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Comparison of eye, barbel, and corresponding brain lobe size in the African
cyprinid fishBarbus neumayeri between in-forest and out-forest habitats in
Uganda
Sheena Melwani260309578
Department of Biology, McGill University
BIOL 468
April, 2012Supervisor: Lauren Chapman
Post-doctoral Mentor: Suzanne Gray
Graduate Student Mentor: Vincent Fugre
Abstract: The objective of this study was to describe interpopulational variation in the sensory
morphology of the African cyprinid fish,Barbus neumayeri from two field sites in Western
Uganda: a relatively pristine rainforest stream site and a nearby stream outside the forest in
converted agricultural land. Uganda has suffered severe deforestation, and there is growing
awareness of the effects that forest loss is having on the quality of water in the rivers and
streams. One characteristic of deforested streams in these areas is increased turbidity, which may
affect the visual environment of the fish and lead phenotypic change to improve visual acuity
and/or improve other sensory modalities. In this study, I quantified eye size, barbel length, and
the volume of corresponding optic and olfactory brain lobes ofB. neumayeri from the inforest
and outforest streams. The results show that outforest fish had a larger overall brain mass and a
larger facial lobe suggesting that the brain areas of olfaction are more active in outforest fish and
could correspond with a difference in fish morphology in the two populations. Given that nodifference in barbel length was found, further research is required to determine the
morphological characteristics that an increase in facial lobe volume can be attributed to inB.
neumayeri.
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Introduction
Deforested land that has been converted for agricultural use is a prime contributor to increases in
water turbidity in streams and lakes around the world (Ryan, 1991). Turbidity is a measure of the
amount of suspended particulate matter in the water column, either biotic and/or abiotic.
Research has shown that the amount of sediment being transported globally by rivers has
increased by 2.3 billion tonnes annually as a result of human land-development such as tree
removal and subsequent soil erosion (Syvitski et al., 2005; Donohue & Garcia Molinos, 2009),
and certainly a component of this increase is associated with deforestation. In East Africa, it is
estimated that only 28% of the original rain forests remain today (Martin, 1991). The majority of
land clearing has been for subsistence farming and fuelwood harvest. Uganda has seen an
average forest loss of 86,400 ha each year. This is 2.1% of the forest cover per year from 2000-
2005 (FAO, 2005). In Uganda, out-forest streams (i.e. streams found in deforested, agricultural
land) have been observed to be more turbid than rivers located inside forested areas (Kasangaki
et al., 2008).
Increased turbidity has been linked to multiple ecological changes in aquatic ecosystems
(Donohue & Garcia Molinos, 2009; Kasangaki et al. 2008). For example, an increase in sediment
load has been shown to result in a decrease in total primary production through photosynthesis
due to a decreased transmission of light through the water column (Kirk, 1985; Donohue &
Garcia Molinos, 2009). Increased turbidity has also been linked to reduction in dissolved oxygenavailability in aquatic ecosystems (Bruton, 1985; Donohue & Garcia Molinos, 2009). These
physio-chemical changes can result in changes in ecological interactions such as intra- and
interspecific competition (de Roose et al., 2003) and food web stability (McCann, 2000), due to
the changing availability of resources (Chandler, 1942; Cuker, 1993; Donohue & Garcia
Molinos, 2009).
Effects of increasing turbidity on fishes have been studied extensively, and has been
shown to be detrimental to fish that are visual predators. Increased turbidity decreases the
effectiveness of their visual perception ability due to a decrease in ambient light intensity and
shifts in the colour of underwater light. Therefore, high turbidity levels can diminish feeding
efficiency (Cuker, 1993) and as a result, growth rates of visually predatory fish (Donohue &
Garcia Molinos 2009; Utne-Palm, 2002).
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An organisms physiology and morphology must be considered in the context of its
environment (Bradshaw, 1965). In spite of substantial research on effects of turbidity on fishes,
our understanding of how turbidity may drive phenotypic variation across populations (across
habitats within species) is not well understood. Yet, given how pervasive turbidity is as an
environmental stressor in freshwaters, it is increasingly important that we understand the
ecological and evolutionary consequences. Genetic adaptation and phenotypic plasticity have
been considered as two ways that organisms may adapt to different environments (Schlichting &
Pigliucci, 1998). Natural selection can act on the genetic variation in a population living in the
current environment. Organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and
reproduce offspring with the same advantageous trait. Over a series of generations, this can result
in a population that is locally adapted to environmental conditions (Crispo & Chapman, 2010).
However, it could also be that adaptive phenotypic change can be seen within a generation,
producing a population that is also locally adapted to the environment without genetic change
(i.e. phenotypic plasticity) (Crispo & Chapman, 2010; Bradshaw, 1965).
The objective of this study was to investigate interpopulational variation in the sensory
morphology of the African cyprinid fish,Barbus neumayeri from two field sites in Uganda that
differ in level of turbidity. Specifically, I measured eye size, barbel length, and the volume of
corresponding optic and olfactory brain lobes ofB. neumayeri from in-forest and out-forest
(deforested, converted to agricultural land) stream populations from western Uganda. Previous
observation on cyprinids (minnows) has shown that, in general, the number and length of barbels
are correlated with eye size and habitat (Davis & Miller, 1967; Moore, 1950). In clear water,
minnows are often characterized by large eyes and short barbels, whereas fish in turbid water
tend to have small eyes and long barbels. Furthermore, it was observed that minnows in turbid
water have reduced optic lobes (Davis & Miller, 1967). It is theorized that barbel and eye size is
related to the fishs ability to obtain their food in clear or turbid environments. Methods of
obtaining food will likely vary with the habitat and the effectiveness of the food sensory organs(such as eyes and taste buds) in a way that optimizes food capture and processing (Davis &
Miller, 1967). Since vision is reduced due to the decrease in light penetration in highly turbid
waters, some fish in turbid environments rely on taste buds to locate their food. It is suggested
than an increase in barbel length or size is a compensatory adaptation for reduced vision in turbid
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environments, as an increased barbel length would allow for more effective searching where
vision is limited (Hubbs & Ortenburger, 1929; Davis & Miller, 1967).
With respect to brain development, it has been observed that differences in brain lobe
size can be attributed to functional adaptations. Relative lobe size is correlated with
hyperdevelopment or degeneration of a specific sensory system (Davis & Miller, 1967). A
species lifestyle is reflected in the organization and development of its central nervous system
(Nieuwenhuys et al., 1998). Therefore the structure of brain and allocation to different lobes of
the brain can provide important insight into the biology and the lifestyle for a group of
organisms. The relationship between brain size and relative development of brain areas, and a
spectrum of ecological variables have been studied in by Kotrschal et al., 1998. The relative size
of sensory brain lobes, which reflects sensory specialization, was found to be closely-related to
feeding and the relative development of the integration areas (such as the telencephalon and
cerebellum) was found to be related to differences in microhabitat (Kotrshal et al., 1998). It was
found that the telencephelon brain area is larger in fish that live in spatially structured
environments (Huber et al., 1997).
This study ofB. neumayeri will address the link between human impact and the
morphological variation in fishes from disturbed and undisturbed habitats. We expect to find
evidence to support the idea that as rivers become more turbid due to deforestation, the
morphology of fish living in out-forest streams will change in response to the environment, in
this case, an increase in turbidity. It is possible that due to this anthropological impact affecting
fish morphology and feeding strategy, we could be cascading effects in the food web of the
rivers in West Uganda.
Given previous research on the Cyprinidae family of fish regarding eye size, barbel size
and brain lobe size, and the morphological variation across environmental gradients (Davis &
Miller, 1967; Lindsey et al., 2006), if there is an effect of turbidity on the morphological
characteristics ofB. neumayeri, I hypothesize that I will observe a difference in the
morphological features of the eyes, barbels and corresponding brain lobes in out-forest versus in-
forest streams. Specifically, I predict thatB. neumayeri populations experiencing increased
turbidity (i.e. out-forest streams) will have smaller eyes and optic lobes, and larger barbels and
facial compared to in-forest populations living in relatively clear water. This prediction will be
tested through extraction and measurement ofB. neumayeri barbels, eyeballs and brains from
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two sites in western Uganda with different levels of turbidity to determine if there is a
relationship between turbidity and the size of these traits.
Methods
Study Site and Species
In this study, I used preservedBarbus neumayeri fish collected from the Mikana (MIK) site
within Kibale National Park and from the Outforest Farm (OUTF) site near Kibale National Park
in western Uganda in 2010 and 2011 (Fig. 1). Standard G minnow traps were placed in the water
overnight to collect fish. The fish were euthanized using buffered MS222 in the field and then
preserved in 4% paraformaldehyde and transported to McGill University in Montreal, Canada.
Barbus Neumayeri is a member of the cyprinid family and is widely distributed in Eastern Africa
(Martinez et al., 2011). It lives in a diverse range of environments from turbid swamps to clear
open rivers (Martinez et al, 2011). Previous research has shown population specific variation in
traits related to morphology (Martinez et al., 2011).Barbus neumayeri feeds on small insect
larvae, aquatic plants and detritus (Chapman et al., 1999) and reaches a maximum length of 12.5
cm (Schaack & Chapman, 2003).
Initial Measurements
To obtain standardized measurements, the fish were soaked for 20 minutes in water and then
patted dry prior to photographing and weighing. The preserved fish were weighed on a
microbalance to the nearest 0.1g. To obtain an accurate measurement of standard length, the fish
was pinned onto grid paper (1 side of the square = 2 cm) overlaying a piece of cardboard, next to
a ruler for reference (Fig. 2). The fish was carefully pinned in the nose and in the tail fin so as
not to destroy the barbels or brain. Standard digital pictures of all fish were taken using a Canon
G10 digital camera that was attached to a tripod using a level. Pictures of each fish were captured
against a 2 cm x 2 cm grid and standard length was measured from these photographs usingImageJ.
Barbel Dissection
To determine if the length of the two dominant barbels of fish from Mikana in-forest (MIK) and
out-forest (OUTF) streams differed; the barbels were excised from the right side of the fish using
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a small pair of dissection scissors. A circular piece of fish cheek containing both barbels was cut
off and placed under a dissection microscope. Some barbels did not lie flat under the microscope;
and in cases such as this, the barbels were flattened as much as possible by applying pressure
using modeling clay or pinning the barbel down with a pair of forceps while a picture was taken.
Barbel Pictures and Measurements
A picture of the barbels under the dissection microscope was captured using the program Infinity
Capture (Fig. 3). Using the picture, the length of each of the barbels was recorded using the
program ImageJ. Each barbel was measured from its tip to the point of attachment to the cheek
tissue.
Eye Dissection
To determine the eye diameter, axial length, and the eye diameter to eye axial length ratio of fish
from in-forest and out-forest streams, the right eye was removed from the fish. Under a
dissection microscope, a dull pair of forceps was used to lightly carve around the perimeter of
the eye to detach it from connective tissue. As the tissue was detached a thin film covering the
eye began to come off and was then fully removed with forceps. Once this thin film was
removed, a mark on the dorsal area of the eye was made with a permanent marker in order to
identify the eyes orientation after its removal from the fish. The remaining connective tissue
underneath the eye was pulled off, or cut away with forceps until the optic nerve and surrounding
tissue was fully detached from the eyeball. The eye was then gently removed using forceps. All
other pieces of fat and tissue remaining on the eyeball were carefully removed. The eye was
placed in a beaker of water for five minutes to allow it to rehydrate.
Eye Pictures and Measurements
The eyeball was placed in a divot in modeling clay under a dissection microscope. A picture of
the eyeball was then captured using Infinity Capture as a digital photograph in two different
orientations. The first orientation was a top view of the eye (Fig. 4a). The dorsal edge of the eyewas identified using a pin that pointed at the mark made by the permanent marker before
dissection. The eye was then placed on its side in order to measure its width (Fig. 4b). A picture
was taken of its width with the dorsal side of the eye oriented upwards, towards the camera.
Using these photographs, the diameter of the eyeball was measured using an average of three
diameters. The first diameter measurement was taken from the dorsal marker, extending to a
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point directly across the dorsal marker and the second two measurements were taken across the
diameter of the eyeball from opposite corners of the eyeball. One eye axial length measurement
was taken from the side view of the eyeball, across the width of the eyeball at the dorsal marker.
The eyeball was then placed in paraformaldehyde solution for archiving.
Brain Dissection
To test if the sizes of specific brain components differed between populations,B. neumayeri
brains were extracted from the fish. The left eye was first removed from the fish to sever the
connection between the optic nerve and the brain, which simplified brain extraction. Using a fine
pair of forceps, an incision was made through the backbone of the fish by the dorsal fin, closer to
the anterior end (Fig. 5). The outer layer of scales and skin were removed between the fin and the
skull. The muscle tissue inside the fish was removed with a pair of forceps to expose the spinal
cord leading into the brain area at the top of the head. Once all the tissue was removed, the fish
was removed from under the dissection microscope and placed on a paraffin tray. The fish was
then pinned to the paraffin tray at the head. Two pins were inserted through the ocular spaces,
into the paraffin tray so as not to damage the brain. The posterior end of the fish was also pinned
down to orient the fish in an upright position for the brain extraction. The pinned fish was placed
under the dissection microscope and a shallow incision was made along the length of the head
using either a fine pair of forceps or scalpel. The incision spanned from the top of the skull to the
bottom of the nasal region. This was done very carefully as the brain was directly underneath the
thin layer of skull. The incised area was pulled upwards and to either side of the fish head to
expose the brain tissue. Forceps with an extremely fine tip or a hooked tip were used to remove
the remaining soft tissue from the exposed brain. The connective tissue surrounding the brain
was then carefully carved on both sides of the brain. The exposed spinal cord was then cut at the
posterior end of the skull, with at least 1 cm of spinal cord attached to the brain. The brain was
then lifted out of the skull carefully using forceps, and cleaned of extra tissue. The spinal cord
was cut at a brain landmark apparent on each of theB. neumayeri brains, specifically where the
spinal cord began to widen (Fig. 6).
Brain Pictures and Measurements
Digital photos of the brain were taken in three different orientations so that the volume of each
brain component could be calculated. The brain was first placed on a slide and corrected to be
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level in one plane by balancing it on small, metal pins. It was captured on the dorsal side, ventral
side, and side angle (Fig. 7). Measurements were taken using the digital photos for the length,
width and height for the following brain lobes: telencephelon, optic lobe, cerebellum and facial
lobe using image J. The volume of each brain lobe was calculated using the formula:
. The volume was multiplied by a factor of two for the
telencephelon and optic lobes since their total volume is composed of two symmetrical lobes.
The brains were then weighed on a microbalance to the nearest 0.0001g. The brains were small
and held in preservative. To ensure an accurate weight, every brain was weighed once every day
for three consecutive days, and their masses were averaged.
Statistics
Each of the measurements obtained (standard length (cm), body mass (g), eye diameter (mm),
eye axial length (mm), brain mass (g), and the length width, height of the cerebellum, optic
lobes, telencephalon, and facial lobe (mm)) were log transformed to help the homogeneity of the
variances, as tested with Levines test. ANOVA was used to detect a difference in the standard
length and body mass of the two populations. The statistical test performed on all other measures
was an ANCOVA, with population (in forest-MIK, out forest-OUT) as the fixed factor and a
measure of body size as the covariate. For body weight, eye components and brain mass,
standard length was used as the covariate. For brain components, brain mass was used as a
covariate. When the interaction between the covariate and population was not significant (i.e.
when the slopes of the two populations were homogeneous), the interaction term was removed
from the model. All analyses were performed using SPSS 17.0.
Results
Body Size
I tested for differences in body size (standard length and body mass) between the two
populations using 20 individuals from each population. A t-test showed no significant difference
in the average standard length between the two sites (F(1, 36) = 3.977, p = 0.054), although there
was tendency for Mikana fish to be longer. Outforest (OUTF) fish had a shorter average standard
length of 5.33 cm and Mikana Inforest fish (MIK) fish had an average standard length of 5.85 cm
(Fig. 8). In addition, there was no significant difference detected in body mass of the two
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populations (F(1, 36) = 3.709, p = 0.062), although, again there was a tendency for Mikana
Inforest fish to be heavier. The average weight of the Outforest fish was 3.014 g and the average
weight of the Mikana Inforest fish was 4.030 g (Fig. 10).
An ANCOVA showed a significant relationship between the standard length and mass of fish in
both sites (Outforest farm (OUTF): R2 = 0.964, Inforest Farm (MIK): R2 = 0.819). The intercepts
of the regression lines of the OUTF fish did not differ significantly from MIK (F(1,35) = 0.044,
p = 0.835, Fig. 9).
Brains
In total, six brains from each population were dissected and analyzed. Using an ANCOVA with
log standard length as the covariate, I found that the slope of the regression lines for the brain
mass ofB. neumayeri differed between the two populations; and the regression lines for the body
massbody length relationship were strong and linear (Outfish Farm (OUTF) R2
= 0.969,
Inforest Mikana (MIK) R2= 0.763). There was a significant population effect (F(1,8) = 5.619, p =
0.045), suggesting that OUTF fish have larger brains than MIK fish (Fig. 11). The only brain
component that differed between populations was the facial lobe. Using brain mass as the
covariate, an ANCOVA showed that the slopes of the regression lines for facial lobe volume of
B. neumayeri differed between sites (F(1,8) = 6.493, p = 0.034) and the relationships between
facial lobe size and brain mass were stronger for the Outforest Farm population (Outforest Farm
(OUTF): R2
Linear =0.589, Inforest Mikana (MIK): R2
Linear =0.246, (Fig. 12).
For all other brain components analyzed (telencephelon, optic lobes and cerebellum), with brain
mass as a covariate, there were no significant interaction terms (i.e. population*log standard
length) or population effects. Statistical values for all tests can be found in Table 1.
Eyes and Barbels
Two barbels from 20 fish per population were analyzed, while 10 eyes from individuals from
each population were analyzed. There were no significant differences between populations in
barbel length or eye size (Table 1).
A t-test found that the Eye Diameter to Eye Axial Length Ratio showed a significant difference
between the two populations (ED:AL) F(1,18) = 6.124, p = 0.024, Figure 13).
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Discussion
The objective of this study was to describe interpopulational variation in the sensory morphology
of the African cyprinid,Barbus neumayeri from two field sits, the Outforest stream (OUTF) and
Mikana Inforest farm steam (MIK) that differ in level of turbidity. I did this by quantitatively
comparing barbel length, eye diameter and axial length, and specific brain lobe volume. I
hypothesized that if there was an effect of turbidity on the morphological characteristics ofB.
neumayeri, I would observe a difference in the morphological features of the eyes, barbels, and
corresponding brain lobes in out-forest versus in-forest streams. I predicted thatB. neumayeri
populations experiencing increased turbidity (i.e. out-forest stream) would have smaller eyes and
optic lobes, longer barbels and facial lobes compared to inforest populations living in relatively
clear water. I found a significant difference between the two populations in facial lobe volume,
with the fish from the Outforest population having a larger facial lobes than the Inforest fish.
This was further confirmed by a difference in the overall brain mass between the two populations
with the Outforest fish having heavier brains than the Inforest fish. There was no difference in
the volume of the telencephenlon, optic lobes, cerebellum or in the length of the barbels. There
was also no difference found in the eye size between the two populations.
Body Mass/Size relationship
I tested for a difference in the size of the fish from the Outforest Farm site and the Mikana
Inforest Farm site by looking at the relationship between the mass and length of the fish. There
was no difference in the slopes of bilogarithmic relationship between the mass and length
between the populations. This means that fish of a given standard length in each of the
populations showed no significant difference in mass. This was also confirmed using a t-test
which tested for a difference in average standard length and body mass between the two
populations. Both of these t-tests showed there was no difference between the two populations in
standard length or mass. Therefore, the fish used in this experiment showed a good overlap in
size meaning that they are of a comparable nature. Significant differences cannot be attributed to
a difference in the body size of the fish.
Vision
I predicted that eye size would vary between the clear Inforest and turbid Outforest populations;
however, contrary to my predictions, I found that there was no significant difference in the eye
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size of the two fish populations (See Table 1). There was also no difference in the optic lobe
volume ofB. Neumayeri brains, which is the center of the brain that controls eye function and
processes visual stimuli (See Table 1). Previous research has shown that minnows in turbid
environments have reduced optic lobes compared to minnows in clear water (Davis & Miller,
1967), suggesting that in an environment with reduced visual ability, visual processing centers
are also reduced. However, other research on the scaling of the size of vertebrate eyes using axial
length showed that fish showed a remarkable range in variation in eye size in comparison to all
other vertebrate groups tested (Howland, et al., 2004). This weak relationship between body size
and eye size could be a potential factor in the non-significant difference between Inforest and
Outforest fish because there is no a relationship between body size and eye size to begin with.
Previous research on fish eye size and its relationship to turbid environments has only
been conducted on minnows therefore it is possible that phenotypic plasticity of eye morphology
varies between species. Furthermore, Evans (1952) found that normally, vision plays an
important role in cyprinid activity. However, in turbid aquatic environments, eyes are
compensated for by other sense organs which become more highly developed. In these
environments, the eye may become degenerate (Evans, 1952). This suggests that the effects of
the environment on fish are more obvious in other sense organs than the eyes. I found a
significant difference in the Eye Diameter to Eye Axial Length ratio (ED:AL) in the two
populations however the literature does not specify how this may effect vision. Given that the
size of the fisheyes in the two populations were similar, it is consistent that the associated optic
brain center, the optic lobe, shows no difference in size between the two fish populations, as our
results showed.
Olfaction
I predicted that barbel length would vary between the clear Inforest and turbid Outforest
populations; however I found that there was no difference in the length of Barbel 1 which is the
barbel located closer to the ventral side of the fish. I also found that there was no difference in
the length of Barbel 2, closer to the dorsal side of the fish. However, there was a difference in
overall brain mass between the two fish populations, with the heavier brains belonging to the
Outforest fish. This indicates that there could potentially be areas of hyper-development or
degeneration in one or more sensory lobes inB. Neumayeri brains (See Fig. 11). Further testing
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found that the only brain component that differed between populations was the volume of the
facial lobe, with the Outforest fish having a larger facial lobe (mm3) than Inforest fish (See Fig.
12). This result was in line with my initial hypothesis. Previous research on cyprinid fishes
showed a correlation between the size of barbels and the size of the facial lobe. More
specifically, fish that rely on skin tasting, using their mouth, lips, skin and barbels to forage,
had well developed facial lobes, whereas fish with reduced barbels and a reliance on their eyes
for feeding had reduced facial lobes (Evans, 1952). Therefore, an enlarged facial lobe in the
Outforest fish indicates that there is more activity or use of the taste sensory structures in the
outforest streams. The outforest streams were the turbid environments in this survey. In these
environments, it is more difficult to see underwater as less light is able to penetrate the
suspended sediment in the water (Donohue & Garcia Molinos 2009; Utne-Palm, 2002).
Therefore, fish in these environments rely on their sense of taste in order to obtain food. An
enlarged facial lobe, in comparison to the Inforest stream fish, may reflect a turbid environment.
One possible explanation for the lack of difference in barbel length between populations
could be that although the length of the barbels did not differ between populations, the surface
area or density of taste buds could differ, thereby allowing for more effective tasting. Further
investigation is required to determine if there is a difference in the density of taste buds between
the two populations which could contribute to the increased facial lobe volume. The mouth, lips
and facial skin are other areas on the cyprinid fish that are connected to the facial lobes via
sensory nerves. It may also be helpful to examine the density of taste buds in these areas as well
(Evans, 1952).
It has been found that barbel size largely influences the structure of the hind brain, more
specifically, the facial lobe (Evans, 1952) and so I would continue to further investigate this
difference as it is a primary indicator that human changes in the fresh-water environment in
Western Uganda could have a significant impact on the morphology ofB. neumayeri.
An important note is that these tests were based on a very small sample size with regards
to the eyeballs (NInforest = 10, NOutforest = 10) and brain (NInforest = 6. NOutforest = 6). For future
investigation, I suggest that a larger sample size is obtained for a more robust dataset. In addition
to increasing the sample size of the test populations, I would test fish from additional sites to
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observe if these trends are found over similar habitats (i.e. within turbid environments or clear
water environments) or if certain characteristics are associated with certain locations.
In terms of fish preservation, I suggest that the barbels be removed from the fish in the
field and preserved in a manner that allows them to lie flat. Many of the barbels I worked with
had curled in preservation and made it difficult to obtain accurate measurements. This was also
the case with the measurements of the fish brain. Given that the brains are not evenly distributed
in weight, they were difficult to capture in the same plane, skewing the measurements slightly.
Conclusion
The response of an organism to the environment they live in can occur physiologically,
behaviourally, or morphologically (Bradshaw, 1965). Despite substantial research on the effects
of turbidity on fishes, there is not a strong understanding of how turbidity may drive phenotypic
variation across populations (across habitats within species). It is becoming increasingly
important to understand the ecological and evolutionary consequences of turbidity as it is a
pervasive environment stressor in freshwater environments. My results show that there is a
significant difference brain size between the two fish populations, more specifically in the facial
lobe, with the Outforest fish having a larger facial lobe than Inforest fish. As the facial lobe is the
center for olfaction in the brain, this difference in size suggests that there may be morphological
differences in the olfaction sensory organs for the fish in turbid environments. It is possible that
this is a result of increased turbidity these environments. Further research should be done to
determine if there is a difference in the density of the taste buds in the barbels as there was no
difference found in the length of the barbels between the two populations. There should also be
an investigation of the impact of an increased or decreased Eye Diameter to Axial Length ratio
on the vision of the fish. In the future, the modification of preservation techniques would also
allow for more accurate measurements to be obtained.
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References
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Chandler, D. C. (1942). Limnological studies of western Lake Erie. II. Light penetration and its relation to
turbidity. Ecology, 23, 41-52.
Chapman, L. J., Chapman, C. A., Brazeau, D. A., McLaughlin, B., & Jordan, M. (1999). Papyrus swamps, hypoxia,
faunal diversification: variation among populations ofBarbus neumayeri.Journal of Fish Biology, 54, 310-
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Crispo, E., & Chapman, L. J. (2010). Geographic variation in phenotypic plasticity in response to dissolved oxygen
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Tables and Figures
Table 1: Statistical Values for ANCOVA and t-test performed onB. neumayeri from two
different sites. N Outforest = 18, N Mikana Inforest = 20. Significant values are bolded.
df F p-value
t-test
Standard Length (cm) 1 3.977 0.054
Mass (g) 1 3.709 0.062
Eye to Diameter
Ratio
1 6.124 0.024*
ANCOVA
Log Mass1
(g) 1 0.019 0.890
Log Brain Mass1
(g) 1 5.619 0.045*
Log Telencephelon2
1 0.599 0.459
Optic Lobe2 1 0.000 0.995
Cerebellum2 1 0.967 0.351
Facial Lobe
2
1 6.493 0.034*
Barbel 1 Length1 1 0.923 0.343
Barbel 2 length1 1 0.050 0.852
Eye Diameter1 1 2.665 0.121
Eye Axial Length1
1 1.348 0.262
Starring indicates a significant interaction effect in addition to a significant population effect.
1
indicates that the covariate used was standard length (cm)2 indicates that the covariate used was brain mass (g)
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Figures
Figure 1
Fig. 1 Mpanga drainage and Dura drainage and surrounding areas showing study sites Outforest (OUTF) and Mikana (MIK)
(Red stars) Western Uganda (Maps provided by Vincent Fugre).
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Figure 2
Pin
2 cm
Measurement reference
Figure 2: Picture ofB. neumayeriwith reference ruler for measuring standard length and
ull length
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Figure 3
Barbel 2
Cheek tissue containing both barbels
Barbel 1
Measurement reference
Tip
Figure 3: B. neumayeribarbels 1-bottom and 2-top and measurementlines (yellow line).
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Figure 4 a,b
Figure 4a
Figure 4b
Measurement reference
Dorsal Marker
Eyeball
Divot
Figure 4a: B. neumayerieyeball top view orientation and diameter
measurements (yellow and red lines).
Measurement reference
Width measurement at dorsal marker
Eyeball
Figure 4b: B. neumayerieyeball side view orientation and axial
measurement (yellow line).
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Figure 5
Incision point
Figure 5: Marker for backbone incision point on B. neumayerifor brain extraction (yellow line).
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Figure 6
Spinal cord cut off point
Figure 6: B. neumayeribrain: Spinal cord cut-off point on B. neumayeribrain (yellow line).
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Figure 7 a,b,c
Cerebellum
Telencephelon
Optic Lobe
Facial Lobe
Measurement reference
Figure 7a: B. neumayeribrain lobes: Cerebellum (CC), Telencephelon (TE), Optic
Lobe (TO), Facial Lobe (FL).
Figure 7b: B. neumayeribrain lobes length and width measurements (yellow line):
Cerebellum (CC), Telencephelon (TE), Optic Lobe (TO), Facial Lobe (FL)
measurements: Width (w), Length (l).
FLw
FLl
CCwCCw
TOw
TWw
CCl
TOl
TEl
Figure 7c: B. neumayeribrain lobes height measurement (yellow line): Cerebellum
(CB), Telencephelon (TN), Optic Lobe (OL), Facial Lobe (FL) measurements: Height (h).
TEhTOh
CChFLh
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Figure 8a,b
Figure 8a
Figure 8b
Figure 8b: Estimated marginal means of Log Standard Length (cm)
showing the difference in Log Standard Length ofB. Neumayerisample
population from OUTF and MIK sites.
Figure 8a: The average standard length ofB. Neumayerisample
population from OUTF and MIK sites.
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Figure 9
Figure 9: The relationship between Log mass (g) and Log standard
length (cm) for B. Neumayerisample population from OUTF (Blue) and
MIK (Green) sites.
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Figure 10a,b
Figure 10a
Figure 10b
Figure 10b: Estimated marginal means of Log Mass (g) showing the
difference in Log Mass ofB. Neumayerisample population from OUTF
and MIK sites.
Figure 10a: The average mass (g) ofB. Neumayeri
sample population from OUTF and MIK sites.
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Figure 11a,b
Figure 11a
Figure 11b
Figure 11b: The estimated marginal means of Log Average BrainMass (g) between OUTF and MIK B. Neumayerisample
populations.
Figure 11a: The relationship between Log brain mass (g) and Log
standard length (cm) ofB. Neumayerisample population in
OUTF sample population (Blue) and MIK sample population
(Green).
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Figure 12a,b
Figure 12a
Figure 12b
Figure 12b: The estimated marginal means of Log Facial Lobe Volume (mm3)
between OUTF and MIK B. Neumayerisample populations.
Figure 12a: The relationship between Log brain mass (g) and
Log Facial Lobe Volume (mm3) ofB. Neumayerisample
population in OUTF sample population (Blue) and MIK
sample population (Green).
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Figure 13
Figure 13: The Eye Diameter (ED) to Axial Length (AL) ratio (ED : AL) for OUTF
and MIK B. Neumayerisample populations.