Session 1-4 [Compatibility Mode]
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Transcript of Session 1-4 [Compatibility Mode]
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Session Slides
1-4
Tuckmans Five-Stage Theory
Performing Adjourning
Norming
Storming
Forming
Return to
Independence
Roles
Goals
Trust
Dependence
Climate of open
communication, strong
cooperation and lots of
helping behavior
Feeling of
Team spirit is
experienced
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Tuckmans Five-Stage Theory
Performing
Norming
Storming
Forming
Task accomplishmentEnhancing the Quality
of Interpersonal
relationships
Performing De-norming
De-storming
De-forming
Group Decay
Care Little beyond
their self-imposed
borders
Discontent
surfaces and
cohesiveness
Erosion of
standards of
conduct
Reference: McGrew, Bilotta & Deeney, 1999
a software development team
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1. Should not become complacent upon reaching the performing
stage
2. Awareness is the first line of defense
3. Constructive steps need to be taken to bolster cohesiveness
even when the work groups seem to be doing their best
Groups
Individual
Contribution
Individual Outcomes
Common Goals
Demands of
Management
Self-imposed
Demands
Common Goals and
Commitment to
Purpose
Mutual Outcomes
Individual and
Collective
Teams
Performance
Depends on ..
Accountability
rests on ..
Members are
interested in ..
Responsive to ..
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Completion
Transition
First
Meeting
Phase 1
Phase 2
(High)
(Low)
A (A+B)/2
Time
B
Performance
Temporary Groups with Deadlines
Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
No of
Members
Productivity
Reference: John, G. (1996). Organizational Behavior: Understanding and
Managing Life at Work. Harper Collins, Page - 251
Group Size
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How many group members is too many?
Mathematical Modeling
Approach
Odd number of groups are recommended if the issue is to be
settled by a majority vote
3 to 13
Laboratory Simulation
Approach
If high quality decision quality is important
If generation of Creative ideas is the objective
Increase in group size
1. Positive effects of team building
2. Group leaders tend to be more
directive
3. Member satisfaction
As the size of the team increases beyond 20 members, the level of
natural cooperation among members of the team decreases
Reference: Gratton, L & Erickson, T. J. (2007). Eight ways to build collaborative
teams. Harvard Business Review.
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Effect of Men and Women working together inGroups
Attitude Shift
Neutral to negative Favorable to neutral
Police
Nursing
Keep the Domain
Share the Domain
Women
Interrupted men
and women equally
Men
interrupted women
significantly more
often than
Men respondedmore negativelythan did women to being in
the numerical minority in their work groups (Tsai et al., 1992).
Men responded with more negative work attitudes to
increased group heterogeneity than did women (Wharton and
Baron, 1987).
Men who wereoutnumbered by women were less satisfied
and less committedthan when they were less outnumbered,
while
Womens satisfaction and commitment were unaffected by
the Gender composition of their work groups (Tsui et al., 1992).
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Men and womens different reactions lies indifferences in
their status in societyand how these differences play out
at work (Chaman & OReilly, 2004).
As the attitude towards the role of women have changed in
contemporary society, differences in social participation have
also begun to diminish
- Nielsen (1990)
Group
Reward
Member
Interaction
Group
Size
Somewhat
Difficult Entry
Agreement with
Team Goals
External
Challenges
Cohesiveness
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Cohesiveness
Time
Before After
Reference: John, G. (1996). Organizational Behavior: Understanding and
Managing Life at Work. Harper Collins.
Success
Group Cohesiveness
Performance
Norms
Cohesiveness Productivity
Cohesiveness
Performance-
related
Norms
High Low
High High Productivity Moderate Productivity
Low Low Productivity Moderate/ Low Productivity
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Norm
Help the group survive
Simplify behavioral expectations
Help in avoiding embarrassing situations
Clarify groups central values/ unique identity
How Norms are Developed
Explicit statement by supervisors or co-workers
Critical events in groups history
Primacy
First behavioral patterns that that emerges in a group
Carryover behaviors from past situations
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Others Expectations are Unknown
Others have conflicting or inconsistent Expectations
Others expectations > Ones Ability
Expected Behavior for a given PositionRole
Zimbardos Prison Experiment
Set up a fake prison using student
volunteers
Randomly assigned student volunteers
to guard and prisoner roles
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A follow up study by BBC
Prisoners and guards
behave differently
when they are
monitored
Guards were more careful in their
behavior
Concerned about how their actions
might be perceived
An egalitarian system developed
between prisoners and the guards
Abuse of roles can be limited when people are made
conscious of their behavior
A socially defined position or rank given to groups or
group members by others
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The power a person wields over others
A persons ability to contribute to a groups goals
An individuals personal characteristics
High status people are given more freedom to deviate from norms
Tend to be more assertive members
Criticize/ state more commands / interrupt others more often
Inhibit diversity of ideas
Properties of
Groups
CohesivenessSize
Roles Norms
Status
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The convergence of individuals thoughts, feelings, and
behavior toward a group norm
There is no direct request to comply with the group
nor
Any reason to justify the behavior change
Conformity
Normative
Influence
Informational
Influence
Subjective
Uncertainty
Need for information
to reduce uncertainty
Comparison with
others
Need for Certainty
InternalizationCompliance
Power of others to
Reward/Punish
Conflict between own
and others opinions
Need for Acceptance/
Approval of Others
Private Disagreement Public Acceptance Private Acceptance
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Comparison LineTest line
Which of the comparison lines matches the test line?
Distortion of individual judgment by a unanimous but
incorrect opposition
Asch Effect
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Results
33%went along with the group on a majority of the trials
25%remained completely independent
75%conformed at least once
When tested alone (no confederates), subjects got more than
98%of the judgments correct
When tested with confederates, they only got 66% of the
judgments correct
Number of Confederates
ConformityL
evel
The Asch Experiment
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Number of Confederates
ConformityLevel
The Asch Experiment
If there is one dissenting voice, the dramatic effects of
conformity are erased
Visibility
Importance of the issue
Low individual confidence
Strong commitment to the group
Difficult/ Ambiguous Issues
Determinants
High status people
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Conformity across Genders
Women conform more than men (Nord, 1969)
Women conform more than men, but only to a smaller
degree and in specific kinds of situations
Face to face non-personal group discussions
In (anonymous, low surveillance situations): no difference
Women more concerned for maintaining positive
relationships with others
Men use disagreement to dominate others or to separate
themselves from the group
As women have become more successful in work and
educational settings, their social status has risen, along with
their independence and assertiveness (Twenge, 2001)
Intelligence Age
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Conformity across the Internet
More prevalent in online groups rather than offline groups
(Spears, Lea & Postmes, 2007)
SIDE: Social Identity model of Deindividuation Effects
In relatively anonymous online world, individuals tend to
define themselves in terms of their collective, social
identities rather than their individualistic, personal
identities.
Source: Donelson, R. Forsyth (2012). Understanding Group Dynamics, Cengage
Learning
Add more and more
people to a group
Total force exerted by the
group increases
The average force exerted
by each group member
declines
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The phenomenon in which participants, who work together,
generate less effort than do participants who work alone
Social Loafing
Increasing Group Size, Increasing Group Output
N u m be r o f Idea s G en era te d
6 7 7 2
4 8
3 42 5
0
1 0
2 0
3 04 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
1 2 4 8 1 2
N u m ber o f G ro u p M em ber s
Does social loafing occur in brainstorming groups
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But Decreasing Individual Input
Ideas Per Group M ember
25
6
81 2
1 7
0
5
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
1 2 4 8 1 2
N u m ber o f G ro u p M em bers
Does social loafing occur more often in individualistic
or in collectivistic cultures?
Earley (1989) showed that:
American groups (individualistic) loafed more than
Chinese groups (collectivistic)
Accountability reduced loafing in American groups but not
in Chinese groups
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Reference: Thompson, L. L. (2003).Making the team: A guide for managers. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Motivation strategies
Increase identifiability
Promote involvement
Reward team members for
performance
Strengthen team cohesion
Provide team performance
reviews and feedback
Coordination strategies
Using single-digit teams
Training team members together
Spending more time practicing
Minimizing links in
communication
Setting clear performance
standards
Social Facilitation
Triplett (1898) observed trackcyclists and noticed that
performances were faster when
In competition compared
with being
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Zajoncs Experiment
Mere Presence: Increases
Performance
Mere Presence: Decreases
Performance
Presence of
others
Evaluation
apprehension
Improve
on simple
tasks
Impaired
on complex
tasks
SOCIAL FACILITATION
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Two heads are better than One!
The benefits of two heads require that they differ in relevant
skills and abilities
The group members must be able to communicate their ideas
freely and openly. This requires an absence of hostility and
intimidation
The task being undertaken is complex. Relative to individuals,
groups do better on complex rather than simple tasks
CONTEXT
Political,
Economic and
Legal Aspects
Customers,
Competitors,
Suppliers Strategy
History
Financial/ Labor
Market
Physical Setting
TASK DESIGN
Required activities
Required interactions
Interdependence
Variety and Scope
Significance
Autonomy
GROUP
COMPOSITION
Demographics
Competence
Interests
Working Style
Values
FORMAL
ORGANIZATION
Structure
Systems
Staffing
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Context Team Design Group Culture
Group Culture
Emergent Activities
Emergent Interactions
Shared Values
Norms
Roles and Status
Subgroups
Rituals, Myths and shared Languages
Shared convictions
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Groups develop norms concerning the following:
Distribution of power and influence
Communication patterns within the team
(Who talks with whom? Who talks the most)
What topics are considered legitimate for
discussion
How conflicts are managed
The culture a group forms is outside the direct control of the
manager
It can only be influenced by the managers action, i.e. the way
the manager arranges the design factors
Rituals, Stories and Language
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CONTEXT
Political,
Economic and
Legal Aspects
Customers,
Competitors,
Suppliers
Strategy
History
Financial/ Labor
Market
Physical Setting
TASK
REQUIREMENTS
Required activities
Required interactionsInterdependence
Time Span
Significance
Autonomy
GROUP
COMPOSITION
Demographics
Competence
Interests
Working Style
Values
FORMAL
ORGANIZATION
Structure
Systems
Staffing
EFFECTIVENESS
Performance
Well-being and
Development
Shared capacity to
Adapt and Learn
GROUP
CULTURE
Appears to prefer to make
decisions alone
Push
Directive
Management by Committee
Pull
Participative
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CONTEXT
Political,
Economic and
Legal Aspects
Customers,
Competitors,
Suppliers
Strategy
History
Financial/ Labor
Market
Physical Setting
TASK
REQUIREMENTS
Required activities
Required interactions
InterdependenceTime Span
Significance
Autonomy
GROUP
COMPOSITION
Demographics
Competence
Interests
Working Style
Values
FORMALORGANIZATION
Structure
Systems
Staffing
OUTCOMES
Performance
Well-beingIndividual
grouwth
GROUP
CULTURE
Leadership
Style
Leadership
Style
High Stake High Pressure Environment
Disparate Goals and Interests
Group Process
Group Size
Interpersonal Dynamics
Challenger Launch
What Boisjoly Could have done?
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A minority view: More distinctive, capturing attention and as
a result people carefully analyse the discrepancy between their
own view and the minority view.
Attitude conversion: where the individual is convinced that
the minority view is correct, which is much more likely to be
private rather than public (Informational Conformity)
Influence is likely to be
stronger
Consistency with which
people hold their position
Moscovici, S. and Zavalloni, M. (1969). The group as a
polarizer of attitudes.Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 12, 125-135.
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How the majority interprets
consistency
If it is seen as inflexible, rigid,
uncompromising: Unlikely to change the
views of the majority.
If they appear flexible and compromising:
Likely to be seen as less extreme, as more
moderate, cooperative and reasonable:
Better chance of changing majority views
Getting the majority discuss and debate the
arguments that the minority are putting forward.
People tend to identity with people they see similar
to themselves. For example, men tend to identify with
men, Region specific, language specific, age specific
(teenagers with teenagers) etc.
If the majority identifies with the minority, then they
are more likely to take the views of the minority
seriously and change their own views in line with
those of the minority.
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What is the Goal?
How do each Play?
Gaps in Individuals
arguments
How do they see others
Treat dissenters
Advocacy Orientation
Suppress them
Competitors
Go / No Go
Remained unfilled/ Hidden
Forcefully presented the points
of view to gain adherents to it
Engaged
Collaborators
Multiple alternatives exist
Partially/ Completely filled bycombining Knowledge
Seek to surface relevant
information and perspectives
What is the Goal?
How do each Play?
Gaps in Individualsarguments
How do they see others
Treat dissenters
Inquiry Orientation
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Conditions for better group decisions
An Inquiry Orientation
Psychological Safety
Individuals feeling comfortable speaking up
Promoting Inquiry Orientation
Build a climate of psychological safety
Frame the group decision making task as a collective
learning process
Promote inquiry, seek input, weigh issues together
Continually assess your own and the groups orientation
Reviewing the Process
How did we do?
What should we keep?
What can we do better?
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Success of Decision-Making Process
Effective Management of Conflict
Procedural Justice
Timely Closure
Groups become more concerned with reaching
consensus than with reaching consensus in a way
that ensures its validity
Groupthink
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Groupthink
Mindguards
Excessive
Stereotyping
Illusion of
Unanimity
Collective
Rationalization
Self-
Censorship
Invulnerability
Pressure for
Conformity
Inherent
Morality
Antecedents of Groupthink
Stressful Situations
Highly cohesive groups
Group Structure
Homogeneous members
Directive leadership
Unsystematic procedures
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Avoiding Groupthink
The leader should be neutral
High status members offer opinions last
The leader should give high priority to members airing
objections and doubts, and be willing to accept criticism
Groups should always consider unpopular alternatives,
assigning the role of devil's advocate to several strong members
of the group
Outside experts should be included in vital decision making
Group size
Thank You