gd py quiy ud b mpid m

gy, gid mmim quiy i dy

mm i pum ff.9 I f i,

wv, wi g umb f imp i iu,

iudig mmuiy mpym i, vim

uibiiy, ivi, fi d, buidig gd i

wi d ui, d dvpm f wf i

f wi fquy ipd i ii - mu m. hw f f imp i pi i

dmiig bid um i u.

a umb f ig are , wv: i my f

ii pdu-div um-fud,

d i f xpy ( igi uii f

ig u) dwpyd. a i mpi

wi wid g f -i ii dd idby

bud f ubmiig d, wi xpi-

f i wi ify. a id bvi, py -

qu f i, i ddii ii iy d

m, -up m v xpi f fm-ig

d iy v dvpd pii ig fu

8 www.g.gv.u/dum/si_Iu.pdf.9 t Gla d oympi Divy auiy xpiiy ip quiy -

quim, f xmp.

g f i iu.10 I i pp upiig m

bui d pumby g, m b-

id pi wi xpi f m dvid

Wm d W cmmii pm py quiy i i

m: by dig , y wud du umb f pimpi.

I w piig u my f f wi

bigg pubi pd (f xmp,

ui d d d iwy mi) mpy -

ivy fw wm, d u v m dmid ppii11

f qu py piip wii wud v i di

imp ggg py gp.

gee quta tp j

My piii v xpd d f wm

i m ig-pyig b. tb 6 w wm mi

m miiy bd f p mpi i Uk

(ug ppi i ig eU vg). t

b gw i umb f fm -xuiv di,

bu y i iu y 14.5 p f - xuiv.

t umb f fm xuiv di by gw i

2000 d d 3.6 p f . a im f wiig

u w ceo i Ftse 100. aud qu f

p mpi v fm di .

10 a oFt p i 2003 dw i wy i wi m bui wdd fm biddig f pubi bu f buuy i-vvd. n wm v-pd mg mpy i mbui.

11 ad i wud v b dmid. My gvm f ivvubig, wi wud d b pid w.



42/64

82 83

Table 6 Femae iet i FTsE 100 mpaie

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Female

executivedirectorships

11

2.0%

10 15 17 17 14 15 13

3.6%

Female non-executive

directorships

609.1%

65 69 84 93 107 102 11014.5%

Companies

with noemale

directors

42 43 39 32 31 22 23 24

Note: There are more emale directorships than emale directors as some individuals

hold more than one directorship

Source: Sealy et al. (2007)

ti i f m bviu mifi f g

iig i f umd imi wm fu piipi

i my. sud mig b d bu i? I nwy,

i 1 juy 2008 i b mpuy f mpi

v 40 p 12 fm bd mmb. t nwgi gi-

i, fdwd by idui f vuy m f

mpi v y i,13 udd i iig umb

f wm bd dmiy. Wii fw dy f w

ig ff, viuy vy ig pubiy id mpy d

wm i bd d ppi f fm bd w

38 p (hm, 2008).

a f Uk? o pi m i

gii vvd i x f pii ym

d qu f fm did f m iy y,

12 sm bd quid v i pi miimum.13 t w w ppid -wd mpi i 2004.

xpi i mid . I m pii upp

u mu ud iiiy u i Uk. I ,

wv, ivd upp i nwy, wi uy

cfdi f epi big ppd. My m mp-

i vidig m iig vd w gii, mid imi gii i Uk ud b fu pu

d f mpi di d g piv f

i uidii w qu did ppy.

W w fm di i nwy? I pp

xpi gy b i -xuiv: mi

vy fw wm i p xuiv pii. t w bd

mmb v b wm dippiy uid fm

pii d ivi vi, wi b-quid wm, gd-

u f uy dig dui bim, fdig muip diip. su p wud pbby b

pd i Uk, w imi gii b idud.

t i dii f gd qu d piiv diimi-

i i Uk, d idui f nwgi-y gii

wud b dmi g i pipy. I ud v

eup w nwy i f u mmb f eU

i pbby ud b idud by Uk i ii.14 ev

if i w wd, i Uk x f igi miiy i

gup wi i w quiy , i i iy qu f

wm wud d dmd f i qu.15 W i

i d dw wi y pii py wud wi g m

dubfu.

14 Gmy d nd, wv, v ud i ii mv i m dii.

15 t m wud g, f xmp, f pp wi dibiii. Iigy, di-biiy qu w biy id i Uk bu bdd.



43/64

84 85

If gd qu f mpy bd w v

bug i, wud y i y m igi diff

gd py gp? ti imp ggg py gp wud

uy b miim, giv m umb f p mpy

bd i i ppui. Bu v wii ppui f p mpy p y wud b uiy v

mu f imp. I i w m gd py gp

mg mpy di i qui ig Iiu f Di

rwd suvy pu i 22 p i 2007.16 W gd qu

b idud, miy f w wm di wud b

-xuiv w ypiy ivy m mu (

qu upid) d uuy p im. a iy

b md f ymbi imp f gig m wm i

pmi pii, bu i i iy pib big

iux f fm -xuiv di ud uy wid

gd py gp mpy bd by dggig dw vg

ig f fm di xmp f ipppi-

f fuig xuivy py gp idi f

gd quiy.

ciae

a fquy ud piy i xpi f uy d

id pvii, d i ubidy by gvm. a

mm viw i id pvii i Uk i idqu

d xpiv. I i uy p py bu 70 p f

f id by mpi wi eup vg f

30 p (him ., 2008). rduig f quiy

16 p://p.id.m/wdi.px?f=308&m=2&mi-62&m=&pi=u.

id p i wy f gig wm

mmim wf d u idiy duig

gd py gp (Pg d rmy, 2006; Ggy d

cy, 2008; B d v ou, 2008).

I m f m fiu i id pvii? Ii iy . I b gud xii i

pvii f quiy id w b if id gw

up ppy d u d, i i m f i pp,

i pvii b wm u wf i

d f m u wud wi b .17 agu-

m bu xii , wv, y quid. I

g f uppy? I m f uy my b

g f uy p, bu i m if yig

b x uppy (him ., 2008: 33).

o iu i gvm iigy

g guy pii i i id, wi

mpi bigig id u f m, iig

i f id, yig dw fm uiu

f p- dui, iiig quii d

imi d f d mpyd i u-

i, d ofd ipi d dumi. o u

f i i di f idmid: umb f gi-

d idmid f fm 98,500 i 1997 68,348 dd

(ug my b upii id gu-

i d i i ufi idmidig, pbby

gd um). a u i ubi i i

17 I b gud mig b m fiu if wm w did w uw i dv f f id. ti m di wm wi vy mu , d u gd ig ud b ud

uify ubidi viuy y mi iviy gud f impifmi.



44/64

86 87

f piv ui, wi d ig f f

p.

I m , pp, b wdig u

f piv pvii f id by xpi f pubi

pvii. si 1998, su s iiiiv dvpd fmbgiig i diig fmiy upp u

wi pvidig -bd dy. t ni audi of

xpd bu w fudig f i pi

iii f id i uib, bu mwi i i

guby udmiig p f m f piv id.

t d g f gvm id piy i

ey Y eim, wi i pym ui

pvid - d fu-y-d wi wv d f u f

p- iviy f 33 w y.18 P id

Wig tx cdi id fm id, ug

-up i ug, piuy mg ig p.

evid ugg p pf gd ifm id-

(iudig fmiy d fid) fm ui dy

, d y pf piv ui pubi pvi-

i, ug fudig mim bid i ppi

dii. t i Piy exg (ibid.) m puib

mmdi bu wiig fudig upp ifm

id d v ubidiig m y m, bu

y i i p f wid gd d i d wi

imp f id gm gd py gp.

ciy m fm f id upp v imp

18 ti pvii, ug dub wm my p, y ud pvid bi f p u fu-im v igi p-im b. t i u ud upp i ud b b dpydi dii if mi pup w ug p b i wi.

ugig wm u w. ev ug ff

w md, Iiu f Fi sudi (2006) fud

id m f x di did idu m ig p

u w i d i my v pd m ig

v f py v im. ti, wv, i y p f if g xpy upp f id.

If Uk mud sdivi, w ud 1.5 p f

GDP g gvm pdig upp p- id-

, wud i b iy v mu imp gd py

gp? B i mid wud b vy ubi dd-

wig : i, if id ubidi w vib ,

mi bii wud b wm i w w dy m

i w id gm.19 If, d, i w

m d, xpi ugg -up wud b -

ivy w.

swd, wi i f d up xmp f gd pi

i pubiy ubidid id, pvid uiy .

Dpi ig v f gvm pdig swd pu

i id f my y, i gd py gp mi bv

eU vg. Wm w w wdd i pubi

(y 25 p f swdi fm mpy w i piv

), d y 1.5 p f swdi i mgm

wm, i Uk.20 s, ug my b

f iig upp f p-, u i

iui, i m uiy v qui miv Uk ivm

i id wud d mu if gd py gp.

19 adig Piy exg, fm id f id uppd by pubiubidy i m mmy ud by igy dud d ig-ig p(him . 2008: 47).

20 ci him, qud i Md (2004).



45/64

88 89

Euati

P f xpi f wm ig i , dpi

gi w igiy upfmig by , d yug

wm dig b m uiviy, fm dui

d iig i d m i w-pid upi db.

ti i iu d Wm d W cmmi-

i. I i yi y mpid gd yp

pi d bgi i pimy . t d d

ug mb i, i i gud. ad, u f gvm

mp b xm u, gi wd p u f

i d mmi y. c dvi d m

gi ufiy w f diff i py bw b,

d y giv ug ppuii f w xpi

i b w wm v iiy b ud-pd.

ty mmd m b d by gvm d

pm y i b ff wm ig py d

pgi.

ti i uxpib. hwv, f m m

b umpi gi d yug wm ig

ii (wi pumby by d m b ifmd),

bu i d m puib dy. suu bi y

i m-dmid, ig-pyig mpym f

i p, d m dig pfi v iv gup

pyiig f m fm . sm ug

wid i f upi by yug pp wm i

py, m i id wy d iig, d

my pud m yug y mig diff. I i

pib pd mv wy fm a-v wid

ym f dipm, v i eup Bu-

y quii, wud dy ub i d d

wm udyig diff mix f ub uiviy. Pig

mu fi i i iy, wv, piu f fm

mpym d i imid g f upi i

i eup (eu, 2008).ev w wm udy piy ig-ig ub

g, wv mi i, y y

iy m g i ig-ig b wi

quii giv . F i, wi my yug m

wi mi dg g i ciy, imiy quid yug

wm m iy puu b i ig, dmi

ivi vi. cmm u ci

him wud, w v , gu pf

dpy d d iy ffd by gvm iiiiv.

stetei te it t equet fexie wki

If m wm wiig fm fu im p im w

-ig wf w b iu i i xiig

b, f py d pp id wi up-

i dwgdig, diud i, wud b dud. Wm

w iud g i i wud b m iy p

p wi m, d widig f gd py gp id

wi g wud b md.

I f, pii i bd i i mim pid. I

2005, lbu F suvy wd 28.5 p f fu-im

wm mpy, d 27.3 p f p-im, d xib

dii f . ad ig ppi f wm

w mi wi i xiig mpy b y i m

upi v if y w du u. cmpig wud



46/64

90 91

i i umb dig i. cuy v 3.5 mii

wm wi id ud ix dibd id ud ig

id qu xib wig, d gvm i pig

xd i ig wi id gd up v.

aug g miy f fm qu f xibiiy udxiig gii m, i my b i fuu if

ig i xdd. ad v w, f mpy ppd

p xib wig by u, y w-id wud w

mi m v f iiy, i i imd (rv,

2008). My bbyi wud f i w gud

wi mpy fu u qu,21 pp ifig

bud f pf, i nd, m mpy

pvid viig wud b dmg m

fm, y, b-ig gm f i mg, w

m iy v u qu fud.

Wm w y wi i xiig mpy u

w iu. a bigg pbm guby i w

wm f pviu mpy, i d w p-

im b -y bu m, d d dv-

id p y ffd p-im bi i ig

upi gi. s i i gud mpy ud b

idud ff wid g f p-im b, m

f py, p , fu-im b.

Bui my i ig i v p-

im b (Wm d W cmmii, 2006: 34); y

d impv quiy f p-im b (Mig d

21 t u gud f fu ud empym rig a 1996 :bud f ddii ; dim ff biiy m um d-md; ibiiy gi w mg xiig ff; dim imp quiy; dim imp pfm; iufiy f w duig pid mpy pp w; d pd uu g.

Pg, 2008). I i ppy y xiv ui d

ii wi p m dig (hu f cmm td d

Iduy cmmi, 2005).

Bu i i qui imp? exmp f ufu p-im

w i ig upi gi qud, f xmp, by Wm d W cmmii d b fm d f

ig, ig dui, uig, d gvm d

ivi vi. I d b di , wi

fiy ui d ivv i dii-mig pibiiy

(ig piu uiviy mdu, ig f piu

gup f pi f piu pid f im, ig ppi-

i f pig pmii vuig piy pp).

My y, mv uuy dmi fm pubi

ui bgud, piby gi iy fm

xmp.

Bui ug d gu p-im mpym

i mu i impm i m b i . I m-

gi , i piu, b pbm. t i

g f pfd gm m up, wi m pp

wig w w dy w, m wig w

y duig y, duig u w id

my uy. t d ff f dig

pb m p wig w Mdy d

tudy, wi wiig w Wddy Fidy

b idb. I u w f iig

, w f idui, w f py dumi,

dii im f mg, dg f dy, d f

ubdi pyig mg ff gi ; pbm

f vig f idy, pbm id wi uv

(w m d difu m w p-



47/64

92 93

im mg v), d difui w p-im mg

w g i u f w.

t i fu iu my mgi

iy b imbd i dd wig dy: w my v

b m, duig pid f ig iviy g umy v b wd u p pi d i

bug i im. P-im mg my b uwiig

ub d iu i i.

lg m i uiid d my d i pib du

xib wig wiu xiv , bu m m

i dymi m wi gu pdu p

my d i pibiivy y: m d mdium pi

fquy mpi y b dippi bud

w bu m gui i id. Fum, m

f bud my f fw w. a uvy by

egiig empy Fdi, wi dumig u

b f xib wig impvd mivi d dud

uv, wd mpy biv i pbm

by puig x pu mpy w v du

i ui mmd wig xiby.22

I juy 2008 mpy ppii pp xd

xib wig d miy v ivd upp fm

uxpd qu. ni Bw, if xuiv f equiy

d hum rig cmmii, xpd f xi f

ig ud v dmgig ff. M Bw w qud

yig ig I wy bu i u gi-

i d gui v d uidd qu f

mig wm iv pp mpy.23

22 Financial Times, 5 My 2008.23 The Times,14 juy 2008.

8 so shoUld WE REALLYMInd ThE gAP?

l u w viw pii. W v bid

i igi diffi bw uy py f m d

wm mpyd fu im: i i di gd py gp.

t gp , wv, dimiid v im d i d i

vy iy iu, ug my b bip fm im

im. Yug wm mu m igy dud

i pd. ty vig id , d uig

mpym m pidy (sim d Wiig, 2007). ty

divifyig i mpym bw upi. t

my i bmig iigy wig, wi vi f

id iig f mpym, d mufuig

d pimy pdui fig: i d fvu

w wm d. a f f iy

du gd py gp v im; m y v pdi i

wi g i v i du u.

ti p wi, wv, im, d i i gud

p i w. Bu i iy b d?

Dpi im y, i g d f

vid py gp i ud by mpy diimii.

o wy i my b difu pv diimii,

epi (1992: 381) gu, i i my b p. r, p

f py gp my b ud f by mpig py diff-

i d mu f u fm i md by wm

s h o u l d w e m i n d t h e g a p ? s o s h o u l d w e r e a l l y m i n d t h e g a p ?


48/64

94 95

d m i i i dui d iig, i up-

i d mpy, i wif b d dii v

fmii, w i iud d xpi f w.

t f difu iu, i

u. W v dub bu ffiv f pii uy ppd. I m pii my

b upduiv, d udib id ff. If

y mp m fudm g i vu d i-

ud, piy ig fmiy if d d

dui f id, y ivv yig iu m

iim i f idividu. sm my i iuiv d

uy. o my u ugy v mbiiu.

sud gvm y um pibiiy f ig

bviu f udd f ud f mpy, d idi-

vidu, p i f mii f wm d m?

Mieai emi

sm f gum pu fwd f gvm ivi

puiu, d ivy pp diby mip-

w mi w d w py i dmid. t, f

i, im, pd i, wm d f

330,000 v i ifim bu f py gp. 1 ti b-

f--vp ui p diff i vgig f m d wm v wig if. W

w if? qui: w if mgi wd w wvd

py gp d i wm py f i m u-

p? W wud pp?

1 Pp xmp f w Dvid hd d d-i-yuf m-i (hd, 1986).

M bviuy, mpy qu py wud b ui-

b quiibium. Wm b wud b iy b

g i piv , gvm pw f

p-ig pi iu i my pp

mdy ig wg. appii f mp py quiy i pubi wud v dv di: i wud i

xi, b , b; xpi f sig

su agm gpiy dm i.

a rv gud, gv dg i yig

mi gum ... u im difu g

d p ubiv mipui. 2 F xmp,

gum i big wd, d upu wud b

id by up 2 p f GDP if wm w v w-

f u w-pid b f idbi id ud

i pviu fu-im b. ti d b xm-

ii. a i i bu uppy f i mgiud wud

m iy d big ig dw; i mig d

m w d yug fm w big dipd fm

wf. oupu wud i by mu umd.

Mv, giv g ppi f upi dw-

gdig d wiig p-im w i by wm

d, wud b wf ff y upu

gi.3

2 rv (2008). h pi u udy v fud 5 bi-i i y u f b fiu y yu i ff.ti, wyy m, ugg i wy b upu ug yig g m wm i fu-im w.

3 t imii f g dmi pdu mu f mi wf w w. emi u v g dw i ud i pdx wm w mpy gd i j Wym i wdfu mAll that Heaven Allows wud du GDP ud my im.

n wd iip wi r hud w dmd.



49/64

96 97

M gy, ii f xiig py diffi mim

m y udd w mi w, d i

id bi:

Wm m iy w i w-pyig

upi, iudig v : ig, ig,ig, iig d i w. t upi ivy w pid py bu society does notappear to value the skills required in these occupations as muchas it does others. (Wm d W cmmii, 2006: 55)

W d i m, xy? I i qui f iy

vuig yig. W w v i iui w

g umb f pp miy bu by m xuivy

wm w b d wiig d b, wi qui

i fm iig xpi. o idividu m d

wm ppd py i mu diy (

d i piu f mpyd by ud)

idiy (w buy pdu fm m mpy m) f

i vi. t ii f uppy d dmd pdu

p f py w , bu i i ig d wi w iy

i. ti i M t f miudd bv-

i i u ig iy, bu i

wy i wi mpx iy xp iv pf-

f p f py f mii f mpy.

t my piii pii pum im ig bi wi b f ii, dub m

i f u . If y d w-pid mpy mu

b pid m, iy qu i m d idividu,

w b d i buyig i vi, wi buy f

m. t qu i fw pp wi b mpyd, d

i b f ppuii, umpym wi i.

t Wm d W cmmii d m mu

f viw d i i w mpb w gum

b dmid (ug xuivy) by m, u

wuig, p divig d buig, v imi i

v ud i v . t fm b , wv,b pid.

tw mm b md . Fi, i

y iu. t m-dmid b my v iv

wig dii, ig py my b ig i. sd,

mpy wi y py ig wg i b if y d

d ug ppi. ciy piv

mpy v py m y d

py. If iy (gi, d piii) dmi div

d bu ud b pid , u i iy b

m mpy wi v, m wi xpi g f

w d upu wi f.

Piy ieetivee a it equee

W v pii ppd w py gp

my v igi imp i pp im.

Gvm -pwfu, ug ddy pp m

i i i y b.

Pii iffiv v f y impm, ivvig b mpy d gvm i igi-

xpdiu f im d my. Fim, ig uify

mv, piii, i gup d mdi,

did fm i bui i biv wi

wf iu.

Uufu pii pdu fui, g d dmd



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f fu gui. I i iui piii y ug

i ud d giv up. ty y mig . t dg

i fu, d piy m dmgig, bu m

ivi p up pii gd. F my,

gd py iu i p f mu wid iiqu f bu

m d i my d id f pii diud i

pp ppd f equiy Ui f eup cmmi-

i (Pg d rmy, 2006). tig pi mid

i, m mpd wg uu id

wi m gd py gp, u u umb

f pii ud b ud mp wg. t iud

eup-wid miimum wg, imi xuiv py d

idui f id py dmii ivvig

g f d ui d i p. I

Uk u fudm if i mpym piy wud i-

u u didid bu m ivi f

p. a m mpd py uu ub gu gv-

m ivi d id ui pw wud u i

f diugig ivi d i-ig, divig p

bd d duig iwd ivm.

ev , py gp mig bv i wy iv-

ii upp. rmmb di gd py gp i

ii f wi d b ipd wi . I iz

g f bviu fuy udd iy by p mm d pu gup

w gd i idi f u g imp. Wm

bu f piipi i y m, d i ,

w v , b ffd by g i bi , g i

g f mig bii d g i g gp

bw wm d i p. t f ud pdu

pv g i py gp. Mv, if id gv-

m ivi d ig mgi x , i ud

gi bviu i wy i iy pdib.

ote pay a ime ap

t pii d mdi mpi gd py gp ud

u u fg i ii i y f my py

gp i i pib d. a bviu puu i

f i diffi. a w w i tb 2, i igi

gp i vg py bw

Should We Mind the Gap

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