Selective Attention Research

“Exercising” Proper Attention: The Effect of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Focus

“Exercising” Proper Attention: Exercise

increases selective attention

Nicholas A. Lopez

Jeff Chen

Justin Lee

Jai Oberoi

Emory College of Arts and Sciences

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Abstract

A common problem among university students is attention control; with all

the different sources vying for one’s attention, it is becoming increasingly

difficult to direct selective attention. In order to better understand focus, our

research sought to determine the effect between acute aerobic exercise and

proceeding control of selective attention. While many studies done in the field

measured the effect of acute aerobic exercise on cognitive function, none

addressed selective attention specifically. A meta-analysis done by the Chichester

Centre of Applied Sport and Exercise Sciences concluded that difference in the

accuracy of cognition post-exercise had a larger mean effect size than during

exercise (McMorris and Hale). In agreement with the trend of cognitive function

improvement, we predicted that selective attention would correlate positively

when preceded by acute aerobic exercise. In order to test this hypothesis, our

research team developed a procedure that measured the difference between

selective attention before and after acute aerobic activity.

For our sample, we selected the Men’s Novice Club rowing team at

Emory University, as their practices were structured and allowed us to better

compare the results between the participants. In order to quantify our measures of

attention, we used the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT). The

PASAT was originally created to assess the effects of traumatic brain injury. It is

now recognized as a measure of a number of different cognitive functions, most

notably those related to attention (Tombaugh, 2006). The results showed that

every single participant increased their timed score on the PASAT after exercise.

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Paired two-sample t-tests determined that the change in percent score was

statistically significant. While there was not a significant increase in reaction

time, we were still able to conclude that exercise did positively affect selective

attention due to the increase in accuracy. Our research could possibly open the

door to new therapies for people with ADHD. Also, it allows us to educate

college students and potentially alter their schedules in order to maximize

efficiency and minimize sparse selective attention.

Background and Literature

Our research focuses on how acute cardiovascular exercise (increased

heart rate aerobic activity with consistent cardiovascular activity lasting more than

ten minutes) in college students affects selective attention within fifteen minutes

of finishing exercise. Attention is defined as “the focusing of perceptive

awareness on a particular stimulus or set of stimuli that results in the relative

exclusion of other stimuli and is often accompanied by an increase in the

readiness to receive and to respond to the stimulus or set of stimuli involved”

(Strickland, 2001). Our study may shed further light on the benefits of acute

exercise habits. Also, our study may help college students with ADHD utilize

time efficiency techniques based on our research, which that could alleviate the

attention-defecate symptoms as an alternative to traditional pharmaceutical drugs.

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More practically, however, a potential correlation between exercise and

selective attention can help to better inform college student and improve their

time management strategy in order to be more efficient with their selective. There

have been many studies and analyses done regarding memory and exercise. One

such analysis done by the Chichester Centre of Applied Sport and Exercise

Sciences at Chichester University examined the effect of differing exercise

intensities on both speed and accuracy of cognition while and after performing

aerobic exercise (McMorris & Hale, 2012). This meta-analysis focused on the

different intensities of exercise and how human cognition is affected by the

different intensities. McMorris and Hale focused mainly on results dealing with

data gathered from the subjects while performing exercise. Regarding the effect of

aerobic activity post-exercise, McMorris and Hale concluded that there was a

significant difference between the larger mean effect size of cognition accuracy of

post-exercise versus the smaller mean effect size of accuracy pre-exercise. To our

knowledge, this study is the only one with a conclusion regarding the effect of

exercise on post-exercise selective attention. Our research study focuses on

college students, specifically physically active males between the ages of 18-22

years old, which allows for more specific practical applications. Another study

was conducted regarding the effect of aerobic exercise on overall health and

mental functioning of healthy populations (Guiney & Machado, 2013). This study

researched and compared different studies done regarding aerobic exercise and

different functions of the brain. It was concluded that over time, healthy

populations that exercised had better overall mental functioning, including

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selective attention. This study collected data based on three categories: children,

young adults, and adults. Again, this study does not focus on physically active

male, much less college students specifically, nor does it go into detail regarding

acute exercise. This study utilized the “Stroop task” in order to measure selective

attention and inhibitory control, which involves asking participants to name the

color of the ink a word appears in by either saying it or pressing a button.

One research study regarding acute exercise specifically found that

children showed improved selective attention from 12 minutes of aerobic exercise

(Tine & Butler, 2012). The purpose of the study, however, was not to measure

how exercise affects selective attention; rather, the experiment sought to compare

and contrast the benefit received between low-income children and high-income

children. It was concluded from the study “that a 12 min session of aerobic

exercise improved the selective attention of both lower- and higher-income

children”. The researchers also found that lower income children see a larger

boost in selective attention. Once again, this study does not specifically deal with

male college students.

Over the course of the decade, research regarding attention deficit and

hyperactive disorder (ADHD) has grown exponentially. The Gale Encyclopedia

of Psychology defines ADHD as “a combination of excessive motor restlessness,

difficulty in controlling or maintaining attention to relevant events, and impulsive

responding that is not adaptive” (Arcus, 2001). It is important to recognize the

connection between ADHD and our study. This disorder severely affects the area

of selective attention, especially in students who need to focus for extended

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periods of time motionless. A research study done in 2013 seeks to establish the

link between exercise and ADHD symptoms. In this study, data was collected

across a wide span of studies. Animal data collected by the researchers suggested

that exercise might be helpful for ADHD symptom reduction, most notably during

early developmental periods (Rommel, Halperin, Mill, Asherson, & Kuntsi,

2013). This study does not specifically deal with a certain age group, but suggests

that there is limited research regarding the effect of exercise in children and

teenagers with the disorder. It was suggested by the researchers, however, that

evidence points to the theory that exercise does improve executive functioning

and behavioral symptoms in children with ADHD It was also said by the

researchers that exercise holds promise in reducing ADHD symptoms, but that

more research needs to be done. Our study seeks to establish a higher correlation

between exercise and selective attention.

The scientific information regarding exercise and memory is plentiful.

However, there is a definite gap in the effectiveness of exercise in improving

selective attention. Our study utilized the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test in

order to quantify the data and correlate the results more efficiently. We

hypothesized that acute aerobic activity will in fact greatly affect selective

attention in college students in a positive way. Based on the previous research in

the field and related fields, we inferred that exercise would have a positive effect

on mental processes. In addition, due to the research in the field of brain disorders

(specifically ADHD), we believed that exercise would significantly improve

selective attention, lower anxiety, and boost overall study effectiveness. Our

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experiment tested the Emory University Men’s Club Novice Rowing team, one

that regularly engages in aerobic exercise. We first tested them without any

exercise (or before they exercised that day) and then waited the same amount of

time they normally exercise. We then tested them again and recorded our

observations concerning any change in attitude/ability to focus in addition to

specific PASAT results. We used the PASAT results in order to quantify our

results.

Methods

We have chosen to use quantitative methods, specifically the Paced

Auditory Serial Exam, to carry out our experiment for the research experiment.

Our research question is to test the effect of acute exercise on cognitive function,

specifically selective attention. We decided to take quantitative data from the tests

the subjects take in order to accurately analyze the cause and effect relationship

between acute exercise and selective attention. In addition to the quantitative data,

we also took a survey of each participant showing name, age, position on team,

and years they have participated in crew (See Appendix Figure 8). Also, we

conducted an experiment on a set number of individuals, which enabled us to

establish a causal relationship. Using quantitative methods allowed us to compare

numerical results from tests in order to draw conclusions. For our experiment, we

used the Emory Men’s Club Crew Team as our subject population. The control in

this study is pre-exercise test performance. The data from the control allows the

other results collected from the subjects after exercise to be compared for further

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conclusions. The independent variable is the exercise carried out by the subjects.

The dependent variables are the test results carried out by the test subjects before

or after exercising.

For our experiment, the only materials required were laptops, notebooks

and earphones. The subjects used the laptops in order to take the Paced Auditory

Serial Addition Task. We administered this test using the program that was

readily available on our laptops. We used notebooks to take observations and

notes during the practices for reference during our data collection. Since the test

required our subjects to listen to numbers, our subjects used earphones for a

quieter environment. The scale that we used in order to test selective attention was

the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (Tombaugh, 2006). This task required

our test subjects to add up the last two numbers presented to them in a sequence.

In this way, the subjects needed to utilize their focus in order to hear the numbers,

remember the previous ones, and then add them up (See References). This method

has been used a previous study that studied the effects on moderate exercise on

working memory (Martins, A).

For our experiment, we decided to sample members of one of the athletic

teams here at Emory University. This was advantageous as the teams would be

easily accessible and it would be convenient to test participants who are on

campus. We emailed the coaches of the various athletic teams to determine which

program would be willing to partake in our research. However, we faced the

problem of not receiving responses of consent from many teams’ coaches. We

decided to tackle this problem by contacting a friend who is part of the crew team,

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and asking him to email the coach and cc us in the mail. This worked out to our

advantage as crew has standardized practices between the team members, which

increased the accuracy of the experiment. In terms of decreasing the margin of

error, the testing of only one kind of team allowed us to more easily compare the

results, as all the subjects were of the same gender. The use of one kind of team,

however, also limits the applications of our study in that it may raise doubts as to

the generalization of our results across gender lines.

We performed the study by first collecting all the information we could

about the practice, which would be our form of exercise and independent variable.

Due to the number of participants, we attended the Emory Men’s Crew practice

three times over a period of four days. We separated the participants into two

separate groups. One group was tested first before exercise and secondly after

exercise. The other group was tested first after exercise and secondly before

exercise. Only one test was conducted per day in order to minimize the possibility

of an increase in PASAT score due to a practice effect.

A potential problem in our study was that some members of the team did

not want to participate. We attempted to talk to the coach in order to motivate

them and it did not work. Fortunately, it was a small number of team members

that either did not want to participate or did not attend practice the week we

conducted the tests (less than three team members). When it comes to ethics, we

did not unethically coerce participants into exercise, as we simply used an

everyday athletic team’s practice. However, there were be some issues with

taking the test, as different participants had different schedules and were not be

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able to do the test. This was addressed by finding a test that does not take long

(about 1 minute and 50 seconds). This alleviated the problem of lack of

participants’ time to take the test immediately after aerobic activity, but before the

end of practice. Another element we had to consider was the possible injury

during participation in the study due to exercise. For this reason, we selected the

Emory Club Crew team to observe, as they already had to exercise for practices.

In terms of sample size, we ended up having 8 participants. The split of

the subjects into two large groups, which were tested randomly, served to

alternate the subjects in the three different days that we tested between pre and

post exercise testing. This random testing prevented the subjects from knowing

when they were going to be tested in order to minimize the margin of error and

prevent any unforeseen bias on the part of the subjects. Our sample group

consisted solely of males, which prevents us from applying our results to a larger

population of men and women. We administered a survey before our experiment

in order to obtain the exact numbers with regards to age (See Appendix Figure 8).

Our sample size was large enough to establish significance due to the pairing of

the data (pre and post exercise).

Results

The objective of our experiment is to determine the relationship between

acute exercise and selective focus. If our participants undergo a period of acute

exercise, we expect that they will be able to focus more efficiently. In order to

take our data, we went to the Emory Men’s Crew practice three times over the

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duration of four days. In this way, we were able to get data from as many

participants as possible. However, there was one subject who only went to

practice once. Therefore, we took him out from our data because we did not take

sufficient results from him.

We tested our participant’s selective attention by having them take the

Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test. We chose this test because it was simple and

took only a few minutes to complete. Also, the test is different each time so the

participant cannot simply memorize all the answers. The test is used in many

different experiments in order to test focus and memory.

Eight male crew members participated in our study that took place over

four days over a one week period. The mean participant age was 19.125 +/- 1.356

years. All participants were informed of the details of our experiment and gave

proper consent (see appendix ?).

Exercise improved Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task Performance

A two-proportion z-test was used to determine if the majority of the

participants increased their score after exercising. This test was used so we could

compare the proportions of the participants who scored higher or lower after

exercising. Significance was determined at α=0.05. Not only did the majority of

participants increase their score after exercising, but we also found that 100% of

participants increased their score after exercising (8), (z7=2.828; p=0.0023; p<.05).

Paired two-sample t-tests were used to determine if there was a significant change

in percent correct, number correct, and reaction time after exercise. This test was

used because our participants were each tested before and after exercise and could

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be compared in this way; moreover, the data is continuous data. The average

percent correct of serially added numbers were significantly higher after exercise

(mean±sd: 85%±14.88%) than before exercise (76.25%±16.48%; t7=6.173;

p=0.0005) (Figure 1; See Appendix Figure 9). Also, the average number correct

of serially added numbers was significantly higher after exercise (mean±sd:

34.00±5.952) than before exercise (30.50±6.590; t7=6.173; p=0.0005) (Figure 2).

However, there was no difference in reaction time (the speed with which an

answer was entered, correct or incorrect) with or without exercise. The average

reaction time before performing exercise (mean±sd: 2964ms±1097ms) did not

significantly change after exercise (3165ms±92502ms; t7=0.6394; p=0.5429;

p>.05) (Figure 3).

Discussion

The results of our experiment show that our hypothesis turned out to be

correct. Based on paired t tests, it was found that the change in attention

(quantified by the PASAT score in number and percent correct) after exercise

versus before exercise was large enough to be statistically significant and

demonstrate exercise as beneficial to selective attention.

Many studies in the field do not address specifically attention after a bout

of acute aerobic exercise. For example, one study measured the difference

between adults who were either aerobically active or not. This study determined

aerobic activity over longer periods of time and measured the effect of this

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chronic activity over 10 weeks (Masley, Roetzheim, & Gualtieri, 2009). It was

found that cognitive flexibility and mental speed significantly improved in the

aerobically active group versus the control group. This study, however, addressed

the broad term of “cognitive flexibility” and not selective attention. Another study

examined the effects of acute aerobic exercise on the ability of preschoolers to

sustain attention (Palmer, Miller, & Robinson, 2013). The shortcomings of this

cross-study lie in the lack of application in a clinical setting. Being a cross-study,

it lacks practical application. In addition, it examines a population of

preschoolers, which is not as applicable as a more-developed brain of a college

student.

Our study is different from those that precede it because it addresses the

immediate effect of acute aerobic exercise specifically on selective attention.

Some studies address the effect of acute aerobic exercise on attention during

exercise. For example, a study done at Rome University in Rome, Italy does

address the effect of exercise on attention (Cereatti, Casella, Manganelli, & Pesce,

2009). However, it analyzes the immediate effect of aerobic activity on attention

during the bout of exercise. In addition, it does not address selective attention;

instead, it analyzes the effect of exercise on visual attention. Visual attention

involves the attention given to what is within the visual field. Selective attention

is the ability to consciously direct and maintain visual attention in order to

perform specific tasks. Selective attention also involves re-direction of cognitive

functions and other attentions (such as auditory attention and tactile attention).

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Our study is most applicable in the aid of ADHD patients. Due to the

nature of ADHD symptoms (most notably attention deficit), our study may be

the beginning for a set of studies researching exercise as a form of therapy

for these symptoms. Apart from aiding in selective attention, exercise may

also decrease other symptoms of ADHD (Cortese, 2013). The expenditure of

energy during exercise serves to alleviate the hyperactive symptoms. This study

also suggests that further research be done in order to more accurately specify the

alleviated symptoms and other questions regarding exercise and ADHD

symptoms. Most immediately, however, our results provide information that may

assist a college student in planning their studies. For example, a student with

attention troubles may plan to exercise before studying in order to better allocate

their selective attention.

Another area of study that may benefit from our research study is recovery

from traumatic brain injury. A study done at the Universidade Federal de Santa

Maria found that aerobic activity (treadmill exercise) protected against the

increase of pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) (Almeida Silva et al., 2013). PTZ was found

in previous studies to induce seizures when present in convulsive doses.

Following these results, physical exercise began to be regarded as a possible

treatment for post-traumatic seizure susceptibility. This study, however, only

evaluated the benefits of exercise on sufferers of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It

would be beneficial to conduct a research study specifically correlating the effect

of treadmill exercise on a TBI-lacking brain in order to apply the results on a

broader spectrum. In concurrence with our research, this study could suggest a

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permanent effect of increased selective attention spanning more than the

temporary attention “boost” immediately following the exercise (due to the repair

and defense improvement properties of the brain).

The results of our research are somewhat limited in application because

that we did not specifically test ADHD patients. Because of this, we cannot

establish correlation between the effects of acute aerobic exercise on selective

attention in ADHD patients. However, we can infer, based on our research, that

there is a high possibility that our results can be reproduced with ADHD patients.

In addition, our study was lacking in that it was small and somewhat

homogeneous. Our sample size consisted solely of physically active college-aged

males. This homogeneity, however, was intentional in that it allowed us to work

with a smaller sample size and also allowed comparisons to be made more easily

between the subjects. Future studies may be able to address our shortcomings in

terms of sample size by either increasing the size, incorporating females, or even

expanding the age boundaries. Also, further studies may be able to examine the

long term effects of acute exercise on attention.

After our team’s initial literature review, we were extremely confident in

our hypothesis of a positive increase in selective attention following acute aerobic

activity. The results gathered and data analyses held our hypothesis to be mostly

true. We believe, however, that our results will hold true over a larger sample

size. Based on our research, we believe that it is largely unquestionable that there

is a level of positive significant relationship between acute aerobic exercise and

post-exercise selective attention.

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Figure Captions

Figure 1: Exercise improves participants’ percent correct in the PASAT test

The average percent correct of serially added numbers was significantly

higher after exercise (mean±sd: 85%±14.88%) than before exercise (paired two-

sample t-test: 76.2%5±16.48%; t7=6.173; p=0.0005). Asterisk (*) denotes

significant difference from non-exercise group.

Figure 2: Exercise improves the participants’ number correct in the PASAT test

Figure 3: Effect of exercise on the participant’s reaction time in the PASAT test

(two-paired t-test).

The average reaction time before performing exercise (mean±sd:

2964ms±1097ms) did not significantly change after exercise (3165ms±92502ms;

t7=0.6394; p=0.5429; p>.05).

Figure 4: Individual differences in percent correct on the PASAT pre- and post-

exercise.

100% of the participants had an increase in percent correct on the PSAT

test after exercising.

Figure 5: Individual differences in reaction time on the PASAT pre and post

exercise.

There is no significant correlation between exercise and reaction time.

Figure 6: Scatter Plot on the percent correct pre and post exercise.

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Our participants experienced a 14.76% average increase in score after 60

minutes of exercise. The participant’s average score increase was calculated using

the equation y = 0.246x + 74.013 (r= √.22146).

Figure 7: Scatter Plot on the reaction time pre and post exercise.

There is no noticeable correlation between exercise and reaction time. The

equation (y = 0.688x + 3045.8) does not indicate any significant change in score

after exercising (r = √.00045).

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Appendix

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

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Figure 4

Series 1 – Before exercising

Series 2 – After exercising

Figure 5

Series 1 – Before Exercising

Series 2 – After Exercising

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 80

20

40

60

80

100

120

Percent Correct Pre vs Post Exercise

Series1

Series2

Participant

Perc

ent C

orre

ct (

%)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 80

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

Reaction Time Pre vs Post Exercise

Series1

Series2

Participant

Rea

ctio

n T

ime

(ms)

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Figure 6

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 700

20

40

60

80

100

120

f(x) = 0.246020918599363 x + 74.0131878126421R² = 0.221459762000425

Time Exercised vs Percent Correct

Series2

Linear (Series2)

Time Exercised (Min)

Perc

ent C

orre

ct (

%)

Figure 7

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 700

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

f(x) = 0.687994542974079 x + 3045.82264665757R² = 0.00044646330833098

Time Exercised vs Reaction Time

Series2

Linear (Series2)

Time Spent Exercising

Rea

ctio

n T

ime

(ms)

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Figure 8

Participant

Age

Sex

Year at Emory

Years in Crew

Position on Team

120 M Junior 2 Varsity

218 M

Freshman 1 Varsity

322 M Other 4+ Coach

419 M

Freshman 1 Novice

519 M

Freshman 1 Novice

619 M

Freshman 1 Novice

718 M

Freshman 1 Novice

818 M

Freshman 1 Novice

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Figure 9 (Data Tables)

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References

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