SECTORAL ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT RURAL WATER SUPPLY SERVICES...

SECTORAL ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT RURAL WATER SUPPLY SERVICES IN ASSAM (Draft Report)

i Sectoral Assessment of Current Rural Water Supply Services in Assam (Draft Report)

Foreword

The Government of India spends an estimated one billion dollars every year for providing

drinking water security in rural areas of the country. The central government and state

governments have reportedly spent more than 1,500,000 million rupees over the last two decades

in water supply and sanitation. While the percentage of coverage has increased over the years,

there has been also instances when “fully covered habitations” have been slipping back into

“partially covered” or “not covered” status. Sustainable service delivery has remained a major

challenge and a primary cause of such futility of efforts. Pertinent constraints of deteriorating

quality and quantity of source water, poor operation and maintenance (O&M) standards, weak

cost recovery are some major constraints identified in achieving and maintaining full coverage.

To assist the states where the percentage of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (RWSS) services

have been lagging, Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation is developing a dedicated National

Program for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation for Lagging States (RWSSP-LS) with the

assistance from the World Bank.

The aim of the RWSS-LS program is to enhance the institutional capacity of Ministry of

Drinking Water and Sanitation in the participating states viz. Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand and Uttar

Pradesh in implementing and delivering the program. The program aims to improve piped water

coverage, integrated with sanitation services, through decentralized service delivery mechanisms.

This particular study highlights the apparent strength and some of the existing constraints

hindering the rural water supply program in the state of Assam and explore possible means of

overcoming the shortcomings while reinforcing any existing best management practice. The

investigations have attempted analyzing the various aspects and existing issues related to

drinking water supply services in selected blocks in four identified districts viz. Kamrup, Jorhat,

Sonitpur and Hailakandi districts of Assam. The assessment is supplemented with practical and

realistic means to ensure that the constraints are prevented, eliminated or mitigated, as the case

may be, during future project implementation.

ii Sectoral Assessment of Current Rural Water Supply Services in Assam (Draft Report)

Table of Contents Page No.

1. Introduction 1

2. Description of Project State- Assam 4

3. Assessment of Technical and Service Delivering Mechanism 6

4. Assessment of Sector’s Policy and Reforms 22

5. Assessment of Institutional Goals and Vision 32

6. Assessment of Economic and Sector Finances 44

7. Social Assessment 49

8. Environmental Assessment 58

9. Key points emerging from the study 68

10. Reference 74

iii Sectoral Assessment of Current Rural Water Supply Services in Assam (Draft Report)

List of Tables

Table 1. Districts selected for the sectoral assessment and project implementation

Table 2. Basic information of four selected districts

Table 3. Demographic information of project districts

Table 4. Distribution of households by main source of drinking water and location: Assam Rural

Table 5. Rainfall in each of the four districts for the last five years

Table 6. Right bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra River and their annual discharge

Table 7. Left bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra River and their annual discharge

Table 8. Details of dynamic groundwater resources in Assam

Table 9. Ground water distribution in the state of Assam

Table 10. Details of groundwater resource in the four project districts of Assam

Table 11. Physical targets and achievement records of last three consecutive years in Assam

Table 12. No. of sources and samples tested in last seven consecutive years in Assam

Table 13. Number of habitation covered by different schemes (2009-2013)

Table 14. Details of schemes in the four selected districts

Table 15. Water supply facilities to rural primary schools

Table 16. Expenditure incurred on O&M under Rural Water Supply Program for the last three

consecutive years (in Lakhs)

Table 17. No. of sources and samples tested in last seven consecutive years

Table 18.Initiatives of APHED under R&D

Table 19. Coverage of habitations for the state of Assam

Table 20. Coverage of population for the state of Assam

Table 21. Information pertaining to Rural Drinking Water Supply

Table 22. Number of water sources in the state of Assam

Table 24. SC, ST /Minority coverage as on November, 2012

Table 23. Habitation coverage of Assam

Table 25. Aspects for assessment to be documented with the divisional offices comments or the

state office’s intervention

Table 26. The water quality monitoring and surveillance programme 2012-2013 achievements in

terms of trained district, block, GP HRD trainees, demonstration kits

Table 27. The testing of sources during 2012-2013: (as of November, 2012)

Table 28. PHED, Assam schemes with respect to state percentage

Table 29. Scheme details completed during 2011-2012

Table 30. District wise allocation, release and expenditure statement for the selected districts

Table 31. District wise number of SC/ST concentrated habitations

Table 32. Coverage of SC/ST/minority habitations (coverage as on 05/12/2012)

Table 33. Financial progress program funds (Rupees in Crores) as on 05/12/2012

Table 34. Quality affected habitations with the parameters

Table 35. Concentration range of fluoride in different districts in Assam

Table 36.Concentration range of arsenic in different regions of Assam.

Table 37. Total number of sources under different concentration ranges in the 18 districts in

Assam

Table 38. Incidence of water and sanitation related diseases

iv Sectoral Assessment of Current Rural Water Supply Services in Assam (Draft Report)

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map showing the state of Assam

Figure 2: Community wise population distribution in the four studied PWSS and 18 spot source

in Sonitpur district

Figure3. Community wise population distribution in the four studied PWSS and 21 spot source

in Kamrup district

Figure 4. Community wise population distribution in the four studied PWSS and 21 spot sources

in Jorhat district

Figure 5. Map showing some of the highly fluoride affected districts in Assam

Figure 6.Ground water arsenic contamination map of Assam

v Sectoral Assessment of Current Rural Water Supply Services in Assam (Draft Report)

Abbreviation

ADC: Autonomous District Council

AIBP: Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Program

APHED: Assam Public Health Engineering Department

ARWSP: Accelerated Rural Water Supply Program

ARWSP: Accelerated rural water supply programme

BCM: Billion Cubic Meters

BRGF: Backward Regions Grant Fund

CWSAP: Comprehensive Water Security Action Plan

DDWS: Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation

DDWS: Department of Drinking Water Supply

DLL: District Level Laboratories

DWSM: District Water and Sanitation Mission

ENVIS: Environment Information System

GIS: Geographic Information Systems

GOI: Government of India

GP: Gaon Panchayat

ICDS: Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)

IEC: Information, Education and Communication

IEC: Information, Education and Communication

IMIS: Integrated Management Information System

IWMP: Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP).

JMP: Join Monitoring Programme

JNNURM: Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission.

MCM: Million Cubic Meters

MDG: Millennium Development Goals

MNP: Minimum Need Program

MNREGS: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

MoRD: Ministry for Rural Development

NRDWP: National Rural Drinking Water Program

NRDWQM&SP: National rural drinking water quality monitoring and surveillance programme

NRHM: National Rural Health Mission

O & M: Operation and Maintenance

PMGY-RWSP: PradhanMantriGramodayaYojna Rural Water Supply Programme

PRIs: Panchayati Raj Institutions

PTA: Parent-Teacher association

PWSS: Pipe Water Supply Scheme

R&D: Research and Development

RCC: Reinforced Cement Concrete

RGNDWM: Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission

RWH: Rainwater Harvesting

SCCP: Scheduled Cast Component Plan

SLSSC: State Level Scheme Sanctioning Committee

SSA: SarvaShikshaAbhiyan

STA.: State Technical Agency

SWA: Sector Wide Approach

SWSM: State Water and Sanitation Mission

TSP: Tribal Sub Plan

UNICEF: United Nations Children’s Fund

VLUC: Village level Water Committee

VWSC: Village Water and Sanitation Committee

WSSO: Water and Sanitation support organization

1 Sectoral Assessment of Current Rural Water Supply Services in Assam (Draft Report)

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

National Rural Drinking Water Program (NRDWP) - a flagship programme led by the Ministry

of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS), Government of India, has accorded greater emphasis

to ensure drinking water security in rural areas. This is being done through measures to improve

and augment existing drinking water sources and conjunctive use of water, based on village

water budgeting and security plans prepared jointly by the community and the local government.

The programme aims at providing water security to communities by ensuring adequate and

consistent water supply, with desired quality and in conformity with prescribed standards at both

supply and consumption points. The issues of potability, reliability, sustainability, convenience,

equity and consumers’ preference are the guiding principles that need to be taken into account

while planning for any community-based water supply system. The revised NRDWP (2009)

guidelines envisage communities to be at the core of monitoring and surveillance of drinking

water sources. The guidelines further envisage providing an enabling environment for Panchayati

Raj Institutions (PRIs) and local communities to manage their own drinking water sources and

systems, including those in schools and at Anganwadi centers. Finally, to ensure transparency,

accountability and informed decision-making, all information are required to be placed in the

public domain.

Commensurate with change in the policy environment, assuring drinking water security and

safety at the household level implies application of new and/or alternative technologies, changes

in approaches, practices and mindsets across the spectrum of stakeholders. In addition, the

institutionalization of village level management systems, through effective convergence between

Panchayats and communities that would facilitate decentralized planning, including village-level

water budgeting, supported by adequate capacity building initiatives remain key to the water

security programme.

The NRDWP guidelines envisage a renewed thrust on Water Quality Monitoring and

Surveillance under which it is proposed that household level data on water security would be

linked to a central database at the mission level. As a step in this direction, states are required to

prepare district-wise Drinking Water Security Plans, which are derived from the Village Action

Plans prepared by the Panchayats. This district level planning and coordination is extremely

significant as it provides an institutionalized means of scaling up and strengthening village level

planning, and linking it with district plans across areas of quality and quantity (MDWS, 2012).

With the view to improve the water supply and safety scenario in a few selected states in India

viz. Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand and Uttar Pradesh, lagging in terms of piped water supply

coverage, a World Bank funded initiative has been taken up. The key focus of the initiative is to

provide safe drinking water and sanitation facilities initially in a few selected districts in each of

the four states. Thus, to contribute to the sustainability of the initiative, a prior sectoral

assessment in terms of Technical and Service Delivery Aspects, Sector Policies and Programs,


Institutional, Economic and Sector Finance, Social and Environmental aspects to assess the

existing scenario and identify the key constraints hindering water safety and sanitation approach

is required so that possible mitigation strategies can be integrated into the future projects.

The aim of this report is to synthesize the understanding of existing issues related to drinking

water supply services in selected blocks in each of the four districts viz. Kamrup, Jorhat,

Sonitpur and Hailakandi districts of Assam (Table 1). The assessment is supplemented with

generic observations and practical suggestions to ensure that the constraints are eliminated or

mitigated during project planning or implementation. The report is primarily based on

experiences from past engagements, interactions and current investigations. Secondary data, grey

literature and published reports have been also used as a major source of information for

compilation of the report in its present form. Outcome of a field based survey has been integrated

to make the report comprehensive. While findings based upon a field survey carried out by IITG-

UNICEF-PHED partnership project through an NGO M/s Environ in Jorhat, Kamrup and

Sonitpur districts has been primarily used for micro level assessment, a detailed field survey is

being administered including Hailakandi district.

Table 1. Districts selected for the sector assessment for subsequent project implementation

Sl. No. Districts Name of Blocks

1 Kamrup Chandrapur

Dimoria

Bezera

2 Jorhat Jorhat

Jorhat Central

Jorhat North West

3

Sonitpur Chaiduar

Pub Chaiduar

4 Hailakandi Algapur

Hailakandi

1.2 Background and Study Objective

The PHED in Assam has been implementing three major GoI sponsored programmes in RWSS

sector. These are (i) Minimum Need Programme (MNP), (ii) Accelerated Rural Water Supply

Programme (ARWSP), and (iii) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana Rural Water Supply

Programme (PMGY– RWSP). Rural Water supply has been included under the MNP since the

5th Five Year Plan. Also, the Scheduled Caste Component Plan and the Tribal Sub Plan (TSP)

are integral components of MNP. The PMGY-RWSP is too included in MNP. Assam PHED has

also been implementing sanitation programmes. This includes the Centrally Sponsored Rural

Sanitation Programme (CRSP). There are approx. 5042 piped water supply schemes functioning


in Assam as in 2012. Now from 2013, PHED- Assam plans to implement several major schemes

within the RWSS-LS projects in seven selected districts of Assam.

Over the last few decades the Government of India has invested a vast pool of fund and

resources on rural water supply of Assam as well. However, how effective this investment has

been in providing safe and assured water supply to rural households has not been investigated

comprehensively. The present study has attempted to evaluate the status of rural water supply

services in four selected districts (out of a total seven) and draw generic as well as specific

learning lessons for the state of Assam.

1.3 Organization of the Report

The report has been prepared covering the different aspects of the drinking water service sector

as per the Terms of Reference established earlier. Initiating with providing a brief background on

the state of Assam and its drinking water status, the subsequent sections deal with technical and

service delivery aspects, sector policies and reforms, assessment of institutional goals and

visions, economic and sector finance, and an assessment of social and environmental sectors.

Finally, the major conclusions and recommendations as derived from the study are presented.


2. Description of the Project State- Assam

Assam, the gateway to the northeastern region of India lies between graticules 89042’ to 95

016’ E

longitude and 24008’ to 28

009’ N latitudes (Fig. 1).With an approximate population of 31.17

million (Census of India, 2011), the state covers a total geographical area of 78,438 km2 which is

2.4 per cent of total geographical area of India. Assam consists of 27 districts and 237 blocks,

2580 gram panchayats (GP), 25,964 villages and 86,976 habitations (MDWS, 2011-12). Almost

71.7 per cent of Assam lies within the 800 km long and 130 km wide Brahmaputra valley, while

the southern part of the state lies in the Barak valley, separated from the Brahmaputra valley by

the Central Assam range. Nearly a fourth (720 km) of the Brahmaputra river’s 2,890 km flows

through Assam, descending 2800 m from the Eastern Himalayas (Singh et al, 2004), and

forming the lifeline of the people in the region. Apart from the Brahmaputra, the Barak River

System with a total length of 900 km is the second river system draining through southern part of

Assam.

Of Assam’s total rural population of 26.4 million, 17.7 million (67 per cent), living in

43,049habitations, has so far been covered under the NRDWP (MDWS, 2012). However, only

8.37 per cent of the population in the covered habitations contributes to the operation and

maintenance (O&M) of the water supply schemes (MDWS, 2012), leading to fully or partially

dysfunctional condition of some schemes that have been so far put in place. Further, clearly

established presence of iron and fluoride, bacteriological contamination and the relatively recent

findings of elevated arsenic contamination in groundwater have raised enhanced concern

regarding water security and safety issues in the state. As more and more areas are coming under

threat of one or another kind of contamination, water security and safety is emerging as a major

cause of concern in the region.

Fig. 1 Map showing the state of Assam


2.1 Project Area

Four districts viz. Kamrup, Hailakandi, Sonitpur and Jorhat, out of a total 27 districts in Assam

has been selected for implementation of the World Bank assisted Rural Water Supply System

Program for Lagging States Program (RWSS-LS). Basic information of the four selected districts

is presented in Table 2 and Table 3.

Table 2. Basic information of four selected districts where the current study was carried out

District Total no. of

Blocks

Total no.

of GPs

Total no. of

Villages

Total no. of

Habitations

Total Rural

Population (in

Lakhs)

Coverage

Population (in

Lakhs)

Hailakandi 5 62 398 1673 5.71 4.29

Jorhat 8 111 793 3578 9.4 6.26

Kamrup 17 163 1276 5228 17.74 11.18

Sonitpur 14 159 1952 5298 17.26 10.28

Source: IMIS database, 6.4.13

Table 3. Demographic Information of Project Districts

District Male Female Total

Popul

ation

Sex

Ration

Literacy

Rate

Persons

Literacy

Rate

Males

Literacy

Rate

Females

SC

%

ST %

Hailakandi 3,38,766 3,20,494 6,59,

260

946 75.26 81.61 68.54 10.

9

0.2

Jorhat 5,57,944 5,33,351 1,091

,295

956 83.42 88.38 88.38 78.

22

12.3

Kamrup 7,79,608 7,37,594 15,17

,202

946 72.81 77.64 77.64 67.

69

9.9

Sonitpur 9,89,919 9,36,056 19,25

,975

946 69.96 76.98 76.98 62.

53

11.6

Source: World Bank Preliminary Assessment report IPE Global, Census 2011 Data


3. Assessment of Technical and Service Delivery Mechanism

3.1 Water resource availability

In the relatively hilly catchments of the upstream of Assam plains, natural springs and dug wells

are generally the preferred cost effective and viable means of fulfilling the needs of freshwater

for present population. In hilly areas, most of the drinking water is used to be harnessed from

springs, streams, rivers, ponds and natural water bodies. However, many springs are reportedly

becoming seasonal leading to shortage of traditional source of drinking water. In valleys, major

portion of the domestic water is harnessed from groundwater predominantly through shallow

tubewells and dug wells. Availability of drinking water in the summer is severely marred at

places by occasional drought like situations and the overall quality of drinking water from many

natural sources often remains questionable.

Although there is abundant surface water in Assam (Ojha and Singh, 2004) easily to fulfill the

complete drinking water needs of all its inhabitants, groundwater continues to play a significant

role in meeting the water demands of most communities in the state, especially those in the rural

areas. With 22 per cent of its groundwater resource being developed (MDWS, 2012), Assam

continues to predominantly rely on groundwater as a source of drinking water, with tube wells

and dug wells as the most common means to access water in rural areas (Table 4). The Public

Health Engineering Department (PHED) implements a number of Public Water Supply Schemes

(PWSS) – both Single and Multi Village Schemes that tap relatively deeper aquifers with water

treated through primarily aeration and slow sand filtration. Apart from groundwater sources,

surface water sources are also used for Piped Water Supply Schemes wherever feasible.

The present PHED norms for coverage of Habitations in Assam are,

40 liters of safe drinking water per capita (LPCD) for human beings

A water source should exist within the habitation /within 1.60 km in the plains and within

100 m elevation in hilly areas.


Table 4. Distribution of households by main source of drinking water and location in rural

Assam

Source: Census 2011

3.1.1 Rainfall

In Assam, the average rainfall (covering the rainy days) during the monsoon months of June to

September is about 1606 mm, which accounts for about 70% (64%) of the annual rainfall (rainy

days) (Jha Jharia et al, 2012). Provided there is no heterogeneous or skewed rainfall distribution,

the amount of rainfall is adequate for suitable runoff, accumulation and ground water recharge,

compared to many other states of India (Table 5). The discharges in the main Brahmaputra and

both its north bank and south bank tributaries are adequate (Table 6 and Table 7) for major piped

water supply schemes, provided the intake points are chosen with utmost care, recognizing the

braided as well as meandering pattern of the rivers with unpredictable shift of channels,

sometimes jeopardizing existing or potential water intakes. Brahmaputra and its tributaries being

known for their heavy sediment loads, silting up of sources is too not uncommon including

complete shift of a channel leading to drying up of the bed of a river. Thus, despite generous

precipitation, a great deal of uncertainty persists in case of flowing water.

T

ota

l no. of

House

hold

s

Tap

wat

er f

rom

tre

ated

sourc

e

Tap

wat

er f

rom

un

-tre

ated

sourc

e

Cover

ed w

ell

Un-c

over

ed W

ell

Han

d P

um

p

Tube

wel

l/B

ore

wel

l

Spri

ng

Riv

er/C

anal

Tan

k/P

ond/L

ake

Oth

er S

ourc

es

Tota

l

5374553 310833

(5.78)

55852

(1.03)

58923

(1.09)

965961

(17.97)

2866428

(53.33)

439414

(8.17)

70287

(1.31)

208593

(3.88)

282954

(5.26)

115308

(2.14)

Wit

hin

th

e

pre

mis

es

2707213 100028 16469 24752 433151 1877505 255308 0 0 0 0

Nea

r th

e

pre

mis

es

1572643 140740 25875 18774 278979 643035 116299 18758 75258 220759 34166

Aw

ay

1094697 70605 13508 15397 253831 345888 67807 51529 133335 62195 81142


District: Hailakandi (rainfall in mm) for last five years

Year Jan Feb March April May June July August Sept Oct Nov December

RF %DEP RF %DEP RF %DEP RF %DEP RF %DEP RF %DEP RF %

DEP

RF %

DEP

RF %DEP RF %

DEP

RF %

DEP

RF %

DEP

2007 0.0 -100 119 266 58.9 -58 368.1 18 306.4 -38 556.2 10 296.8 -38 401.5 20 495.1 63 211.7 21 62.8 82 0.0 -100

2008 23.3 66 9.2 -72 87.2 -38 61.6 -80 194.9 -61 340.5 -33 396.2 -17 661.4 98 247.9 -18 277.7 59 0.0 -100 0.0 -100

2009 0.0 -100 2.2 -93 68.8 -51 97.2 -69 125.5 -75 116.3 -77 164.0 -66 168.9 -49 284.0 -7 61.6 -65 8.0 -77 0.0 -100

2010 - - - - 131.8 -7 420.0 35 303.6 -39 218.5 -57 139.8 -71 215.0 -36 146.3 -52 77.0 -56 6.6 -81 14.4 47

2011 8.0 10 3.5 -92 24.0 -81 46.1 -81 262.8 -37 147.3 -69 313.6 -27 239.7 -41 136.5 -57 46.6 -69 0.0 -100 0.0 -100

Source: Hydromet Division, Indian Meteorological Department (url:www.imd.gov.in/section/hydro/distrainfall/assam.html)

District: Jorhat (rainfall in mm) for last five years

Yea

r

Jan Feb March April May June July August Sept Oct Nov December

RF %D

EP

RF %DE

P

RF %DEP RF %DE

P

RF %DE

P

RF %D

EP

RF %

DE

P

RF %

DEP

RF %DE

P

RF %

DEP

RF %

DEP

RF %

DEP

2007 0.1 -100 76.3 119 29.4 -70 212.8 -11 189.0 -40 274.6 -17 300.8 -21 318.0 -15 355.1 19 28.5 -78 25.3 5 17.6 12

2008 27.7 4 8.3 -76 89.9 -7 181.8 -24 203.3 -35 329.9 0 357.1 -6 330.5 -11 125.0 -58 122.5 -7 0.0 -100 2.1 -87

2009 6.6 -75 21.7 -38 26.0 -73 154.0 -35 187.8 -40 225.0 -32 293.4 -23 286.8 -23 101.5 -66 57.8 -56 18.7 -23 0.7 -96

2010 - - - - 108.0 11 325.0 36 272.4 -13 328.0 -1 413.8 8 290.3 -22 187.1 -38 113.9 -14 27.6 14 8.8 44

2011 14.7 -34 23.3 -37 76.4 -5 55.1 -73 448.3 62 247.6 -14 413.1 6 288.1 -17 167.5 -39 17.8 -85 9.9 -61 14.9 -4

Table 5. Rainfall in each of the four selected districts for the last five years



District: Sonitpur (rainfall in mm) for last five years


RF %D

EP

RF %D

EP

RF %D

EP

RF %DEP RF %D

EP

RF %D

EP

RF %

DE

P

RF %

DEP

RF %DE

P

RF %

DEP

RF %

DEP

RF %

DEP

2007 1.1 -95 79.7 256 33.8 -35 323.2 119 258.5 -11 450.2 27 412.7 10 426.3 32 349.9 47 94.2 -19 19.5 19 25.6 83

2008 43.

1

104 4.0 -82 64.2 -23 231.0 57 253.7 -13 446.7 26 475.1 26 369.1 15 210.5 -12 123.5 6 2.4 90 1.2 -91

2009 5.4 -74 14.6 -35 39.4 -25 95.0 -36 244.0 -16 289.1 -18 331.2 -12 312.3 -3 155.0 -35 108.8 -6 31.2 30 7.4 -47

2010 - - - - 126.9 143 328.8 123 342.6 18 703.4 98 299.2 -20 404.0 25 220.0 -8 38.7 -67 7.3 -70 1.1 -92

2011 7.3 -62 7.2 -69 118.8 138 82.0 -43 255.9 -10 246.0 -32 398.0 4 320.1 -5 171.4 -25 15.9 -86 79.9 282 0.2 -98


District: Kamrup (rainfall in mm) for last five years


RF %D

EP

RF %DE

P

RF %DEP RF %DE

P

RF %DEP RF %D

EP

RF %

DE

P

RF %

DEP

RF %DE

P

RF %

DEP

RF %

DEP

RF %

DEP

2007 0.0 -100 90.1 474 30.8 -49 305.7 79 204.6 -30 344.2 -11 416.5 20 112.4 -59 224.0 14 141.0 23 20.1 20 0.0 -100

2008 33.

7

159

10.2 -34 139.2 130 159.1 -7 143.1 -51 353.8 -9 236.3 -32 281.0 3 125.9 -36 115.6 1 0.0 -100 1.7 -83

2009 0.0 -100 1.6 -90 60.1 -1 112.1 -34 200.1 -31 190.2 -51 363.1 5 286.7 5 99.5 -49 119.0 4 3.7 -78 4.2 -58

2010 - - - - 124.1 105 369.7 117 356.0 22 482.7 25 250.9 -28 233.5 -15 223.2 14 75.7 -34 5.3 -68 0.5 -95

2011 9.3 -23 23.4 13 53.6 -9 101.4 -33 224.5 -23 88.4 -76 373.4 8 204.0 -18 255.5 36 0.3 -100 15.3 1 1.3 -83


The district rainfall (mm/RF) shown above are the arithmetic averages of rainfall of stations under the district.

% DEP are the departure of rainfall from the long period averages of rainfall for the district

Blank spaces show the non-availability of data


3.1.2 Surface water availability

Table 6. Right Bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra River and their annual discharge

River Length (in KM) Rivers Length(km) Average

annual discharge

(m 3 s -1)

Subansiri 442 7,55,771

Ranganadi 150 74,309

Baroi 64 20,800

Bargang 42 16,000

JiaBharali 247 3,49,487

Gabharu 61 8450

Balsiri 110 9300

Dhansiri 123 26,577

Noa-Nadi 75 4,450

Nanoi 105 10,281

Barnadi 112 5,756

Puthimari 190 26,324

Pagladia 197 15,201

Manas-Aie-Beki 215 3,07,947

Champamati 135 32,548

Gaurang 98 22,263

Tipkai 108 61,786

Gadadhar 50 7000

Source: Flood Control Department, Govt. of Assam.


Table 7. Left Bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra River and their annual discharge

River Length (in KM) Rivers Length(km) Average annual discharge

(m 3 s -1)

Buridihing 360 1,41,539

Desang 230 55,101

Dikhou 200 41,892

Jhanji 108 8797

Bhogdoi 160 6072

Dhansiri 352 68,746

Kopili 297 90,046

Krishna 81 22,452

Kulsi 93 11,643

Jinari 60 7783

Source: Flood Control Department, Govt. of Assam

3.1.3 Ground water availability

Prolific aquifer systems dot the Brahmaputra Valley covering 70 % of the total area of the state

(Tables 8, 9, 10). Groundwater development generally takes place from two types of zones viz.

shallow zone within the depth of 50 mts and deeper zone from 50 to 200 mts. The groundwater

potential of the flood plain aquifers including that for the four districts is promising. However,

inorganic contamination of aquifers by iron, fluoride and arsenic has made groundwater sources

to be evaluated carefully with adequate sub surface investigations considering both spatial and

temporal variations.


Table 8. Details of Dynamic Groundwater Resources of Assam

Dynamic Groundwater Resources in Assam

Annual Replenishable Groundwater

Resources

27.23 BCM

Net Annual Groundwater Availability 24.89 BCM

Annual Groundwater Draft 5.44 BCN

Stage Groundwater Development 22%

Groundwater Development & Management

Over Exploited NIL

Critical NIL

Semi Critical NIL

Artificial Recharge to Groundwater (AR) Feasible AR structures: 250 Check Dams,

500 Weirs, 1000 Gabion structures, 250

Development of springs, 600 RWH in Urban

Areas

Source: IPE Global (P) Ltd


Table 9. Ground water distribution in the state of Assam

District GW resource dynamic

(MCM)

Utilizable GW resource for

irrigation (MCM)

Utilizable GW resource for

drinking and allied (MCM)

Barpeta 1161 987 74

Bongaigaon 591 502 89

Cachar 817 694 123

Darang 1407 1196 211

Dhemaji 1660 1411 249

Dhubri 1300 1105 195

Dibrugarh 1635 1390 245

Goalpara 495 421 74

Golaghat 1794 1525 261

Hailakandi 98 83 15

Jorhat 1461 1242 219

Karbi Anglong 584 496 88

Kamrup 1229 1045 184

Karimaganj 133 113 20

Kokrajhar 1580 1343 237

Morigaon 321 273 48

Nagaon 935 795 140

Nalbari 639 543 96

N.C. Hills 607 516 91

Lakhimpur 1167 992 175

Sonitpur 1615 1373 242

Sibsagar 1658 1409 249

Tinsukia 182 1552 275

Source: Central Ground Water Board, MCM= million cubic meter


Table 10.Details of Groundwater Resource in the four project districts of Assam

District Groundwater

Resource

(MCM)

Dynamic

Utilizable

Groundwater

Resources

for Irrigation

(MCM)

Utilizable

Groundwater

Resources for

drinking for

allied (MCM)

Gross

Draft

(MCM)

Balance

Available

(MCM)

State of

Groundwater

Development

(%)

Kamrup 1229 1045 184 71 974 6.8

Jorhat 1461 1242 219 35 1207 2.81

Hailakandi 98 83 15 3 80 3.61

Sonitpur 1615 1373 242 110 1263 8.01

Source: IPE Global (P) Ltd

3.2 Water quality monitoring

The NRDWP guidelines have envisaged a renewed thrust on Water Quality Monitoring and

Surveillance under which it is proposed that household level data on water security would be

linked to a central database at the mission level. As a step in this direction, states are required to

prepare district-wise Drinking Water Security Plans, which are derived from the Village Action

Plans prepared by the Panchayats. This district level planning and coordination is extremely

significant as it provides an institutionalized means of scaling up and strengthening village level

planning, and linking it with district plans across areas of quality and quantity (MDWS,

2012).Commensurate with the guidelines, PHED Assam has set up 27 District Level

Laboratories and 43 Sub Divisional Laboratories for water quality monitoring in the region.

More laboratories are in the pipeline. Each of these District and Sub Divisional Level

Laboratories backed by the State Referral Laboratory located at Betkuchi, Guwahati, Assam

which is equipped with sophisticated instruments and dedicated man power. Installation of new

sources and water quality monitoring performances have constantly grown over past years (Table

11, 12).


3.3 Rural drinking water supply coverage in Assam

3.3.1 Distribution of coverage of habitation

According to the availability of drinking water, habitations are classified in the Rural Water

Supply Programme as:

Not Covered (NC)

Partially Covered (PC)

Fully Covered (FC)

NC (=Not Covered) habitation means that safe drinking water source / point does not exist

within 1.60 km of the habitation in the plains or 100 m elevation in the hilly areas. The source /

point may either be public or private in nature. Habitations having a source affected with quality

problems such as excess salinity, iron, fluoride, arsenic or other toxic elements or biologically

contaminated and habitations where quantum of availability of safe water from any source is not

enough to meet drinking and cooking needs (i.e. below 10 lpcd) are also included in this NC

group.

PC (=Partially Covered) habitation means the habitation which has a safe drinking water source /

point (either public or private) within 1.60 km in plains and 100 m in hilly areas but the capacity

of the system ranges between 10 lpcd to 40 lpcd.

FC (=Fully Covered) habitation means the entire population of the habitation is provided with

safe drinking water within close vicinity

Table11. Physical targets and achievement records of last three consecutive years in Assam

2009-2010 2010-2011 2011-2012

Uncovered habitation 5954 3244 3148

Quality affected

habitation

6061 2726 3453

PWSS completed 593 552 886

Spot source installed 13976 12011 5018

PWSS (PWSS as on

01.04.2010)

4957

(PWSS as on

01.04.2010)

4348

(PWSS as on

01.04.2012) 5881

Spot source 301188 254186 259204

Water supply facility to

primary schools

1807 627 1872

Source: IMIS as on 04-12-2012


Table 12. No. of sources and samples tested in last seven consecutive years in Assam

Year Source tested Sample tested

2005-06 1 1

2006-07 3 3

2007-08 48 48

2008-09 1144 1166

2009-10 3437 3450

2010-11 4228 4241

2011-12 5297 5583

2012-13 7712 8102

Source IMIS as on 04-12-2012

3.3.2 Range of schemes and technology in operation

Water supply is ensured to the rural population of Assam predominantly by Piped Water Supply

Schemes (PWSS) and Spot Source Water Supply Schemes (SSWSS) (Table 13, 14). A PWSS is

adopted to cover a larger population and also when there is the need of water treatment. A

SSWSS is adopted to cater smaller population and also where untreated water requires little or

minimum treatment. Various types of spot sources adopted by the APHED are:

Conventional Hand Tube Well (Hand Tube Wells were installed for rural water supply.

However, presently this type is discarded and Singur Type Hand Tube Wells are being

used)

Direct Action (Tara) Hand Pump

India M II Hand Pump

India M III Hand Pump

Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) Ring Well.


Table 13.Number of Habitation covered by different schemes (2009-2013)

Year PWS Hand Pump Others

Targeted Achieved Left to

be

covered


be

covered


be

covered

2009-10 5260 3482 1833 1834 1798 123 7525 6722 1097

2010-11 3240 1802 1438 841 756 173 4431 3909 803

2011-12 4379 2712 1734 433 417 95 3091 3464 388

2012-13 4423 689 3734 630 199 434 2564 742 1841


Table 14. Details of schemes in the four selected districts

District Total No. of Schemes Taken up

Ongoing New Ach Habitations Taken

Up

Total Cost

(in

Crores)

Propo.

Exp in

2012-2013

(in Crores)

Actual

Expenditure

till date (in

Crores)

Hailakandi 118 49 23 600 96.89 69.98 20

Jorhat 40 1 2 744 81.98 1.12 24.43

Kamrup 107 585 116 1006 86.25 13.97 21.45

Sonitpur 80 449 170 889 49.56 20.92 18.73

Source: IMIS as on 6.4.13

3.3 Functionality of the different schemes, design and implementation issues, operation and

maintenance issues, other technical issues

During 2003-08, the department took up 28,907 schemes under ARWSP for 23,665 habitations.

Of this, 23,319 schemes covering 17,955 habitations were completed and 5,588 schemes were in

progress as of March 2008. In the nine test-checked divisions (Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Goalpara,

Haflong, Maibong, Silchar-I, Sichar-II, Tezpur-I, Tezpur-II), out of 19,722 schemes covering

5,811 habitations taken up for execution during 2003-08, 17,168 schemes covering 3,650


habitations had been completed up to March 2008 at a cost of Rs.119.77 crores and 2,554

schemes were in progress after spending Rs.17.68 crore.

As can be seen from above, the shortfall in fulfilling the targets in respect of PWSS was 68 per

cent and supply scheme was 14 per cent. The Commissioner and Secretary to the Government of

Assam, Finance Department instructed (May 2003) all the heads of departments to follow the

time schedule for completion of the schemes.

3.4Status of dysfunctional schemes

Under Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP)

Schemes not completed due to delay in land acquisition, non-supply of power etc.

There were reported deficiencies in the execution of works such as delay in land acquisition, lack

of power supply, unfruitful expenditure, excess expenditure on account of operation and

maintenance, excess expenditure over approved cost, excess expenditure on procurement of

material, diversion of fund etc., as discussed in the succeeding paragraphs.

In four districts (Barpeta, Goalpara, Silchar-I, and Tezpur-I) out of nine test-checked divisions,

29 PWSSs were approved (February 1997 to March 2004) at a cost of Rs.10.01 crore and were

taken up for execution between March 1998 and March 2007. These schemes were scheduled to

be completed within one to two year periods. Scrutiny revealed that all the schemes remained

incomplete (June 2008) after incurring an expenditure of Rs.6.45 crore due to delay in land

acquisition (11 cases : Rs.1.98 crore), delay in construction of major works (6 cases : Rs.2.43

crore) and non-supply of power (6 cases : Rs.1.23 crore). Reasons for delay in the remaining six

cases involving Rs.0.81 crore were not on record. The Executive Engineers concerned accepted

the facts and stated (May-June 2008) that efforts were being made to complete the remaining

works. Non completion of works that had commenced over a decade earlier indicates that

perhaps the department could not prioritize these works nor it was possible to remove the

bottlenecks relating to power supply, land acquisition etc.

Non-functional water supply schemes

In the five districts (Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Goalpara, Silchar-II and Tezpur-I) out of nine test-

checked divisions, 77 PWSSs constructed (between 1978 and 1989) at a cost of Rs.9.86 crore

became non-functional since 2001 due to reported non-repair of major components like

transformer, distribution system, treatment plant etc. The EEs concerned stated (May-June 2008)

that action had been taken for revival of the schemes by incorporating it in the Annual Action

Plans of the divisions. Apparently, due to the absence of timely action, the PWSS remained non-

functional for seven years and the possibilities of equipment and network system deterioration

could not be ruled out.


Short release of funds by State Government

As per the programme guidelines, the state government is required to match the funds released

by the Government of India on 1:1 basis under the state sector minimum need programme

(MNP). Against the release of Rs.579.56 crore by the Government of India under MNP, the

corresponding State share released was reportedly only Rs.285.65 crore resulting in unreleased

funds of Rs.293.91 crore by the State. Besides, out of Central grant of Rs.853.29 crores received

during 2003-08, the State Government released only Rs.696.20 crores for implementation of the

scheme. Together with the earlier balance of Rs.20.67 crores released by the Government of

India prior to 2003-04, the Central funds not released by the State Government accumulated to

Rs.177.76 crore at the end of March 2008. This apparently hindered the implementation of the

schemes and slowed down the development process.

Reduction in GOI assistance

Due to short provision/short release of state matching share and late submission of proposals

during the years 2004-06, the GOI made mandatory cuts of Rs.92.77 crores while releasing the

subsequent installments (2004-05 and 2006-07) to the State. Thus, the State Government was

deprived of the benefit of Central assistance of Rs. 92.77 crore.

Short release of funds by Autonomous District Council

Against release of funds of Rs.10.98 crores by the state government under ARWSP during the

years 2004-08 to the N.C. Hills Autonomous District Council (ADC), Rs.4.67 crore was released

by the Council to the three executing PHE Divisions. The balance Rs.6.31 crore was lying with

the ADC as of July 2008 apparently without any valid reason. Due to short release of funds by

the Council, new schemes could not be taken up for execution leading to 152 partially covered

habitations in the ADC being deprived of safe drinking water.

Expenditure control mechanism

As per the records of the CE, PHE, the total expenditure relating to the nine test-checked

divisions (excluding Stores and Workshop Division) during 2003-08 was Rs.142.74 crore.

Records of test-checked divisions, however, revealed an expenditure of Rs.137.45 crore during

the period, showing a discrepancy of Rs.5.29 crore between the two sets of figures. The funds

released by the CE to the executing division are treated as expenditure. Against this release of

funds, the Divisional Offices furnish actual expenditure statement to the CE. Apparently, these

two sets of figures had not been reconciled and consequently the discrepancy arose. This

suggested that there might be inadequate expenditure verification mechanism in the department

to monitor the actual expenditure in the divisions against the release of funds by the department.

These findings point towards the need of exercising more caution and checks for sound fiscal

governance while administering funds for new schemes within the proposed project.


4. Assessment of Sector’s Policy and Reforms

4.1 Assessment of sector policies, plans, programs and strategies operating at state level

The major intervention in drinking water sector from Government of India started in 1972–73

through Accelerated Rural Water Supply Program (ARWSP) for assisting States/UTs to

accelerate the coverage of drinking water supply. During the period 1972-1986, the major thrust

of the ARWSP was to ensure provision of adequate drinking water supply to the rural

community through the Public Health Engineering System.

The second generation programs started with the launching of Technology Mission in 1986-87.

In 1986, the entire program was given a mission approach with the launch of the Technology

Mission on Drinking Water and Related Water Management. Stress on water quality, appropriate

technology intervention, human resource development support and other related activities were

introduced in the Rural Water Supply sector.

This Technology Mission was later renamed as Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission

(RGNDWM) in 1991–92. In 1999, Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation (DDWS) was

formed under the MoRD to give emphasis to rural water supply as well as on sanitation. In the

same year, new initiatives in water sector had been introduced through Sector Reform Project,

which was later scaled up as Swajaldhara in 2002. Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation,

Ministry of Rural Development was in charge of policy making at the national level, revising

policy and guidelines from time to time, financial and technical support to the states, facilitating

states to avail external assistance, macro-monitoring of sector performance, program monitoring,

advising and coordinating with other ministries/departments and their subordinate offices,

institutions, autonomous bodies on matters relating to drinking water supply in rural areas and

for coordination with urban water supply where required and other functions as laid down in the

rules and by the competent authorities.

4.2 Major initiatives and schemes that have been undertaken in the last 10 years with a

focus on last 5 years. Overview of the performance of these initiatives/ schemes– looking

broadly at delivery of water supply facilities

With a view that all rural households will have access to piped water supply in adequate quantity

with a metered tap connection, providing safe drinking water throughout the year that meets

prevalent national drinking water standards, leading to healthy and well-nourished children and

adults and improved livelihoods and education are some of the major goals of Ministry of

Drinking Water and Sanitation. Keeping with similar objectives, Assam Public Health and

Engineering Department too plans, designs, executes, operates and maintains both piped water

supply Scheme (PWSS) and Spot water supply Schemes (SWSS) according to the requirement of

the stakeholders.


4.2.1 Major initiatives taken in the last 5 to 10 years:

National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP): In Assam, National Rural Drinking

Water Programme (NRDWP) was launched on April 1, 2009inducing a paradigm shift in the

strategy of planning, implementation and management of Rural Water Supply Programme. The

main objective of NRDWP is to provide every rural person with adequate water for drinking,

cooking and other domestic basic needs on a sustainable basis.

Under the NRDWP, a total of 44.59% (2331) habitations were covered in Kamrup district of

which 37.87% was SC dominated, 41.66% was ST dominated. Water quality survey was carried

out for 1024 habitation in 2012 out of which fluoride was detected in one habitation and iron in

rest of the habitations. In 2013, out of total habitations of 131 covered, fluoride was detected in

one and 130 habitations were detected with excess iron.

In Sonitpur district, out of the total of 1990 habitations covered under the NRDWP in 2012, 24

were detected with arsenic and 1996 habitations were detected with excess iron. In 2013, out of

268 habitations covered, arsenic was found in 6 habitations and all of the rest had iron.

In Jorhat district, out of total habitations of 1145 covered in 2012 to assess water quality, fluoride

was detected in one, arsenic in 448, and iron in 696 habitations. In 2013, out of coverage of 351

habitations, 210 have arsenic, and 141 had iron.

In Hailakandi district, out of a total coverage of 117 habitations in 2012, 3 had arsenic and 114

had iron. In 2013, out of 62 habitations covered, 1 had arsenic and 61 had iron.

(Data have been taken from the ministry of drinking water and sanitation

website:indiawater.gov.in/)

Swajaldhara Program: Swajaldhara Programme is an extension of Sector Reform Programme

launched by the Prime Minister on 25th December, 2002 where states can implement

Swajaldhara in blocks/ gram panchayats/ beneficiary groups following all the fundamental

reform principles. Under this scheme, a total number of 77 HTW and one PWSS scheme was

approved in Hailakandi district, with a total population coverage of 21,218. Out of the estimated

total cost of Rs. 47.87 lakh for the schemes, 26.88 lakh was released of which 11.12 lakh was

utilized. The progress made by the PWSS schemes were about 90%. In Kamrup district a total of

8 schemes of PWSS have been approved with population coverage of 39,466. Out of 152.09 lakh

approved funds, 87.87 lakh have been released. 80% progress of the 8 schemes was recorded

with the allocated fund (2002-2003).

Jalamani Scheme: The existing Rural Drinking Water Supply programme aims at providing

safe drinking water in adequate quantity to all rural habitations in the country, including rural

schools and Anganwadis. It was launched on March, 2008 with a view to install simple Stand

Alone Purification systems in one lakh schools as a value addition to the Rural Water Supply

Program. In Assam, a total of 3547 Tara pumps were installed in rural schools with aid from


UNICEF. The scheme was designed mainly to address bacteriological, turbidity and iron

problem in water sources of government schools (Table 15). The cost of each Stand Alone Water

Purification System under Jalamani was Rs 20,000 on an average and Operation and

Maintenance for five years would be the responsibility of suppliers of Stand Alone Water

Purification system.

Table 15. Water Supply Facilities to Rural Primary Schools

2009-2010 2010-2011 2011-2012

Targets 2000 2730 2246

Achieved 1807 627 1872

State Plan: Since Fifth Five Year Plan, rural water supply has been included under State Plan.

Scheduled Cast Component Plan (SCCP) and Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) have been made the integral

component of State Plan.

Swajal Gram Puraskar: The purpose of giving the Swajal Gram Puraskar is to motivate

Panchayats to achieve complete drinking water security and safety for all households in their

Panchayat on a sustainable basis.

4.3 Assessment of current service standards and norms of implementation

In Assam, the NRDWM programme was implemented by the state government through the

Gram Panchayat, the Anchalik Panchayats the Zilla Parishads, Village Water and Sanitation

Committees, Self Help Groups including women Self Help Groups, School Committees and

PTA. The GP is responsible for ensuring that every person has access to an adequate supply of

safe water. The State Government has also involved other stakeholders viz., NGOs, Mahila

Mandals etc.to ensure better implementation of the Programme at the village level. For operating

this programme, funds are provided by the State Government or the institutions nominated by

them to the Village Panchayats for activities relating to capacity building, awareness

generation/publicity and such other activities, which are necessary for the smooth

implementation of the programme. For providing a definite direction to the schemes of NRDWP,

preparation of a vision driven Comprehensive Water Security Action Plan (CWSAP) by the

community in all the levels have been made obligatory to raise awareness of all stakeholders on

various aspects of ensuring drinking water security, which is vital in achieving the overall sector

objective. This involves not just communication of messages but also necessary behaviour

change. The PHED Assam has taken good initiatives on this part by producing posters and


banners in the rural areas for widely popularizing the drinking water safety measures in the

village level. Other institutions in Assam have also worked efficiently in planning, monitoring,

designing and piloting of model innovative schemes by the States.

4.4 Assessment of current subsidies, incentives and cost sharing structures in the schemes

Highest priority is accorded to the provision of potable drinking water supply to the rural people.

According to an estimate by WHO/UNICEF, India has already achieved 86% coverage of rural

population with safe drinking water against MDG goals. However, despite substantial investment

made in the rural water supply sector ie. Rs. 8,564 crore in the 8th

Plan, Rs. 16,524 in the 10th

Plan

and Rs. 39,490 in the 11th

Plan, the problem of availability as well as quality in the distribution of

drinking water is still inherent in different parts across the country. The ARWSP programme was

fully funded by the GOI. The State Government is required to match the funds released by the

GOI on 1:1 basis under Minimum Needs Programme (MNP). Here, 15 percent of allocation is

earmarked for O & M and 35 percent to be spent on the coverage of SC/ST habitations.

The Swajaldhara programme involves a community contribution of 10% of the project cost to

instill a sense of ownership among the people and also to take over the Operation and

Maintenance (O&M) of the schemes constructed under the programme. The Centre provides

90% of the project cost as grant (Table 16). District Water and Sanitation Mission (DWSM)

formed for the purpose of ensuring safe water have installed 1612 spot sources besides

substantial progress in 15 piped water supply schemes through direct participation of the

beneficiaries.

Table 16. Expenditure incurred on O&M under Rural Water Supply Program for the last three

consecutive years (in Lakhs of rupees)

Program 2009-2010 2010-2011 2011-2012

Total

Budget

Allocation

Total

expenditure

incurred

Total

Budget

Allocation

Total

expenditure

incurred

Total

Budget

Allocation

Total

expenditure

incurred

Central

sector

ARWSP

3200.00 2819.23 4271.57 3584.01 4074.20 4273.13

State

sector

3196.19 3095.22 4667.66 3821.10 3424.37 3417.30

Total 6396.19 5914.45 8939.23 7405.11 7498.57 7690.43

Source: Annual administrative report (2009-2012)


4.5 Status of research and development initiatives

One of the major components of the program was the research and development sector. National

and state level scientific institutions and educational institutions at all levels was expected and

attempted to be strengthened through R&D projects, tie ups for water quality monitoring,

training, technical support, monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment studies. With a view to

achieve this, twenty three District Level Laboratories (DLL) in each of the districts of Assam

have been established to facilitate water quality analysis. Water quality monitoring &

surveillance, water testing laboratories, information, education & communication, human

resource development, engaging State Technical Agency and National Experts Groups for

preparation of projects, technical scrutiny and evaluation of rural water supply schemes were

supported by the Assam Public Health Engineering Department. The WSSO is an important

vehicle of this endeavour. The laboratories are equipped with different sophisticated instruments

and facilities for testing different water quality parameters like total hardness, iron, chloride,

residual chlorine, nitrate, fluoride, arsenic and bacteriological analysis. GIS mapping systems,

use of GPS system for unique identification of habitations and the water sources was also

provided. The Integrated Management Information System (IMIS) served as a vital tool to record

and monitor the status of drinking water in rural habitations and provision of drinking water in

rural schools, and to monitor the quality status of drinking water sources in rural India. This also

enabled the state government to fully utilize the water quality information for planning,

monitoring and implementation of various activities in the sector and making the relevant data

available to the central government. It is reported that in Assam, drinking water sources tested is

below 70% of the target (Table 17). To have a clear understanding of the capacity and

willingness of communities and PRIs to prepare plan and manage and maintain infrastructure

support system and raise resources, a situational assessment of the water security to rural

households was carried out by IITG-UNICEF-PHED partnership project through an

environmental NGO, M/s ENVIRON with necessary financial support from UNICEF and

technical supervision by IITG. While there have been some preliminary initiatives to undertake

R&D activities (Table 18) at the WSSO, the general R&D support to the policy formulation and

work execution has remained limited. There is a scope of utilizing the PHED laboratory network

to be entrusted tasks like treatability evaluation of source water and other such requirements.


Table 17. No. of sources and samples analysed in last seven consecutive years

Year Source tested Sample tested

2005-06 1 1

2006-07 3 3

2007-08 48 48

2008-09 1144 1166

2009-10 3437 3450

2010-11 4228 4241

2011-12 5297 5583

2012-13 7712 8102


Table 18.Some initiatives of APHED under R&D and HRD

Particulars 2011-2012 2012-

2013

Target Achievements %

Achieved

Target

No. of Person trained to monitor water

quality using FTKs

14052 11177 79.54 15554

No. of water quality test done in the

laboratories

210000 4708 2.24 126500

No. of water quality test done with FTKs 522186 694 0.13 76200

Source IMIS data as on 04-12-12


4.6 Assessment of legal and regulatory framework in water supply and water quality, and

water resources

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment, 1992 marked a new era in the democratic set up of India as

it created Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) as tiers of self-governance below the level of the

states in the federal set up of India. Among various other subjects, the Act bestowed ample

responsibilities and power on Panchayati Raj Bodies regarding operation and maintenance of

water supply and sanitation. These Panchayati Raj bodies include the GP, Anchalik (Block)

Panchayat and Zila (District) Parishad under section 2(7) of the Act. It envisions people’s

participation in the process of planning, decision-making, implementation and delivery. The

Panchayati Raj bodies are also equipped with financial powers to implement these functions.

Chapter X of the Act refers to constitution of finance commission and state election commission

for Panchayat bodies. As the head of the village, the GP president has to provide overall

leadership to the process of ensuring drinking water security for the villages/ households. The

president is responsible for organizing the GS with active participation from all stakeholders,

formation of a capable VWSC, conflict resolution in a transparent and just manner, monitoring

construction to ensure quality, monitoring expenditure to ensure that the funds available are used

in a cost-effective manner, providing equitable water supply to all including SCs, STs and poorer

households, co-ordination with the block/district and support organizations. The VWSC (Village

Water and Sanitation Committee) is a standing committee of the GP and is responsible for

planning, implementation, operation, maintenance and management of village drinking water

security.

The concept of authority and responsibility is followed in accordance to the provision of TSC

guidelines, Swajaldhara Guidelines, Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission

(RGNDWM) Guidelines, CPHEC manuals and water quality manuals. The DDWS and states

have notified and enforced drinking water quality standards in a phased manner in line with ISO

10500 and NRDWP guidelines. While in the state of Assam a similar mechanism has been put in

place, traditionally the PRI mechanism is not as active and efficient as those of many other states

of India and hence monitoring mechanism should be strengthened and accountability should be

fixed for effective implementation of the programme in the identified districts.

4.7 Assessment of water security, water quality and water safety initiatives

In Assam a gross demand of 62.4 billion cubic meters and a net demand of 27.6 billion cubic

meters of water has been projected by 2050 for meeting domestic, industrial, livestock, and

agricultural requirements. The problems of sustainable water availability, maintenance of supply

system, and dealing with the issue of water quality are the major challenges of this programme.

The conjunctive use of groundwater, surface water, and rooftop rainwater harvesting systems


will be required to be strongly encouraged as the means of improving sustainability and drinking

water security.

Assam Public Health Engineering Department officials were the first to detect fluoride in excess

in the district of Karbi Anglong, though the corresponding health hazards including skeletal

fluorosis had been prevalent for the previous twenty years. Prior to that North Eastern States

were believed be fluoride free, though sixteen other states of the country had been identified as

having excess fluoride and fluorosis endemic. Intensified water quality testing and monitoring

and health survey have detected more and more areas to be fluoride and fluorosis endemic,

which include some parts Nagaon and Kamrup districts besides Karbi Anglong.

The Public Health Engineering Department will ensure flouride and arsenic-free drinking water

by the end of 2014, for which the department has already adopted an exclusive project at an

estimated cost of Rs 100 crore, whereby water will drawn from the nearby riverbed instead of the

ground water. Pilot Projects with UNICEF support had been undertaken in Tinisukia, Dibrugarh,

Sivasagar, Jorhat, Golaghat, and Kamrup districts of Assam. It is reported that 54 per cent

habitations were yet to be provided adequate drinking water as of March 2008.

4.8 Assessment of demand and supply side capacities and issues

According to the Census of India, (2011) the population of Assam was 3, 11, 69,272. The rural

population of the State was 26780516 (86 percent) of the total population. As per the programme

guidelines, the State Government is required to match the funds released by the GOI on 1:1 basis

under the State sector MNP. Against the release of Rs.579.56 crore by the Government of India

under MNP, the corresponding State share released was only Rs.285.65 crore resulting in short

release of funds of Rs.293.91 crore. Besides, out of Central grant of Rs.853.29 crore received

during 2003-08, the State Government released only Rs.696.20 crore for implementation of the

scheme. Together with the earlier balance of Rs.20.67 crore released by the GOI prior to 2003-

04, the Central funds not released by the State Government accumulated to Rs.177.76 crore at

the end of March 2008. This hindered the implementation of the schemes and slowed down the

development process.

4.9 Assessment of integration and convergence with other programs

There is a general lack of inter departmental coordination working for the WATSAN sector.

Water security planning is required to optimize the use of water resources within the constraints

of financial and human resources to meet the basic needs, manage convergence of different

development programmes, and take decisions about broader water resources management and

investments. A cooperative mechanism of water users and Panchayat representatives has to be

regulated. Convergence takes place at all levels but it is the DWSMs responsibility to coordinate

matters relating to water and sanitation among district representatives of Health, Education,

Forests, Watershed Development, Agriculture, Rural Development, Urban Development,


Women and Child Development etc., and National programmes/grants such as SSA, NRHM,

ICDS, IWMP, BRGF, MNREGS, AIBP, JNNURM , PRI’s etc.

Regular meetings of the National Drinking Water and Sanitation Council should beheld for

better coordination and convergence at the national level. Convergence with Health and Women

and Child Development Departments to spread the message of safe water use, safe sanitation and

hygiene has to be ensured A concurrent monitoring system for water borne diseases and health

should be setup for clinical assessment for arsenical dermatitis and fluorosis and regular

monitoring done for other water borne diseases, especially diarrhea through the community

health monitoring approach. Capacity building should be provided to Medical Officers on

detection of arsenic and fluoride poisoning cases and other water borne diseases and their

management in the affected GPs/blocks

The Water Quality Task Force for Assam, a major outcome of the Arsenic Screening and

Surveillance Program in Assam is working out some strategies for effective convergence among

line departments for bringing in improvements in the WATSAN sector in Assam.

4.10 Overall the policy and program analysis should indicate – i) How appropriate is the

sector policy and strategy – does it provide stakeholders with the incentives for change and

improve? ii) Is the sector policy/strategy being followed in practice, and if not why not?

For appropriate program implementation the water sector has been divided into supply-side and

demand-side components. The supply-side approach is structure-oriented; investments in water

projects are combined with engineering and technical expertise to capture, store and deliver

water and to make systems operate effectively. The supply side focuses on providing water and

related services. However many drawbacks remains and there is immense scope for

improvement for better outcomes.

Water demand, water pricing policy, as well as building capacity should be examined and

evaluated continuously in order to investigate the current situation in drinking water management

in the village level. It remains plausible that there is a need for an approach that enables local

inhabitants to probe and to communicate their views and beliefs relating to water quality and

distribution pattern. Mechanism should be developed for empowering the PRIs and making them

accountable to ensure delivery of safe water. It will be achieved by increased involvement of

community in the planning process. They should actively take part in decision making which

will further involve them in providing support for its maintenance in later phases. A system of

regular mapping and monitoring of accountability should be put in place.

Water pricing is a fundamental economic tool to influence water demand. In Assam the water

tariff collection system is weak and needs strengthening. Accurate water pricing is a means to

control demand, generate revenues to cover costs and to promote water conservation. Structural

and operational techniques such as metering, retrofitting, controlling flow, leakage detection and

repair will improve the existing structures to have a better control on water demand and supply.


There is also an urgent need for sustainable water resources management together with a field

survey in various water issues in the region. Attitudes of the people towards various water issues

should be taken seriously into account in the formulation of the proposed demand oriented policy

of the village. Linkages between different levels of water management groups will be

strengthened. Affords should be made to facilitate PHED in increasing the scale and reach of

sustainability by encouraging empowerment and equity. Regular health survey in vulnerable

regions should be attempted. The death toll from different water borne diseases should be

properly documented so that appropriate remedial measures should be taken. Individuals,

families and communities all have a vital role to play in attaining water safety which can be

made possible by massive public awareness. The success of any program will always depend on

the willingness of the public to cooperate.


5. Institutional Assessment

5.1 Assessment of Institutional Goals and Vision

5.1.1 National goal as in NRDWP guideline:

The objective for Assam is in line with the national goal of NRDWP guidelines which clearly

states to provide each and every person living in rural area with adequate safe water for drinking,

cooking and domestic purposes. The water should meet the minimum water quality requirements

and it should be accessible at all times. As per the 11th

five year plan, the achievements vs.

targets (in percentage) of Rural water supply (National Rural Drinking Water programme in

India is as follows:

Table 19. Coverage of habitations for the state of Assam

Sl No Total

habitation coverage

Quality affected

habitation coverage

Partially covered

habitation coverage

1 73 percent, 18.2 percent, 19.5 percent

Table 20. Coverage of population for the state of Assam

Sl.No Total

population coverage

Quality affected

population coverage

Partially covered

population coverage

1 88.6 percent 22 percent 21.4 percent

PHED, Assam, the chief government body to look after the supply of both rural and urban water

supply mentioned in its basic principle about the urgent need to immediately enhance access to

safe and adequate drinking water which is attainable provided the Govt of Assam gives highest

priority to the meeting of this basic need for the most vulnerable and deprived groups in the

society.

5.1.2 Past programmes and outlay

In the national level accelerated rural water supply programme (ARWSP) dawned a major

initiative in water sector with GOI assistance in 1972–73 to States/UTs to accelerate the

coverage of drinking water supply. In 1986, the entire programme was given a mission approach


with the launch of the Technology Mission on Drinking Water and Related Water Management

which was later renamed as Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM) in

1991–92. In 1999, Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation (DDWS) was formed under the

MoRD to give emphasis to rural water supply as well as on sanitation. In the same year, new

initiatives in water sector had been initiated through Sector Reform Project, later it was scaled up

as Swajaldhara in 2002. With sustained interventions, DDWS remains an important institution to

support the States/UTs in serving the rural population with water and sanitation related services

all across India. Now DDWS has become a full-fledged ministry of drinking water and sanitation

(MDWS). With each step of DDWS in the national level Assam is also tuned to the past

programmes and outlays since the inception of Assam Public Health Engineering Department in

the year 1956 and has attained the benefit to the maximum of the programmes and takes rural

Assam forward in terms of water supply and sanitation with its dedicated technical and civil

staff.

5.1.3 Goal as laid down by the Public Health Engineering Department, Assam for rural

water supply and sanitation:

Public Health engineering Department, Assam has laid down the goal to provide every rural

person with adequate water for drinking, cooking and other domestic basic needs on a

sustainable basis. This basic requirement should meet certain minimum water quality standards

and be available at all times, in all situations, in which it is readily and conveniently accessible.

Vision: APHED’s vision primarily focuses upon,

To ensure drinking water security

To bring improvements in the existing water sources and also on conjunctive use of

groundwater, surface-water. Rain water harvesting structures to be geared up as a

possible water source in schools

To deliver systemic services for entire design period of water infrastructure and to ensure

that the quality of water is in conformity with the prescribed standards at both supply and

consumption points

To ascertain that the issue of potable water, reliability, sustainability, convenience, equity

and consumers preference be the guiding principles while planning for a community

based water supply system. (Source: APHED website)

Assessment of institutional set up, roles and responsibilities for rural water supply in the state –

distinguishing between public sector, private sector and civil society actors at all levels (state,

district, block, GP levels) is a stated mandate. The Public Health Engineering department, Assam

has been the sole public department looking after the rural water supply. As stated in its goals

and vision, the department has been striving to achieve the water supply coverage in the state of

Assam, although the target is yet to be met and all goals are realized (Table 21, 22). Absence of

any other public water supply department in contrast to the ever growing population of Assam

may be a hindrance in this regard.


In terms of private sector, there is no organized body to cater to the rural water supply. An

unaccounted yet large number of population have their own private sources of water supply,

sometimes even after having a government source nearby or at times in case the schemes may

not have reached close enough to the community. This increases the risk of the population to be

affected by potential drinking water contamination due to various pollutants like arsenic, fluoride

, iron,. besides the common and likely risk of bacteriological contamination. A major lacuna has

been that there is no comprehensive mapping of the sources for a clear information system,

which needs to be performed as an immediate task to reduce the risk of contaminated water

accessibility to the masses. There is hardly any civil sector presence in the state of Assam

advocating and promoting safe and secure rural water supply. A few Non-Government

Organizations like M/s ENVIRON, are advocating issues related to water supply and sanitation

in some districts of Assam.

Table 21. Information pertaining to Rural Drinking Water Supply

Sl No Information

1 Rural Population as on 01/04/12 (In crore) : 2.64 [SC-0.21 (7.95%) ST-0.42 (15.91%)

GEN-2.01 (76.14%)]

2 Population Managing Water Supply Scheme: 16.67%

3 Stage of Ground Water Development: 22%

Table 22. Number of water sources in the state of Assam

Sl.No Type of Source Number of sources

1 Schemes Sources 100530

2 Delivery Points 44148

3 Surface Water Sources 286

4 Public Sources 18013

5 Private Sources 19829

Total 182806


5.2 Sector capacities in the field of rural water supply as per NRDWP guidelines should

have an assessment in terms of the following components:

Coverage

Sustainability

Supply of quality water in affected habitations

Mitigation of drinking water problems during natural calamities

Operation and maintenance for running the water supply projects smoothly

Support activities related to water supply coverage

5.2.1 Coverage: The coverage in the state in terms of habitations with 100% population

coverage is 55.6% as on November, 2012 against a total habitation of 86976 (Table 23). The SC,

ST /Minority coverage remains at 61.09%, 52.80% and 62.89%, the average being a little higher

than the total coverage (Table 24).

Table23. Habitation coverage of Assam

Sl No Particulars Habitation coverage

1 Total No of Habitation 86976

2 No of habitations with partial population coverage 38647

3 No. Of Habitations with 100% Population Coverage 48329

Table 24. SC, ST /Minority coverage as on November, 2012

Particulars Total Habitations Coverage

SC Concentrated Habitations 5819 3555

ST Concentrated Habitations 17412 9193

Habitations in Minority Concentrated Districts 40299 25343

(District wise information is given in the section 4.2.1)


5.2.2 Sustainability

Rain water harvesting (RWH) structures to be used for possible drinking water purposes

including recharge structures under sustainability components of NRDWP created are reportedly

as follows:

Construction of RWH systems in existing PWSS to use for drinking water purposes

including recharge structures :2500 numbers plus 200 numbers

Construction of RWH systems in primary schools for drinking water purpose including

recharge structures :2000 numbers plus 1000 numbers

Construction of RWH systems in institutional buildings in rural areas (Panchayat /Block

offices etc.) to use for drinking water purpose including recharge structures :500

numbers

Construction of pond by boulder /geomembrane lining as RWHS along with horizontal

roughing filter and collector well fitted with SHP in water starved areas in foothills of

Bhutan :20 plus 7 numbers

Construction of Pond by clay lining as RWHS along with horizontal roughing filter and

collector well fitted with SHP:40 numbers

Development of existing ponds by clay lining as RWHS along with horizontal roughing

filter and collector well fitted with SHP: 40 numbers.

Water quality laboratories for testing water samples and to monitor the water quality in the state

were set up from time to time with essential water quality testing instruments. The PHED,

Assam now has 40 Sub Divisional Laboratories, 27 District Level Laboratories in different

districts and one State Referral Laboratory. Different habitations are selected at the divisional

levels for water sampling and analysis with a target for a month and analysis are performed by

the laboratory analysts. If any outbreak of water related disease or epidemic occurs, there is

scope and practice of performing more sample analysis than the usual target so that critical

results are known quickly and can be disseminated to the affected community and society.

As a part of the joint partnership of UNICEF, IITG and PHED, Assam for the Water Security

Pilot Program initiated in 2011, five District Level Laboratories under each of the five selected

pilot districts viz. Jorhat, Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Golaghat and Sibsagar were upgraded and

necessary technical training, capacity building and managerial support were provided for the

smooth functioning of these laboratories facilitated by UNICEF and IITG. Support was also

provided to the Sub Divisional Laboratories which were set up subsequently by PHED in each of

these pilot districts. Periodic visits were made to each of these laboratories for troubleshooting

and providing technical support for correct sample collection, water quality analysis and

laboratory functioning. The importance of the need to disseminate the results to the communities

and corrective measures to be adopted for contaminated sources was also suggested during all

such visits. This exercise is currently being continued to all DLLs and SDLLs of these districts in

coordination with PHED and the goal is to transform the laboratories to a state of the art

laboratories equipped with technical expertise and dynamic work. During the later part of May,


2013, a week long pre-monsoon drinking water analysis and awareness campaign was organized

by WSSO in different districts using the newly acquired mobile laboratories. Assisted by the

IITG project team and supported by UNICEF, APHED could establish a milestone in water

quality assurance campaign by this activity, to be followed up periodically in all districts of the

state.

5.2.3 Operation and maintenance for running the water supply projects smoothly

In order to ensure timely operations and maintenance and smooth upkeep by community or

users, and with a view to increase involvement of the communities, APHED has been

transferring PWSS completed by 100% govt. share to village level users committees (VLUC)

for system sustainability by adopting users own initiative and resources. According to 2010-2011

PHED annual report about 1200 such PWSS have been transferred to VLUCs. After transfer of

these schemes, there may be still a need of hand holding and facilitating the proper operation and

maintenance of these schemes. Assessment of the following points in terms of operation and

maintenance may be helpful:

The status and condition of the schemes which have been transferred to the VLUC

The status and condition of the schemes which have not been transferred to VLUC

What are the schemes which are defunct? How many numbers of schemes are in defunct

status?

Reasons leading to de-functional status of the schemes

Measures taken for the de-functional schemes to be made functional

Any critical issue needing systemic attention

Operation and maintenance of schemes needs regular evaluation and check. The initial level

employees involved and recruited for maintaining the schemes are to be made accountable

with their tasks to ensure their part of work in maintaining the schemes. Although they have

been performing their duties towards their department, a regular report generation and

performance of the O&M works will add value to their work and achievement in O&M

sector. It is seen that there are different categories of skilled persons like Section Asst., Pump

Operator, Plumber, Asst. Pump Operator, Driver, Welder, Mechanic, Electrician, Skilled

worker, Tracer, Asst. Tuner, Air compressor, Asst. Driller, Khalasi’s etc. They are assets of

the department of PHED, Assam and their work optimization with defined role is of utmost

importance to achieve a higher degree of performance in O&M. There seems to be scope of

improvement with regard to capacity development exercises time to time e.g. in filter

operation and maintenance in areas of water quality threat, besides routine maintenance.

5.2.4 Mitigation of drinking water problems during natural calamities

The PHED, Assam ensures safe drinking water to the people of Assam during floods and natural

calamities, in some places almost every year. The department strives to meet the water quality

and sanitation needs of people in these times. The major activities taken up in the recent years by

the PHED, Assam during floods includes:


Distribution of information leaflets with instructions regarding various 'dos and don'ts'

to be followed during and after flood.

Distribution of alum, bleaching powder and lime packets for domestic level water

purification.

Disinfection of spot sources to avoid contamination

Installation of spot sources at the relief camps and hand pumps as required.

Repairing and restoration piped water supply schemes and spot sources damaged by

flood

5.2.5 Staffing and skills in Assam

PHED, Assam is equipped with skilled people in all levels of hierarchy to carry out the process

of planning, designing, management and operation and maintenance of schemes and the other

activities related to rural water supply. The assessment of sector capacities, staffing, skills at

state can be carried out in a way by assessing their performance based on their respective skills.

The state is equipped with coordinating committees constituted by people with relevant expertise

to attain the goals of rural water supply coverage.

State Water and Sanitation Mission (SWSM)

State Level Scheme Sanctioning Committee (SLSSC).

State Technical Agency (STA).

Successful interventions by APHED for mitigation of drinking water problems during

calamities and emergencies

A good example was when Assam saw a severe outbreak of ethnic riots in July 2012 affecting

over 4,00,000 people and riot-hit families were provided shelter in 270 relief camps. PHED,

Assam had put best efforts to supply safe drinking water and maintain hygienic practices

amongst the inmates of the camps. In 150 designated relief camps, a total of 674 spot sources

were installed by the Public Health Engineering Department to meet the needs of drinking water

in the relief camps. The quality of water was constantly checked for probable contamination.

Samples were analyzed in the Dhubri District Laboratory for microbiological contamination.

Results confirmed absence of any microbiological contamination which was manifested in non-

occurrence of any water borne diseases amongst the inmates of the camps. No instance of any

dysentery, diarrhea was reported. PHED facilitated the camps with low cost sanitary latrines.

The effort during the riot was appreciated by the department of endemic diseases of the Central

Government as it was evident in non-occurrence of diseases amongst the masses.

(Source: As narrated by Sri Parag Moni Borah, Asst Executive Engineer of Dhubri sub-division

of PHED, Assam to IITG project team)


Water and Sanitation Support Organization (WSSO)

At district level, the District Water and Sanitation Mission shall be constituted which should

function under the supervision, control and guidance of Zilla Parishad. At village level, a village

water and sanitation committee is expected to look after planning, implementation, and operation

of the water supply schemes reaching their villages. In all these committees, active participation

of the villagers is of importance.

PHED, Assam now possesses a grand total of 15,057employees employed across the state. Out

of this, 525 are class I officers, 790 are class II officers, and 1435 are grade III staff.

5.3 Status of decentralization in the context of drinking water supply

5.3.1 Assessment of transfer of schemes to PRI’s:

As laid down in the NRDWP guidelines, the State Government is committed to a timetable for

decentralization of service delivery for rural water supply and sanitation. The schedule is to be

planned and decided at the state level for the relevant aspects with incremental progress to be

indicated in the Annual Action Plan.

The number of PWSS handed over by PHED, Assam to Panchayats is 211 against a target of 287

and percentage achievement is 73.52% (Source: IMIS, November, 2012).

Successful interventions of community managed PWSS

There are examples of successful transfer of PWSS schemes to water user communities in Assam

(ENVIRON, 2012). The scheme under the name of “Parichalana Samiti, Barika Chuburi Gramya

Pani Jogan Achani” of Sonitpur district has been successfully operated by the community since

February, 1999. The Barikachuburi PWSS can be considered as one of the most successful PWSS as

the user committee for the scheme has received “Uttam Gramya Pani Jogan Parichalana, 2009-10”,

award for successful implementation and maintenance of the water supply scheme. The community-

run Murmuria PWSS, for which the user committee was formed on 4th

August 2010 and Pulibor

Bamun Gaon PWSS user community, which was formed on 4th

August 2004 of Jorhat district are

model examples where community takes care of the entire expenditure inclusive of electricity and

the schemes are reportedly functioning quite well.


Table 25.Aspects for assessment to be documented with the divisional offices comments or the

State office’s intervention:

5.3.2 Water quality monitoring and surveillance

While APHED has an internal mechanism for water quality monitoring and surveillance, this is

apparently weak and regular independent monitoring and evaluation activity to be carried out by

NGO’s, academic institutions, professional experts, is to be taken up as yet. There appears to be

Sl.No Component of

decentralization/Question

regarding decentralization

What has been

done/progress?

Any remark

1 Putting in place an appropriate

delivery structure at the district,

Block and Gram Panchayat levels

(DWSM, VWSC under GP).

2 Empowering PRIs/DWSM/VWSC/

communities to have the powers to

plan, sanction, implement, operate,

maintain and manage water supply

and sanitation schemes.

3 Providing technical, administrative

support to the

GPs/DWSM/VWSCs. JE rank

support for a group of GP

4 Undertaking necessary legislative

measures to ensure transfer of

assets to and their management by

PRIs

5 Vesting responsibility of O&M

with the PRIs/VWSCs.

6 Empowering PRIs/VWSCs to

charge for the service provided

7 Involving GPs in monitoring water

availability, demand management

and conservation.

8 Creation of a Village O&M Fund

9 Capacity building of all

stakeholders


a departmental provision for report generation with implementation of schemes and the reports to

be circulated and kept online for evaluation and assessment by any experts involved in the

monitoring programme (Table 26, 27). However, this mechanism appears to be weak at present

and needs improvement. Comments and improvements regarding implementation of the schemes

from relevant experts can be incorporated in subsequent planning and execution of work. Apart

from monitoring by State/District/Village Water and Sanitation committees, the degree and scale

of involvement of community and local institutions are to be assessed. Creation of awareness and

publicity of the schemes through mass media can be helpful in establishing success of

transparent monitoring and evaluation. Display of information of details and progress of the

project in the Panchayat offices can be made mandatory and assessment should be carried out for

the same. Such activities are missing at present.

Table 26.The water quality monitoring and surveillance programme 2012-2013 achievements in

terms of trained District, Block, GP HRD trainees, Demo Kits

Sl.No Activity Number

1 District HRD Trainees 395

2 Block HRD Trainees 0

3 GP HRD Trainees 0

4 State IEC 0

5 District IEC 0

6 Block IEC 0

7 GP IEC 0

8 Demo Kits 167

9 Chemical FTK Kits 0

10 Bacteriological FTK Kits 0


Table 27. The testing of sources in the year 2012 to 2013: (As of November, 2012)

Sl. No Activity

1 No of total habitations 86976

2 Habitations where 100% sources tested in labs 655

3 Habitations where partial sources tested in labs 1840

4 Habitations where no sources in lab 84481

5 Total habitations covered 2495

The coverage till November, 2012 for the year 2012-2013 in terms of testing of water sources is

reported to be 2.86% 9 ( Source: IMIS, November 2012).

National Rural Drinking Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance Programme

(NRDWQM&SP) of DDWS, when introduced, emphasized monitoring and surveillance and

subsequent dissemination of good quality of public water supply to rural people. The programme

had the following objectives which are endorsed in NRDWP as well:

Monitoring and surveillance of all drinking water sources in the country by the

community.

Decentralization of water quality monitoring and surveillance.

Institutionalization of community participation and involvement of PRI’s for water

quality monitoring and surveillance.

Rural mass awareness about the water quality issues including water borne diseases.

Building capacity of Panchayats to own the field test kit and take up full O&M

responsibility for water quality monitoring of all drinking water sources in their

respective PRI area.

In case of Assam, fulfillment of the above mandates is yet to be uniform and consistent and

needs to be pursued much more rigorously.

5.4 Assessment of scheme details/ Information on existing water supply services

A variety of schemes including piped water supply schemes, hand pumps, bore wells to achieve

water supply coverage are running throughout the state with total ongoing schemes numbering

8237. Ongoing schemes which are more than 3 years old but less than 5 years old are 527


(6.40%) and ongoing schemes which are five or more years old stands at 37 (0.45%) in number

(Table 28, 29).

Table 28.APHED schemes with respect to state percentage

S.N. Particulars State

No

State

Percentage

India

No

India

Percentage

1 Habitations covered by PWSS 22860 26.28 495467 29.74

2 Habitations covered by Hand pumps /

Bore wells

28356 32.60 744312 44.67

3 Habitations covered by others 3922 4.51 41828 2.51

4 Habitations where scheme detail not

entered in IMIS

31838 36.61 384468 23.08

5 Total 86976 100.00 1666075 100.00

Source: IMIS, November, 2012

Table 29. Scheme details completed during 2011-2012

Sl No Scheme Number

1 PWSS completed during 2011-12 886

2 Spot source installed during 2011-2012 5018

3 PWSS as on 1st April ,2012 5881

4 Spot source as on 1st April, 2012 259204

5 Sanctioned PWSS as on 1st April ,2012 7466

Source: As per AAP-2011-2012


6. Assessment of Economic and Sector Finances

6.1 Levels of investment in rural drinking water supply delivery (public, private, others)

Apart from funding from central and state governments (Table 30), international agencies like

UNICEF are also contributing in ensuring better water supply delivery in the region. UNICEF

liaise with PHED and have since 2006 provided financial and technical assistance for bringing in

improvement in the WATSAN sector in Assam.

The UNICEF-IITG-PHED partnership initiative that was initiated in 2006 has helped unravel

and document the arsenic issue in Assam. Mitigation initiatives involving the largest Piped

Water Supply Scheme in the state so far where surface water from two major rivers- Dhansiri

and Doiang are being used to supply arsenic free safe water is a major outcome of the screening

program. This PWSS to cater safe drinking water in a cluster of arsenic affected villages has

been inaugurated by the chief minister of Assam on 28th

May, 2013.

Apart from the above, several NGO’s are also working in the water and sanitation sector in

Assam.

Table 30. District wise allocation, release and expenditure statement for the selected districts

District wise Allocation, Release And Expenditure statement - Total All (Support + Programme + WQMS)

Fund (2012-13)

State District Total Release during the

year

Expenditure upto March

Total Central State Total Central % age against the central fund

Assam Hailakandi 36.31 26.06 10.24 36.3 26.06 100

Jorhat 43.88 33.85 10.03 43.81 33.78 99.79

Kamrup 86.75 46.79 39.97 86.7 46.74 99.89

Sonitpur 24.96 16.19 8.77 24.96 16.19 100

Source: MDWS website, retrieved in 6

th April 2013


6.2 Cost of the different schemes-average unit cost of the different type of the scheme and

cost per person

During 2003-08, the department took up 28,907 schemes under ARWSP for 23,665 habitations.

Of this, 23,319 schemes covering 17,955 habitations were completed and 5,588 schemes were in

progress as of March 2008 (as per data made available by APHED office). In the nine test-

checked divisions (Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Goalpara, Haflong, Maibong, Silchar-I, Sichar-II,

Tezpur-I, Tezpur-II), out of 19,722 schemes covering 5,811 habitations taken up for execution

during 2003-08, 17,168 schemes covering 3,650 habitations had been completed up to March

2008 at a cost of Rs.119.77 crore and 2,554 schemes were in progress after spending Rs.17.68

crore.

As can be seen from above, the shortfall in fulfilling the targets in respect of PWSS was 68 per

cent and supply scheme was 14 per cent. The Commissioner and Secretary to the Government of

Assam, Finance Department instructed (May 2003) all the heads of departments to follow the

time schedule for completion of the schemes.

Some recent observations and findings related to water supply schemes (standards of

service delivery) in Assam (based upon a study conducted by an UNICEF supported study

conducted by an NGO M/s ENVIRON facilitated by IIT Guwahati)

Kamrup District

A PWSS was established on 8th

August, 2000 which covers the village Bangsor in

Kamrup (R) district. The scheme is successfully operating under PHED supervision in

the Sualkuchi block. A user group committee was formed on 5th

May, 2011 for active

community participation. The committee comprises of 11 members with president and

secretary and the committee was registered in 2011 under the society registration act. Till

the assessment date, only twelve household connections were given with monthly user

charge of Rs.50/- (rupees fifty). However, 150 more households had by then applied for

connection. Through the scheme 25 nos. of street hydrants were installed where, monthly

user charges were not collected.

Findings: Average time of availability of electricity in the area is around 18 hrs per day.

Total electric load of the scheme is 10HP. The reservoir capacity of the scheme is 30,000

litres drinking water along with 4.8kms pipe length. There is one treatment plant with a

double filter facility and the source of the scheme is deep tube well. Water quality is

tested regularly and as per the opinion of local community, water quality of the scheme is

good and free from iron.

1. Another PWSS scheme was launched under PHED on the 25th December, 2010 covering

2 villages namely, Bathan and Sirhati of Kamrup (R) district. A user group committee

was formed in 4th April, 2011 for active community participation.


Findings: In the scheme, average time for availability of electricity is around 14 hrs in a day.

The total electric load of the scheme is 10HP. The reservoir capacity of the scheme is one

lakh twenty thousand litres drinking water along with 5.2kms pipe length. There is one

treatment plant with double filter facility and the source of the scheme is deep tube well.

Water quality is tested regularly and as per the opinion from the local community, water

quality of the scheme is good and free from iron.

Jorhat district

A PWSS scheme was established on 7th

February 2009 in Jorhat district and covering the

whole Murmuria Tea Estateunder block Baghchung. Presently the scheme is serving 112

households and expecting 150 more household connections. The user’s community

contributes Rs.50 per connection.

Findings: The electricity charge for the scheme is borne by the user’s community. The

scheme does not have any street hydrant. The power supply to the scheme is regular, which is

nearly 22 hours per day without any problem regarding operation of the pump. The scheme is

electrically operated and there is no alternative arrangement. Consumers get adequate supply

of water in approximately one and half hours per day. There are one suction pump and two

distribution pumps with reservoir capacity of one lakh ten thousand liters drinking water

along with 7.928 km pipe length. The scheme uses ground water as its water source and has

one treatment plant with a single filter. The water quality is good except iron contamination

according to the consumers. The PHED carries out water quality test every six months.

2. Other PWSS schemes are also running good in Cinnamora Sadar Rup Nagar, Pulibor

Bamun Gaon-Deka Daon, Chilakora Basti of Jorhat district.

3. In Cinnamora Sardar Rup Nagar, the scheme was established on 8th

December 2008,

covering Cinnamora, Banh Bari, Rup-Nagar under 54-Cinnamora G.P. and Baghchung

block. The scheme is serving 192 household connections currently and is expected to

expand including about 150 more connections. The approximate number of population

getting benefit from the scheme is 850. Consumers are charged Rs. 100 per connection.

Findings: Availability of power supply in the scheme is 18 hours per day. There is no

alternative arrangement in case of power break down. Currently the scheme is

functioning satisfactorily. Minor repairs have been done after installation. Water supply

is adequate and those in the tail end reportedly getting only one and half hour water

supply per day. There is one suction pump and two distribution pumps with reservoir

capacity of 1 lakh 40 thousand liters drinking water with 12 km pipe length. The scheme

uses ground water as its water source and has one treatment plant with single filter

working in good condition.


In Pulibor Bamun Gaon-Deka Daon, the scheme was established on 9th December

2004 and covers several villages namely, Pulibor, Bamungaon, Dekagaon, Fatema

Gaon, Jonaki Nagar, Dangordamori Suk under 45-West Sorusorai G.P. and North

West Jorhat block.

Findings: The scheme is electrically driven and the power is available for nearly 18

hours a day and is creating no problem for the scheme. The scheme does not have any

stand by arrangement in case of power failure. No major repair has been done yet. The

installed pump is reportedly dependable. The consumers along with the tail end users get

adequate supply of water through the scheme. The user community is charged Rs50 per

connection currently and it has been proposed to be raised to Rs100/connection shortly.

Currently the scheme is serving 242 household connections and 3 street connections.

There are one suction pump with 5HP capacity and two distribution pumps with reservoir

capacity of 80 thousand liters along with 7km pipe length. The scheme uses ground water

as its water source and has one treatment plant with double filter working in good

condition.

In Chilakora Basti, the scheme was established in April 2010 and covering 5

villages namely, Milanpur, Milan Nagar, Chilakora, Lohpohia, Charisinga Haturi Suk

under 48-Uttar Khongia GP and Jorhat block.

Findings: Power supply to the scheme is nearly 18 hours per day. There is no alternative

arrangement during power shortage. Ground water is the source of water. Average

consumers, including the tail enders, get adequate water supply for 50 minutes per day.

The information and data related to collection/ payment are recorded accurately on

regular basis by the community. Currently 20 house connections have been provided by

the scheme from which approximately 80 persons are getting benefit. There are one

suction pump and two distribution pumps with reservoir capacity of 40 thousand liters

along with 5km pipe length. The scheme has one treatment plant with double filter

working in a good condition.

Sonitpur district

4. A PWSS scheme was launched in March, 2010 covering 3 villages namely, Panchmile,

Alisinga and Uriamguri of Panchmile GP, under Gabharu block under Sonitpur district.

The scheme is successfully operating under the PHED. Recently a society was formed

under the name of “Panchgaon Gramya Pani Jogan Achani Parichalana Samiti” for active

community participation in the scheme. Till the assessment date, only 10 household

connections were given with monthly user charge of Rs.50/household. Source of the

water in all the piped water schemes is underground water collected through deep tube

well system. Water quality is regularly tested and it is free from Arsenic, Fluoride, Iron


and Bacteriological contamination. The scheme has one treatment plant with single filter.

The water quality is good.


7. Social Assessment

7.1 Assessment of the adequacy of the participatory practices for improving rural drinking

water supply

The revised NRDWP (2009) guidelines envisaged communities to be at the core of monitoring

and surveillance of drinking water sources. The guidelines further envisaged providing an

enabling environment for Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and local communities to manage

their own drinking water sources and systems, including those in schools and at Anganwadi

centers. Finally, to bring in transparency, accountability and informed decision-making, all

information is required to be placed in the public domain.

Based on some of our field experience under the UNICEF-IITG-PHED partnership, an overall

assessment of the adequacy of the participatory practise is highlighted

A Water Security Pilot Program (WSPP)under the UNICEF-PHED-IITG partnership conducted

in six districts viz. Dibrugarh, Golaghat, Jorhat, Kamrup, Sibsagar and Tinsukia of Assam

covering 12 blocks and 154 gram panchayats (GPs), revealed that communities at the grassroot

level could facilitate the field implementation of water security interventions notwithstanding

inherent challenges. The objective of this program was piloting water supply security and safety

at the house hold and community levels and developing Water Security Plans as per the NRDWP

guidelines of GoI. This was a first-hand initiative in Assam wherein communities were at the

core of the planning process for water security management. Communities were mobilized and

consulted about the understanding and assessment of their water sources for sustainable supply.

At each stage of the preparation of the water security plan, community consultations were held.

It was observed that communities in general were willing to participate in planning,

implementation, operation and maintenance of their water supply sources. However, there is a

need for setting up of user groups and self-help groups for managing the water sources. Village

Water and Sanitation Committees needs to be empowered as per NRDWP norms. Pertinent

factors like non availability of spare parts, lack of water quality, sanitation and health linkages

etc. have hindered O&M operations. Even though communities in general were willing to

undertake O&M operations, these factors greatly hinder participation. Another study under the

UNICEF- PHED-IITG partnership initiative on “Situational Assessment of Water Supply and

Safety Scenario in Assam” implemented in five Districts viz. Cachar, Udalguri, Kamrup, Jorhat

and Sonitpur reported similar observations wherein communities were generally willing to

participate in planning, implementation, operation and maintenance of water supply schemes

although their capacity to do the same was limited due to lack of knowledge and training.

Key issues apart from lack of awareness about WATSAN and health linkages are as follows:

i. Village Water and Sanitation Committees often lacked the technical skills in taking up

operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems.


ii. Communities in general are ignorant about the functioning of User Committees, linkages

between Gram Panchayats and User Committee.

7.2 Assessment of the levels of participation and ownership in rural drinking water supply

amongst different population groups (income, geographic, ethnic etc.)

Out of the total rural population of 2.64 crore in Assam, 1.77 crore has been covered so far under

the NRDWP, of which only 8.37 per cent populations contributes to O&M of the water supply

schemes in the covered habitations (MDWS, 2012), thus resulting in poor state of most schemes

being built and provided to the rural community. Poor O&M – a major case of failure of service

delivery of most water supply schemes.

Drawing from the experience of WSPP and the Assessment of Water Supply and Safety Scenario

in Assam, it has been found that communities, irrespective of their income, geographic location,

ethnicity, were generally willing to participate in the planning, implementation, operation and

management of the water supply schemes. The outcome of the above study clearly highlights

that communities even with their limited capacities and resources generally were keen on being

involved in the planning process of rural drinking water supply projects.

7.3 Assessment of the presence of marginalized populations that are not reached by public,

private or civil society efforts

Out of the total 86,976 habitations in Assam, 5,819 habitations accounting for 6.69% are

inhabitated by Schedule Castes (SC) and 17,412 habitations accounting for 20.02% are

inhabitated by Schedule Tribes (ST) (Table 31, 32). Out of the total 2.64 crore rural population

in Assam, 0.21 crore accounting 8.14% of the total rural population comprise of SC population

while 0.42 crore accounting 15.84% of the total rural population comprise of ST population in

Assam (MDWS, 2012). These two categories viz. SC and ST falls under the marginalised

population. Apart from the different tribes, tea garden labourers, people dwelling in the riverine

areas/floodplain areas, women, people with disabilities, refugees etc. also falls under the

marginalised category. Tea garden communities constitute 17% of the total population in Assam.

Of this, 17% of the tea tribe communities again fall into two different categories: The Permanent

Communities which are under the jurisdiction of the Tea Estate Management under the Labour

Plantation Act (LPA) and the temporary communities which do not come under the jurisdiction

of the Tea Estate Management. These are the communities which are the excluded communities

deprived in every sense of the term. Not only being deprived from the benefits of LPA, they are

also not covered under other government schemes meant for development and upliftment of the

teagarden communities. While the financial progress of program funds appear satisfactory (Table

33), some communities have remained largely outside the periphery of coverage.


Table 31. District wise number of SC/ST concentrated habitations

S.No. District Total

Habitations

Number of SC

Concentrated

Habitations

Number of ST

Concentrated

Habitations

1 Dhubri 4375 136 212

2 Kokrajhar 4030 111 1700

3 Bongaigaon 2313 221 59

4 Goalpara 2698 212 761

5 Barpeta 3280 149 78

6 Nalbari 2456 140 76

7 Kamrup 5228 338 725

8 Darrang 2432 94 179

9 Sonitpur 5298 212 874

10 Lakhimpur 2538 222 666

11 Dhemaji 2202 111 1160

12 Morigaon 2192 326 537

13 Nagaon 5658 744 551

14 Golaghat 4256 224 390

15 Jorhat 3578 275 442

16 Sibsagar 4919 149 238

17 Dibrugarh 6941 221 632

18 Tinsukia 3284 152 468

19 Karbi Anglong 3530 149 3155

20 NC Hills 1112 14 999

21 Karimganj 2619 476 70

22 Hailakandi 1673 189 83


Source: IMIS database as on 6th

Dec, 2012

Table32.Coverage of SC/ST/minority habitations (coverage as on 05/12/2012)

Source: IMIS database as on 6th Dec, 2012

23 Cachar 2689 419 249

24 Chirang 2104 203 870

25 Baksha 3273 231 1319

26 Udalguri 2298 101 919

Total 86976 5819 17412

Particulars Total

Habitations

Coverage % Coverage

SC Concentrated Habitations 5819 3604 61.94

ST Concentrated Habitations 17412 9288 53.34

Habitations in Minority

Concentrated Districts

40299 25492 63.26

LWE (Left Wing Extremist)

Concentrated Habitations

0 0 0


Table 33.Financial progress of program funds (Rupees in Crore) as on 05/12/2012

Source: IMIS database as on 6th Dec, 2012

7.4 Issues that aid /constrain inclusion and equity

Gender, caste, age and disability are some of the key causes that constrain inclusion (Gosling,

2010). The World Bank’s World Development Report 2006, Equity and Development concludes

that ‘Inequality of opportunity, both within and among nations, sustains extreme deprivation,

results in wasted human potential and often weakens prospects for overall prosperity and

economic growth’. It is thus necessary to have a collective, coherent and pragmatic

understanding of equity and inclusion so as to integrate into the broad framework for ensuring

water safety and sanitation.

Based on our own past experience from the Water Security Pilot Program (WSPP), it was

observed that community involvement in the planning processes is often beset with field

challenges. Lack of awareness and trust of communities on government functionaries, delay in

fund release and poor service delivery mechanism at the field level were some of the challenges

that hinder inclusion and equity. Apart from the above, the Center for Budget and Governance

Accountability (2011) report on “Reclaiming Public Provisioning- Priorities for the 12th

Five

Year Plan” highlights that adequate administrative, executive and accountability mechanisms

meant for development programmes of SCs and STs are not in place in states and districts.

Year Opening

Balance

Central

Allocation

Central

Release

State

Release

Exp (Central) of

available Central

fund

% Exp (Central) of

available Central

fund

2010-

2011

53.7 427.16 477.16 139.45 473.73 89.24

2011-12

Total

60.82 402.41 500.3 113.26 454.43 80.99

2011-12

SC

5.5 40.35 64.8 8.96 85.68 121.87

2011-12

ST

7.71 49.62 81.77 2.8 56.88 63.57

2011-12

GEN

47.61 312.44 353.73 101.5 311.87 77.71

2012-13

Total

110.15 468.15 220.2 33 263.73 79.83

2012-13

SC

25.16 48.02 22.73 0 64.37 134.4

2012-13

ST

33.01 59.32 27.96 0 30.34 49.75

2012-13

GEN

51.98 360.81 169.51 33 169.03 76.31


Budgetary processes and norms are reportedly not being followed appropriately in the fund flow

process. Poor utilization of the allocated funds for the welfare of SCs and STs are generally

recognized. Funds meant for SCSP and TSP has been apparently diverted to other sectors and

purposes. Lack of transparency coupled with poor service delivery mechanisms at the field level

also constrains attainment of development outcomes (CBGA, 2011).

Added to the above are factors that commonly influence the less than desired outcomes which

include apparent unwillingness or lack of capacity on the part of the Central and the State

governments to devolve significant powers or resources to implement the activities provided by

the legislation; the paucity of funds available for transfer to local bodies and the lack of a

revenue base at the local level; the problem of local elites capturing decentralized organizations

and the accompanying resources; the inability of the local governmental organizations to respond

to local needs and priorities; the lack of accountability of service providers to citizens; and the

poor design of decentralized interventions by governments and donor agencies (Joshi, 2013 ,

Bahl, 2002; Bardhan & Mookherjee, 1999; Dreze & Sen, 1996; Ostrom, Schroeder, & Wynne,

1993).

On Inclusion

Drawing form the report on the Situational Assessment study conducted in five districts viz

Kamrup, Jorhat, Cachar, Sonitpur and Udalguri District, by M/s ENVIRON through the IITG-

UNICEF project, it was found that community awareness, stakeholder co-ordination, socio-

economic background and demographic composition of population played critical role in

functioning of water supply schemes. It was reported that while some of the best functioning

schemes were located in Jorhat District, some of the non-functioning schemes were located in

Sonitpur and Cachar District in Assam. Even within schemes located at different districts, the

levels of community served by different PWSS varied within wide limits (Fig. 2, 3,4).

Highlighting the observations made from the assessment in Sonitpur District, the Barika Chuburi

PWSS due to the sincere efforts by the user committee received the Uttam Gramya Pani Jogan

Parichalana Puraskar while the Panchmile PWSS belonging to minority Muslim community

showed poor performance level.


0

200

400

600

800

Bar

ati

Bam

un

pu

kh…

Bam

un

pu

kh…

Bo

rbe

el…

Bh

atu

a o

f…

Me

ghai

ti

Bam

un

gao

n

Dar

ikia

lgao

n

Dh

eki

alga

on

Bar

ikac

hu

bu

ri

Pan

chm

ile

Alis

inga

Uri

amgu

ri

Son

itp

ur…

1 N

o. P

oti

a…

Gh

otu

wa

L.…

Juga

l Hig

h…

Pan

ch M

ile…

POPULATION COVERED BY THE SPOT SOURCES

0

2000

4000

6000

APPROXIMATE POPULATION BENEFITTED FROM PWSS Approximate

populationcovered

Community wise population covered by Piped Water Supply Schemes (PWSS)

Figure 2: Community wise population distribution in the four studied PWSS and 18 spot sources in

Sonitpur District

Source: ENVIRON Study, 2013

40%

25%

7%

28% 0%

Barati PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority

7% 10%

5%

75%

3%

Meghaiati PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority

70%

15%

0% 0%

15%

Barika Chuburi PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority

5% 10% 3%

2%

80%

Panchmile PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority


0

100

200

300

400

Po

pu

lati

on

co

vere

d

Area of Spot Sources

Population covered by the Spot Sources


Figure3. Community wise population distribution in the four studied PWSS and 21 Spot Source in

Kamrup District

Source: ENVIRON Study, 2013

5% 0% 0%

93%

2%

Bathan PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority

44%

25%

6%

10%

15% Dorakahara PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority

57%

9%

23%

11% 0%

Barlah Group Village PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority

73%

10%

2%

13% 0%

Saster PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority


0200400600800

POPULATION COVERED BY THE SPOT SOURCES


Figure 4. Community wise population distribution in the four studied PWSS and 21 Spot Source in Jorhat

District

Source: ENVIRON Study

15% 5%

0%

0%

80%

Murmuria PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority

5% 5% 0%

0%

90%

Cinnamora Sadar Rup Nagar PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority

75%

15% 10%

0% 0%

Pulibor-Bamungaon Dekagaon PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority

5% 10% 0%

0%

85%

Chilakora Basti PWSS

General

OBC

SC

ST

Minority


8. Environmental Assessment

8.1 Review and summary of information available on status of water supply service at

household, institutions, community and village level especially from quantity and quality

perspectives

The recent study under a UNICEF- PHED-IITG partnership initiative on “Situational

Assessment of Water Supply and Safety Scenario in Assam” implemented through the NGO M/s

ENVIRON in five Districts viz. Cachar, Udalguri, Kamrup, Jorhat and Sonitpur revealed the

following,

PHED has played a critical role in providing water supply to the rural areas of Assam.

However, present state of services need improvement in terms of being pro-active in its

approach in mobilizing community awareness and participation, the absence of which has

adversely affected the sustainability of several installed water sources.

Schemes which were recently installed in the suburban areas, where socio-economic

conditions of the communities generally happen to be better and where communities are

consulted prior to the installation of the schemes were performing better than the schemes

which were old and located in remote areas, where there was a lack of community

mobilization prior to the installation of the water supply scheme and where communities

are socio-economically weaker. However, natural factors (accessibility to and quality of

water) also played vital role in the success or failure of schemes.

Some of the best performing schemes were concentrated in districts like Jorhat and some

of the non-performing schemes were found concentrated in Sonitpur and Cachar districts

(treating Udalguri as an exceptional case). Factors like community awareness, pro-active

PHED initiative, socio-economic background and demographic composition of the

population of the concerned district appeared to have played importantly role in this.

Many recently installed schemes placed emphasis on achieving self-sustainability (e.g.,

formation of user group community along with the schemes, restrictions on number of

street hydrants, collection of maximum user charge, O&M of the scheme by the user

group) contrary to the older schemes, where such initiatives were not witnessed. Ageing

of schemes apparently had a clear bearing on performance.

Some arbitrariness in the approach of PHED towards sanctioning of schemes and in

sustaining them was observed during the assessment. For example, while Barika Chuburi

PWSS of Sonitpur District despite having 20 hours of power supply on average in a day

was provided with a generator by the department, such facility was not provided to the


Uttarpar Zone II of Udalguri District which receives only 3 hours of electricity on an

average per day. There are more such cases.

The communities, barring few exceptions such as Panchmile and Siberbond, preferred

household connections paying monthly water tariff of Rs. 50/- to Rs. 100/- to street

connections and spot sources. However, they (especially the womenfolk) also alongside

preferred spot sources as a complementary additional source of water for various day

long household needs such as washing of clothes and utensils, providing water to the

livestock, etc.

The communities were generally willing to participate in planning, implementation,

operation and maintenance of water supply schemes. However, their capacity to do the

same is rather limited due to lack of knowledge and training

The GPs and VCDCs were also willing to operate and maintain water supply schemes

though they were neither aware of their legally obligated role in this regard nor have they

implemented any schemes.

In none of the GPs under the study, VWSC was functioning as per the guidelines. VWSC

was formed for supporting the sanitation programme only, which was not connected with

any water supply schemes.

In most of the PWSS, barring few exceptions, user community was either formed or

going to be formed for the maintenance of the respective PWSS. Some of these user

communities were already registered. But most of them had applied for registration

recently

Prior to the installation of the water supply schemes, the communities in most of the

visited areas suffered from water borne diseases like dysentery, jaundice and diarrhea

which later declined considerably after the installation of the schemes.

In some areas, communities were still suffering from dysentery, jaundice and diarrhea,

possibly because the communities in these areas continued to use supplementary water

from other sources as well and were found consuming drinking water from open

containers without filtering or boiling.

The availability of water during summer was adequate but in winter it was scarce in all

the districts of Assam.


The planning, operation and maintenance of the schemes were totally under the control of

PHED and any serious effort on the part of the PHED to create a conscious and capable

user group to transfer these responsibilities seems to be still at an early stage

8.2 Review and summary of information available on pollution of water sources (ground

and surface water)

Notwithstanding known contamination due to Arsenic, Fluoride, Iron and possible other

inorganic pollutants in many parts of the state of Assam (Table 34, 35, 36, 37; Fig. 5, 6),

groundwater continues to play a significant role in meeting the water demands of most

communities in Assam, especially the rural communities. Majority populations in Assam still

rely on groundwater as a source of drinking water. The use of tube wells and dug wells are the

most common way to access the water. Within the districts there are also a number of Public

Water Supply Schemes run by the PHED. These schemes tap deeper aquifers and the water is

treated by aeration and slow sand filter filtration. Dug wells are used to large extent in some

parts. Fluoride contamination and the relatively recent discovery of elevated arsenic

contamination in groundwater have greatly raised concerns regarding the water quality issue in

Assam. Occurrence of fluoride in levels much higher than the BIS permissible limits of 1.5 mg/l

in three of the highly affected districts in Assam viz. Darrang, Karbi Anglong and Nagaon and

the occurrence of fluorosis have already been reported in studies conducted by Kotoky et al.

2008; Sushella 2007 and Chakravarti et al. 2000.

Apart from fluoride, arsenic contamination in ground water of 18 Districts in Assam has also

been recently discovered under the UNICEF-IITG-PHED arsenic screening and surveillance

initiative (Table36). The Arsenic Screening and Surveillance programme in Assam has been

carried out jointly by PHED, UNICEF and IIT Guwahati towards a comprehensive assessment of

arsenic contamination of Public water sources of drinking water in rural areas covering the

period of 2005- 2011. The study was carried out in 76 blocks spread across 23 divisions (in 18

districts) pre- identified through a rapid assessment. Out of a total of 56,180 sources tested, 29 %

sources were reported to have contamination above the WHO limits of 10 ppb and 8 % sources

were reported to have contamination ranges above BIS guideline values of 50 ppb. A total of

1980 habitation spread across 18 Districts in Assam are reported to be exposed to the risk of

arsenic contamination.

Apart from contamination due to fluoride and arsenic, bacterial contamination of water source

has been another cause of concern in the region. Bacterial Dysentery, Acute Diarrheal Disease

and Cholera have been a recurring phenomenon in Assam (IDSP). Tea garden areas in the upper

Assam districts are some of the highly vulnerable areas prone to water borne diseases. Poor

sanitary practice, platforms damage, poor management of water sources, lack of proper drainage

facilities etc. are some pertinent causes leading to incidence of diarrheal disease. For piped water

supply networks, leakage and pilferage, breakage of supply pipes leading to bacterial


contamination of treated water etc. are some of the factors contributing to disease incidence

(Table 38).

Table 34. Quality affected habitation with the parameters

Source: IMIS database

Table 35. Concentration range of fluoride in different Districts in Assam

Parameter Fluoride Arsenic Iron Salinity Nitrate Total

Number of

Habitations

80 1157 14742 0 0 15979

Author Region Concentration range of Fluoride

in mg/ l

Pal(1999) Karbi Anglong 5- 23

Das et al (2003) Guwahati 0.18-6.88

Borah et al (2010) Darrang 0.01-0.98


Figure 5. Map showing some of the highly fluoride affected districts in Assam


Table 36. Concentration range of arsenic in different regions of Assam

Author Region Concentration range of

Arsenic in µg/ l

Singh ( 2004) Nagaon Southern part of the

Brahmaputra River in

Assam, India

481-112

Jorhat 194-657

Golaghat 100-200

Lakhimpur Northern part of the


Assam, India

50-550

Nalbari 100-422

Dhubri 100-200

Darrang 0-200

Barpeta 100-200

Dhemaji 100-200

Enmark and

Nordborg (2007)

Darrang and

Bongaigaon

Northern part of the


Assam, India

5-606

Chetia et al (2008) Golaghat Southern part of the


Assam, India

1-73

Mahanta et al (2009) All over Assam 0- above 300


Table 37. Total number of sources under different concentration ranges in the 18 districts in

Assam

PHED Division Sources

Tested

Safe

Sources

Unsafe

Sources as

per WHO

% of Unsafe

Sources as per

WHO

Unsafe

Sources as

per BIS

% of Unsafe

Sources as per BIS

Biswanath Chariali 2163 1425 738 34.12 175 8.09

Bongaigaon 1274 926 348 27.32 92 7.22

Bokakhat 1075 901 174 16.19 37 3.44

Belsor 2076 1055 1021 49.18 242 11.66

BTAD 321 105 216 67.29 107 33.33

Barpeta 7987 6517 1470 18.40 352 4.41

Dhubri 4633 3947 686 14.81 143 3.09

Darrang 3861 2502 1359 35.20 163 4.22

Goalpara 1096 884 212 19.34 20 1.82

Golaghat 2449 1201 1248 50.96 581 23.72

Ghilamara 2346 2076 270 11.51 58 2.47

Hailakandi 2908 2490 418 14.37 52 1.79

Jorhat 6278 2842 3436 54.73 937 14.93

Kaliabor 747 734 13 1.74 2 0.27

Karimganj 2665 2024 641 24.05 159 5.97

Morigaon 1233 1106 127 10.30 41 3.33

N.Lakhimpur 2247 1766 481 21.41 95 4.23

Nalbari 2236 594 1642 73.43 513 22.94

Rangia 429 208 221 51.52 0 0.00

Sibsagar 4243 3256 987 23.26 169 3.98

Silchar I 2368 1602 766 32.35 435 18.37

Silchar II 1017 823 194 19.08 75 7.37

Tezpur II 528 454 74 14.02 16 3.03

Total 56180 39438 16742 4464 7.95

Percentage 70.2 29.8 7.9


Disclaimer: This map represents only those sources out of 56,180 sources tested for which

arsenic screening was carried out and for which precise GPS coordinates were available. This

map does not reflect the complete arsenic contamination scenario in Assam since only 18

districts out of the total 27 districts in Assam were covered under the current program.

Figure 6.Ground water Arsenic contamination map of Assam


Table 38. Incidence of Water and Sanitation Related Diseases

The Blocks taken by the IDSP cell are based on the Revenue circle. Thus, it may not truly reflect the total population of the nine project areas since the blocks selected

by PHED are based on the Habitation Record. Source: IDSP-Cell, NRHM, Assam 2012.

Source: Draft Report on Environmental Assessment for the Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project in Assam, PE Global (P) Lt

Blocks Total

Population

Acute Diarrhoeal Disease Bacterial Dysentery Percentage of

Population affected

by ADD during

2010-2012

Percentage of

Population affected by

BD during 2010-2012

2012 2011 2010 2012 2011 2010

Algapur&Hailakandi 80,797 3364 3095 4025 5045 3667 3742 4.33 5.14

Tapatari&Srijangram 1,90,791 3263 3160 3965 3630 3983 3471 1.81 1.94

Boitamari 97,786 3235 4417 4188 1715 1835 2274 4.04 1.99

Mayong 1,33,155 221 70 82 509 757 714 0.09 0.5

Bhurbandha 9,045 2768 2323 3762 6257 7574 8705 32.63 83.05

Jorhat Central 58,021 2118 1510 960 582 568 577 2.64 0.99

Chariduar 46,033 291 361 426 227 242 525 0.78 0.72

Ambguri 62,878 251 422 703 159 475 545 0.73 0.63

Gaurisagar 58,995 960 1590 2143 1122 1695 2415 2.65 2.96

Demow 1,54,058 5442 6133 5657 1372 1869 4051 3.73 1.58

Bezera 97,957 1470 1629 1961 1593 1411 1585 1.72 1.56

Dimoria 1,76,987 227 289 281 419 0.15 0.2


8.4 Incentives for improving water supply services at community and household levels

The critical role of improved water supply and sanitation services in preventive health care and

as an indicator to the overall socio economic development is well recognised. Improving the

quality and capacity of local systems of water delivery in rural areas of the districts surveyed

would include strengthening of institutional framework, including long term capacity building at

district level and adoption of decentralized service modalities. Increased rural coordination and

consultation through sector wide approach including multi stakeholder sector working group to

strengthen strategic resource allocation. Such consultative reform and budgeting process would

create incentives for active engagement of sector stakeholders. This is a strategy successfully

carried out by rural water supply scheme elsewhere.

8.4 What initiatives/approaches are most likely to have a positive impact on assess of

improved water supply services

1. Based on experience gained from the current investigations and the past initiatives undertaken

under the UNICEF -IITG-PHED partnership, it has been seen that community consultation prior

to installation of water supply sources of ten have a positive impact on water supply and source

sustainability.

2. Formulation of user community for operation and maintenance of the respective PWSS should

be ensured.

3. Efforts should be made to transfer the responsibilities of O&M on conscious and capable user

group supported by necessary hand holding and capacity building.


9. Key points emerging from the study

The APHED has been engaged in rural water supply for years now and has developed standard

procedures for a perceived mechanism and institutional protocol for safe and secure water

provision for rural communities. However, despite apparent efforts, health concerns due to

inadequate or inconsistent availability and sometimes unsafe water at point of consumption could

not be eliminated in entirety. Both systemic as well as specifically attributable causes are

discernible. For instance, safe handling of water at the point of consumption remains a large IEC

challenge. Based upon the investigations carried out during this study in four selected districts,

and gathering experiences from the past interventions, the following conclusions could be drawn:

Enhancing Accountability

The need to devolve responsibilities and power to a micro level decentralized entity

cannot be over emphasized; and within the current governance system, the Panchayati

Raj Institutions (PRIs) and VWSC’s appear to be the appropriate option for ensuring

better operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation facilities at rural settings.

The importance of unbundling and re-structuring the state institutions and agencies in line

with the changing role of the state as a facilitator and devolution of funds, functions and

functionaries to the PRIs and the user committees have been proposed (World Bank,

2008). The PHE department at the district level apart from providing support to piped

water schemes, can monitor the performance of the scheme as well and constantly

provide technical support as and when the need arises. The district offices have a role in

mobilizing and sensitizing rural communities on issues like good hygiene, judicious

management and use of water resources and sanitary practices.

Informed community consultation prior to installation of water supply schemes at all

times and at all levels should always pay off. Once a project is approved by the

community leaders like gram panchayat members and Gaoburha (village chief), the

community is expected to provide labour and maintenance for the scheme. The need for

capacity building of community level stakeholders and support organizations is often

emphasized. For the long term sustainability of piped water schemes in respective

districts, community mobilization is one of the priority areas since only a sensitized and

informed community can help in quick redress of problem areas such as pipe breaks,

blockages, stealing of valves, or other components. PHED’s role will be in core technical

support and hand holding.


Enhancing Sustainability

In all the four districts surveyed, a lacuna of maintenance of water supplies and

infrastructure remains largely unaddressed. Although a number of reasons like apathy and

lack of fund can be cited, what is needed is a paradigm shift whereby the onus of

maintaining water supply rest with the people and communities. This calls for

coordination and cooperation of gram panchayats with communities for enabling joint

implementation of water schemes along with line department like PHED.

Although the process of shifting of O&M responsibility of water supply schemes to Gram

Panchayats is already being carried out by the state governments under various programs,

yet there is a need for adoption of sector reform to achieve a major boost in

decentralization of services. Special incentives have been advocated to encourage states

to adopt such reforms (World Bank, 2008). In case of the studied districts, such

opportunities do exist as has been demonstrated by few community operated schemes

(e.g. Barika Chuburi PWSS in Sonitpur district), although this needs to be ameliorated by

others.

For the districts monitored, where iron has been detected, the water need to be treated,

amongst others, with oxidation and settling method. In Sonitpur and Jorhat districts

where arsenic has been detected in large number of habitations, Alum-ion coagulation

can be used for treating the water, until a more cohesive solution is found. However, their

feasibility in the rural setting needs to be worked out in terms of expenditure and O&M.

Fluoride contamination has been found to be not as acute in the areas where it has been

detected. However, further survey is called for, to cover all the habitations in each district

to get the total picture on water quality, since water quality surveillance has never been

fully comprehensive in terms of heavy metals and organic chemicals.

Water safety plans must accompany piped water scheme to prevent contamination from

unsafe source waters. In all the districts surveyed there is occasional prevalence of

undesirable elements in water which need to be treated to reduce or remove it. Arsenic or

fluoride contaminated water needs to be treated by each household through cost effective

and simple techniques till safe alternatives are not available.

Convergence

Convergence of various departments associated with water is one of the greatest

challenges that need to be addressed for the various schemes like Swajaldhara to be


successful in the districts surveyed. This has remained an unaccomplished task so far and

innovative approaches are called for to foster such partnership without fuss about who

would share a larger credit.

Capacity building opportunities should be provided to Medical Officers for detection of

arsenic and fluoride poisoning cases in particular and other water borne diseases and their

management in the affected GPs/blocks

Enhancing Screening and Monitoring

A concurrent monitoring system for water borne diseases and health should be setup for

clinical assessment for arsenical dermatitis and fluorosis and regular monitoring done for

other water borne diseases, especially diarrhea, through the community health monitoring

approach.

Regular monitoring of water quality from source to sink ensuring a complete Life Cycle

Assessment (LCA) approach can be effectively implemented and the facilities generated

should be optimally used to ensure minimum water footprint in all stages. Although

water quality monitoring has been carried out in the districts covered under NRDWP,

steps have not yet been taken on awareness building, monitoring and testing, mitigation

measures and providing alternative source of water for contaminant detected habitations.

The need of hour is a thorough community based water quality monitoring and

surveillance system at grass root level to identify problems and to take corrective

measures accordingly.

Experience from water security pilot programme

Based on experience with the Water Security Pilot Program (2010-11) and the Situational

Assessment of Water Supply Scenario in Assam (2011-12) initiatives, apparently most schemes

in Assam continue to be designed and implemented in the conventional “supply driven” mode.

Although successful instances of community managed water supply schemes in line with the

‘demand responsive’ sector reform projects and Swajaldhara program exist, yet often the lack of

community participation and involvement leading to inadequacies in service provision could be

seen. The conclusion and recommendations drawing from the outcome of the initiatives

undertaken in the project districts viz. Jorhat, Kamrup and Sonitpur District are presented below.

i. Inadequacies in service provision

The analysis of the PWSS in Kamrup, Jorhat and Sonitpur Districts clearly demonstrated the

demand supply gap. With inadequacies of water supply schemes, rural households depend on

multiple water sources, including their private sources. Experience from WSPP implementation

has shown that in both Jorhat and Kamrup Districts, communities reverted to using pond water to

meet their water needs. Similar observations were also made during a situational assessment


study where it was observed that although main source of water comprised a mix of PWSS, tube

wells and ring wells, yet communities (Murmuria Tea Estate,Roop Nagar, Cinnamora, Bahbari,

Cinnamora Tea Estate, In Milanpur, Milan Nagar, Chilakora, Lohpohia, Charisinga, Haturi

Chuk, Milanpur, Milan Nagar, Chilakora, Lohpohia, Charisinga, Haturi Chuk)continued to use

pond water for washing and wallowing of livestock while in certain other areas communities

used pond water (Pulibor, Bamungaon, Deka Gaon,. Milanpur, Milan Nagar, Chilakora,

Lohpohia, Charisinga, Haturi Chuk) for drinking purpose and meeting their other household

demands. Further, quality of water was another major issue in each of the studied districts. While

treatment systems were put in place for supply of treated water, instances of untreated water

reaching communities also existed.

Uncertainty of water sources for piped water supply system was another major cause of

inadequacies in service provision. Sources initially functional remained non functional due to

drying up of water source. With quality being another major issue, the functionality of the

schemes remained questionable. Power supply issues also hindered service delivery in some of

the districts viz. Sonitpur district.

Thus, for improved service delivery mechanism, there is a need to enforce greater emphasis on

user driven water supply systems. The sector reform policies need to be scaled up and a bottom

up decentralized approach involving communities in planning and implementation process needs

to be ensured. Instances of factors contributing to optimal performance of PWSS in Jorhat

District viz. Pulibor Bamun Gaon-Deka Daon PWSS, Murmuria PWSS and Cinnamora Sadar

Rup Nagar PWSS are to be reinforced and adopted in similar interventions elsewhere. Further,

prior to installation of schemes, source of schemes are to be selected based on scientifically

conducted studies on water availability, source sustainability and local hydrology. Pertinent

issues of power supply are to be resolved and facilities for power backup needs to be procured in

areas prone to frequent power malfunctioning.

ii. Lack of Community Participation and Awareness on Water, Sanitation and health linkages

There was an apparent lack of knowledge regarding water quality, sanitation and health linkages

in the studies districts viz. Jorhat, Sonitpur and Kamrup. Village Water and Sanitation

Committees in most villages in the studied districts were non functional bearing testimony to the

fact of lack of community knowledge and participation in O&M of water supply schemes.

Although, communities were willing to participate in O&M activities, their rather limited

capacity was also visible. The elements of success in case of schemes like Barika Chuburi

appears to be a deep trust and strong cooperation and coordination between PHED and PRI and

this needs to be enhanced and reinforced in other schemes.

iii. Water Quality Screening and Surveillance

Data collected from household survey and water quality analysis revealed water quality issues,

more specifically bacteriological contamination as a major threat. Poor maintenance of water


sources, unhygienic sanitary practices around water sources, fractured platforms etc. were

contributing factors. There has been no record for Sanitary surveillance except those carried out

during a Unicef supported study named multiple district assessment of water safety (MDAWS)

where more than 50% of the 400 sources examined were found to be bacteriologically affected.

The NRDWP national protocol released in February 2013 has kept provision of sanitary

surveillance and this should be an important tool for future bacteriological screening of sources.

Based on the reports of water quality analysis in Jorhat and Kamrup districts, it seems logical to

state that regular monitoring of water quality sources ensuring completion of a Life Cycle

Assessment should be effectively implemented. A concurrent monitoring system for water borne

diseases and health should be setup for clinical assessment for arsenical dermatitis and regular

monitoring done for other water borne diseases, especially diarrhea through the community

health monitoring approach. Tea garden areas could be some focus areas where the regular

diarrheal monitoring could be taken up.

iv. Willingness to Pay

There is an indication from WSPP and Situational Analysis study initiatives, that community

preferred household connections with monthly water tariff ranging between Rs. 50/- to Rs. 100/-

to street connections and spot sources. There was willingness to pay for reliable, safe and

consistent services to fulfill complete household and allied needs. However, communities

(especially the women folk) also desired spot sources in addition to piped supply as

complementary water source to meet their other water needs. The perceived additional benefit

seems to be rooted in the apprehension of inconsistency, inadequacy or periodic disruption of

piped supply. The cost of improved services was expected to be generally within the

“affordable” payment levels. With the reported failure of some PWSS due to lack of

maintenance associated with the less number of household connections and user charge

collection observed in Kamrup District, tariff generated from improved services could be used to

ensure completely dependable PWSS services. In instances of cost going beyond the affordable

level, providing appropriate subsidies will be important. Pricing of water is a sensitive issue in

the state perhaps particularly due to abundant availability of natural surface water sources being

considered as ‘free goods’ and ‘public goods’. In case of proposed metered urban water supply in

cities like Guwahati in Assam, public protests are currently in rise against ‘water pricing’ and

perceived risk of water tariff going up in future once complete dependency is established.

Besides complete reliability of services, the payment criteria and justification for real cost of

services have to be pragmatically established and implemented through comprehensive and

transparent public consultation which is likely to be the key driver for public acceptability,

success and sustainability of the proposed project in totality.

Clearly, the proposed projects under RWSS- LS programme will need to be implemented by

overcoming the adequacy deficit present in some aspects – be it source sustainability

(particularly for surface sources), round the clock water security and safety assurance,

appropriate R&D in planning, execution, operation and maintenance of schemes including


treatability assessment of water quality, consistent and sufficient supply of safe water with a life

cycle assessment approach covering expected life time of the project, sustained power supply

and availability of sufficient supplied water all over the network so that no additional source is to

be resorted to.. A great deal of these concerns have to be addressed at the DPR level including

their thorough examination by concerned technical examination agencies to be followed up

afterwards ensuring flawless execution of the projects as per the provision of the DPRs. As it is

becoming an emerging practice, inclusion of O&M provisions within the project cost through a

life cycle approach will ensure smooth long term service delivery. There is also a scope and need

for overcoming the apparent trust deficit (due to failure of some past projects to deliver, for

various reasons) through improved water governance for social and environmental sustainability

of the projects, besides addressing the issue of a mutually acceptable water subscription fee to be

decided by the local bodies. Devolution of ownership to PRIs as proposed should lead to an

improved performance of the rural water supply sector in the identified districts. However, the

performance of water user committees are currently not uniformly satisfactory and based on

social, economic and cultural factors, will call for challenging engagements by concerned wings

of PHED, Assam and other partners.


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