Seasonal variation of temple wall floras in Mayiladuthurai ... · Mayiladuthurai - an important...

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WSN 19 (2015) 50-68 EISSN 2392-2192

Seasonal variation of temple wall floras in Mayiladuthurai, Nagapattinam district of

Tamil Nadu, India

K. Sankar Ganesh1,*, S. Rajasekaran1, M. Rajesh1, M. Nagarajan1,

P. Sundaramoothy2

1Department of Botany, A.V.C. College, Mannampandal, Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu, India

2Department of Botany, Annamalai Nagar, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu, India

*E-mail address: [email protected]

ABSATRACT

Wall flora is referred as, the flora grown on buildings, temples, house remains or their

surrounding areas. Plant growth on monuments is responsible for the widening of gaps between

adjoining blocks or increasing the dimensions of the cracks already present on the surface. Finally the

architecture of the temple is fully collapse by wall floras. So an investigation has to be taken for the

seasonal variation of wall floras in a famous temple Mayiladuthurai, Nagapattinam district of Tamil

Nadu, India.

Keywords: Wall flora, Monuments, Temples, Eradication, Nagapattinam district

1. INTRODUCTION

Tamil Nadu has a great tradition of history and culture. In ancient, early medieval and

medieval period, a number of dynasties ruled over the Tamil Land. Many of those rulers were

very fond of art and architecture and gave generous patronage to men of letter, sculptors,

World Scientific News 19 (2015) 50-68

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architects and artists. This saw the Tamil land becoming a hub of many beautiful and amazing

monuments and temples which attract tourists from all over the world. As a result of such

great culture achievements, the state of Tamil Nadu is referred to as the cradle of Dravidian

culture, an ancient culture distinguished by unique languages and customs. Many towns and

cities of Tamil Nadu are associated with beautiful monuments and Temples. Mayiladuthurai is

one of those places in Tamil Nadu (Map 1). Mayiladuthurai is of considerable antiquity,

cultural and religious significance. The town must have originated in the Medieval Chola

period. Mayiladuthurai was ruled by the Early Cholas, Medieval Cholas, Later Cholas,

Pandyas, the Vijayanagar Empire, Thanjavur Nayaks and the Thanjavur Marathas. In

Mayiladuthurai and surrounding places many temples are situated. Among these temples Sri

Mayuranathar temple, is of the most important temples in Mayiladuthurai. Many bilgrimis are

visited these temple every day. Now, the beautifulness of the temples has been degraded day

by day, because the floras are growing on the temple walls and towers.

Map 1. Map showing Mayiladuthurai.


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Wall flora is referred as, the flora grown on buildings, temples, house remains or their

surrounding areas (Nedelcheva and Vesileva, 2009; Sankar Ganesh et al., 2009 a). Walls may

be generally categorized into 5 types (i) brick cement wall (ii) stone cement wall (iii) brick

mud wall (iv) stone mud wall and (v) mud wall. In the brick cement wall and stone cement

wall, the cementing material used is cement, while in the brick mud wall and stone mud wall

the cementing material used is mud. The mud wall is purely made of mud. Plants of

herbaceous habits are the chief representatives of wall flora (Singh, 2011). The birds and

animals disperse the seeds through their excreta on the temple walls and old house walls.

When the conditions are favourable, the seeds germinate and become a plant on the same

place. Thus, some plants are commonly grown on walls such as Ficus glamorata, F.religiosa,

F. benghalensis, Cynodon dactylon, Ionidium suffruticosum, Viola oderata, Acalypha indica,

Phyllanthus niruri, Trianthema portulacastrum, Boearhavia diffusa etc., (Sankar Ganesh et

al., 2013).

Plant growth on monuments is responsible for the widening of gaps between adjoining

blocks or increasing the dimensions of the cracks already present on the surface. Plant growth

can increase the load on the surface thus resulting in the dislocation of the surface. Besides

causing such type at physical damage to the monuments, it can also affect chemically with the

surface. There is evidence that marble and limestone in contact with roots develop root marble

due to the etching effect of the slightly acidic sap of the root cells. Rotting roots can also stain

calcareous stones and they produce humic substances (Agrawal et al - 1995). Walls represent

a specific environment for growing plants, which is partly similar to rocks and rock fissures

(Woodell, 1979). The flora of wall habitats has received little attention in the past (Woodell

and Rossiter, 1959; Segal, 1969; Payne, 1978; Karschon and Weinistein, 1985; Lisci and

Paccini, 1993; Kolbek, 1997; Tripathy et al., 1999; Wojcikowska and Galera, 2005; Pavlova

and Tonkov, 2005; Iatrou et al., 2007; Ezer et al., 2008; Maxwell 2009; Altay et al., 2010 and

Rajalakshmi and Shanthi., 2012). Walls are man - made artificial habitats. Generally the walls

having cracks and crevices often favour the growth and development of plant species. The

wall plants are the result of spontaneous colonization unassisted by human actions. Several

studies have been conducted to analyze the floristic composition of the wall habitats in India

and abroad (Singh, 2011a, Nadelcheva, 2011 and Singh and Singh, 2014). In India, especially

Tamil Nadu the study of wall floras is very meager. The study of the wall flora is of special

importance for the maintenance and preservation of archeological monuments. As a result,

data on the vascular flora of important Temples in Mayiladuthurai is completely lacking. So

an investigation was made on the survey of wall flora in Mayuranathar Temple

Mayiladuthurai - an important City in Tamil Nadu.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Percent study deals with the floras growing on walls of Mayuranathar temple

Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu, India.

Site description

Mayiladuthurai is one of the famous cities in Tamil Nadu. The town is situated on a flat

plain on the banks of the river Cauvery. Mayiladuthurai and surrounding places have many

temples.


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Field observation

An extensive filed study was conducted from September - 2013 to February - 2014. The

walls and towers of the flora included the main boundary wall surrounding the temples, and

towers. The collected plants were preserved and maintained in the form of herbarium for

future studies. All the plants collected in the study were identified with in the collecting place.

The identified plant species were conformed by using standard taxonomic floras proposed by

Mathew (1991) and Gamble (1936).

3. DISCUSSION

No life can be expected on earth without vegetation but the growth of plants on historic

buildings and monuments can cause serious problems. The problems can be quite serious in

tropical countries like India, particularly in Tamil Nadu. Where, the climatic condition is quite

favorable to plant growth.

One of the principal stages in the evolution of civilization has been the construction of

buildings and their decoration with sculptures. Tamil Nadu, becoming a hub of many

beautiful and amazing monuments, and temples, which attracts tourists from all over the

world. These monuments and forts speak volumes about the artistic skills and excellence of

the sculptors and architects of that period. But now a day these archeological monuments and

temples are loss their original structure day by day. Because, the floras grown on the walls

and towers of temples. These floras are classified under herb, shrub, climbers and sometimes

trees. These plants are rooted well in the gap of the walls. After a long time we cannot

consider these plants, they are collapse the original structure of the temples, forts, buildings

etc.

Plants can live in aquatic, terrestrial and organic environments. Their growth in these

environments is influenced by many parameters. There are habitats in which the extreme

conditions lead to the selection of species with morphological and physiological adoptions

enabling them to survive. Walls constitute a specialized microhabitats, since there are built by

man, they are restricted to inhabitant for plants their dampness & aspects are of great

importance of the plants upon them (Lisci and Paccini - 1993). The Mayurnathaswami temple

in mayiladuthurai is built in the Dravidian style of architecture. This Temple was built during

the time of the Medievel Cholas and is 719 feet long and 52 feet wide. The gopuram at the

eastern entrance is 164 feet high.

Walls of buildings and of their constructions made of bricks, stones or concreted

belongs to specific, polyhemerobic habitats, which can be a substitute habitats for rock plants.

They are common but rarely colonized, because of their vertical and even surface,

characterized by unfavorable water and temperature regimes and recurrent concentration of

the walls (Francis, 2011). This insufficient inflow of Diasporas can also be a reason for slow

colonization of walls, especially in centers of large agglomerations. Vascular plants can

normally grow on sites where at least a small amount of humus has accumulated. This kind of

substrate is formed in calcium containing mortar or slits and fissures of the walls, previously

colonized by lichens and mosses (Boratynski et al., 2003).

The plants found on walls and towers of temples in Mayiladuthurai is belonging to the

families of Aizoaceae, Amaranthaceae, Solanaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Capparidaceae,

Malvaceae, Poaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, Acanthaceae,


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Caricaceae, Lamiaceae, Commelinaceae, Astraceae, Menispermaceae, Meliaceae,

Megnoliaceae, Convoluvlaceae, Anacardiaceae and Cyperaceae (Table 1 & Plate 1-5).

Among the families the higher genus was recorded mainly to the Amaranthaceae (5 taxa),

Solanaceae (4 taxa), Cucurbitaceae (3 taxa), Acanthaceae (3 taxa) and Moraceae (3). The

largest number of species belongs to the genera is Solanum (3), Ficus (3) Amaranthus (3),

Andrographis (2) and Sida (2).

Table 1. Periodical Survey of wall floras grown on the walls & Towers of Sri Mayuranathar Temple,

Mayiladuthurai.

Sl .N

o.

Family with

Botanical

Name

Commen name Habit Voucher

number

Months

Sep Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb.

1.

Acanthaceae

Andrographis

echioides

(Nees)

Vettukaya sedi Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

04

2.

Andrographis

paniculata

(Nees)

Siriyanangai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

38

3.

Ruelia

prostrata.

(Linn)

Veedikaai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

24

4.

Aizoaceae

Mullugo

cereviana

(Linn)

Thiruakkothu Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

10

5.

Trianthema

portulacastrum

(Linn)

Saranai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

06

6.

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus

caudatus. L

Kozhikkondai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

42

7. Amaranthus

viridis (Linn) Kuppai kirai

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

02

8. Aerva lanata

(Juss) Sirukanpoolai

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

22

9. Gomphrena

globosa (Linn) Vadamalli

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

36

10. Amaranthus

spinosus (Linn) Mullukerai

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

39

11.

Apocynaceae

Catharanthas

roseus (L) G.

Don

Nithiyakalyani Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

18


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12.

Astraceae

Tagetes erecta

(Linn)

Samanthi Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

41

13.

Tridax

procumbens

(Linn)

Thathapoo sedi Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

23

14.

Bignoniaceae

Tecoma stans.

(Linn)

Punal poo Shrub AVCCWF-

01

15.

Capparidaceae

Cleome viscosa

(Linn)

Naai Kadugu Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

03

16.

Commelianceae

Commelina

benghalensis

(Linn)

Kanangozhai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

40

17.

Convolulaceae

Convolvulus

arvensis (Linn)

Elikkadhukkeerai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

34

18.

Cucurbitaceae

Coccinia

india.L

Koovai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

09

19.

Melothria

maderaspatana

(Cong)

Musumusukkai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

12

20. Memordica

dioica (Roxb) Midhipagal

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

35

21. Cyperaceae

Kyllinga

monocephala L

Pookkorai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

37

22. Cyperus

rotundus (Linn) Paaikoorai

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

26

23.

Euphorbiaceae

Phyllanthus

amarus (Linn)

Kezhanelli Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

19

24. Achlypha

indica (Linn) Kuppaimeni

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

05

25.

Lamiaceae

Ocimum canum

(sims)

Naaithulasi Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

20

26. Leucas aspera

(spreng) Thumbai

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

11

27.

Malvaceae

Sida cardifolia

(Linn)

Arivalmanaipoondu Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

28

28. Sida accuta

(Linn) Mookkuthi poo

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

32

29.

Moraceae

Ficus religiosa

(Linn)

Arasamaram Tree AVCCWF-

07


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30.

Ficus

glamorata

(Roxb)

Athi Tree AVCCWF-

14

31.

Ficus

benghalensis

(Linn)

Aalamaram Tree AVCCWF-

17

32.

Nyctaginaceae

Boarhaavia

diffusa (Linn)

Mukkarattai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

29

33.

Poaceae

Chloris barbata

(SW)

Kodaipillu Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

33

34. Panicum

rapens. (Linn) Sunai pillu

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

13

35. Cynodon

dactylon (Pers) Arugambillu

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

16

36.

Rubiaceae

Morinda

tinctoria

(Roxb)

Nuna Tree AVCCWF-

08

37.

Solanaceae

Solanum

trilobatum

(Linn)

Thoothuvalai Biennial

climbers

AVCCWF-

30

38. Solanum

toruvum (Linn) Sundakkaai

Perennial

shrub

AVCCWF-

31

39. Physalis

Maxima (Linn) Sodukkuthakkali

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

21

40. Solanum

nigrum (Linn) Manaththakkali

Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

25

41.

Sterculiaceae

Gauzuma

ulmifolia.L

Peimuni Tree AVCCWF-

15

42.

Violaceae

Hybanthus

enneaspermus.

L

Orridhazhthamarai Annual

herb

AVCCWF-

27

In the month of November to January Lower plants like Fungi (Agaricus bisporus and

Volveriella volvacea) and Brayophyte (Funaria) were grown frequently on the gaps of walls.

It may be due to the moisture content is high and temperature is low in the surrounding

atmosphere. It is one of the main reasons for these plants frequently grown on the walls. This

lower plants are cannot grown in the months of September, October and February also It may

be due to Temperature is high and the moisture content is low in the surrounding atmosphere.

The total number of vascular plants growing spontaneously on walls included 33 genera with

20 families. Among the 33 Genera, 42 species were recorded. Out of the 42 species, 36

species were Dicotyledons and remaining 6 species were Monocotyledons.


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Plate : 1 Plants grown on the walls and towers

Well grown Amaranthes caudatus

Well grown Cleome viscosa

Well grown Cleome viscosa and Amaranthes viridis

Well grown Cleome viscosa and Mullugo cereviana


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Well grown Boerhaavia diffusa

Mukkia madaraspatna Phyllanthus amarus

Ficus religiosa


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Mosses and Cassia occidentalis

Tridax procumbens and Chloris barbata

Gousuma tomentosa

Well grown Aerva lanata


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Hybanthes ennesiformis Andrographis echioides

Leucus aspera Leucus aspera, Acalypha

indica and Ficus glamorata


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Fully dead Andrographis echioides

Fully dead Cleome viscosa

Partially dead Amaranthes viridis

Partially dead Chloris barbata


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All the plants studied in the temple walls also present near by the surrounding areas of

the temple. This group comprises mainly annual, biennial or perennial herbs, small shrubs and

trees. These plants are observed in rock fissures or in close proximity to gardens and houses

where the soil layer is thicker. They are heliophilous or shade - tolerant, warm - loving

species, some of them requiring higher humidity.

Most of taxa recorded in the temple walls and towers of the temple are herbs than in

shrubs, climbers and woody plants. The specific conditions on the walls are also a reason for

the limited number of species that can survive and complete their life- cycle there. Morinda

tinctoria their appearance depends on the permanents supply of Diasporas from the

neighborhood. Seeds of phanerophytes are delivered by birds or by wind. Similarly, the

immediate neighborhood at parental specimens is due to the occurring herbaceous plants

growing, flowering and fruiting in will fissures, produce large amount of anemochorous seeds

(Boratynski et al., 2003 and Aparecida et al., 2006).

Factors affecting the flora of walls include aspect, construction, shading, moisture

content and the type of adjacent habitats, which have an important role in providing species to

colonies the walls. It is difficult to demonstrate how much influence each of these has and in

some cases difficult to actually measure the factors involved (Williams, 1988). The tendency

of vascular plants to be found only towards the top of the walls also appears to be universal.

The phenomenon is largely related to the preference of vascular plants for horizontal rather

than vertical surfaces and is directly related to the greater ability of horizontal surfaces to

retain soil and water. In particular, the top of the wall had an important effect upon the wall

flora by providing such horizontal surfaces and helping to retain water within the rooting

substrate (Darlington, 1981). Plants growing at the extreme base of a wall in temples were

ignored, since these would probably be rooted in the ground and therefore not truly rupestral.

Similary, wall tops with an obvious accumulation of soil were excluded from the survey.

They often have typical forms, dried or injured stems with intensive seed production and

vegetative propagation, able to occupy free areas and to grow in the conditions of scarce and

unequal soil moisture (Nedelcheva and Vasileva, 2009 & Osma et al., 2010).

The number of annual species is bigger at the top of the wall and on the vertical wall

surface and there are fissures have perennials, which are typical for the wall base and the

surrounding area. This is due to the favorable environmental conditions in the basal zone i.e.,

more humidity and nutrients are available there (Darlington, 1981). Moreover, physiological

limits of early plant development exist horizontal growth of radical of young plants prevents

many species from successful establishment and regular occurrence in horizontal fissures

(Segal, 1969 and Wajcikowska, 1988, 1992, 2000 & Singh., 2011a).The more or less flat top

a wall clearly receives more light and rain than the vertical sides and accumulates more debris

that leads to the formation of rudimentary soils. Fruits and seeds dropped or evacuated by

birds are much more likely to arrive on the top of a wall than on its sides. It seemed probable,

therefore, that certain species would tend to be found on the expose tops of wall, while shade

sowing plants and those not primarily dispersed by birds would be more at home on their

sides (Payne, 1989). The latter could be characterized as accidental species. They usually

reach only low covers on walls and indicate a strong limitation to wall environment and

competitive exclusion in a small- scale habitat (Duchoslav, 2002). The results show a high

level of specificity regarding the species diversity at each site. It is impossible to separate a

single group of species that is identical for all sites and especially for the walls. (Brandes,

1995 and Chhetri, 2008).


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Buildings and all types of walls are urban features represent a specific environment

(Narain, 2010). The colonization of plants on walls is favoured by the wall ages, the presence

of lime mortar, exposure to rain, etc., and such aspects occurred vertically. Most true wall

species are only found on vertical. Walls and as the angle of inclination decreases an ever

widening range of common species colonies (Gilbert, 1991). The wall habitat is different from

natural habitat and rocks, depending on many different properties related to wall structures.

Buildings contain binding materials, which structurally and chemically differ from the

original building materials. Usually most of them are cleaned repeatedly; thus, they basically

are temporary habitat. Walls are generally isolated, small, and their microclimate is more

affected by changes of climatic factors such as temperature, precipitation and irradiation than

that of rocks. Wall surfaces resemble each other and have a uniform slope and areas, so wall

flora is influenced by the nearby semi - natural vegetation (Duchoslav, 2002).

Plants growing on walls reach these habitats by wind (anemochorous), animals

(zoochorous), mostly by birds and by stolen fragments (autochorous) (Yarci and Ozcelic.,

2002) and grow there randomly, Deep - rooted plants can be destructive. Although their roots

are weak at the beginning of growth, they become stronger in time and cause widening of

cracks. Most of these plants absorb little water from the substrate, but absorb it from the air.

Although wall plants are often aesthetically appealing, the local municipalities occasionally

clean up the walls to prevent damage by the plants. It would be more preferable if the clean -

up was more selective by allowing for plant type and degree of damage. The ecological

differentiation and the contrasting topography of the habitats are the factors that may explain

the low number of species occurring both on the wall tops and the vertical surfaces

(Duchoslav., 2002.) According to Segal (1969), Woodell (1979) and Krigas et al (1999)

among plants found only on walls are inhabitants or rocky or stony places, their most similar

natural habitats. These plants are well adapted to soils with insufficient humus and mineral

substances, but rich in nitrates. Such aggressive plants reproduce quite successfully by viable

seeds and vegetative, thus being capable of invading open areas within a short time (Singh,

2010).

Among the study the tree species such as Morinda tinctoria, Ficus religiosa, F.

glamorata, and F. benghalensis were recorded. Trees negatively affect the structure of the

wall and are the main problem for the preservation of the wall. These species can be found in

the environmental landscape vegetation and they are moved by their Diasporas. This type of

species has characteristic elements of the flora of urban spaces, especially on sidewalls, walls

of buildings, etc., i.e. places directly affected by human activities, with the existence of a

minimal quantity of soil, lacking in humus and mineral substances, and rich in space around

the mineral pool this effect has been achieved as a result of trampling of the reaction of the

soil as a result of the mineral water.

The space around the pool is not regularly cleaned and is a constant source of

Diasporas. Nature has provided needs with a number of devices that help them to be

disseminated widely. The agencies that facilitate the dispersal of weed seeds far and wide are

water, wind and animals, including man. The have the remarkable capacity to germinate

under varied conditions, but vary characteristically. They are season bound and the peak

period of germination always takes place in certain seasons in regular succession year after

year. To avoid such a situation a wise step is to follow the principal prevention is better than

cure (Kaya and Curran, 2006).


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Generally there are two methods for the eradication of plants from monuments and

Temples. They are:

1. Physical method &

2. Chemical method.

1) Physical Method

In this method, the plants are controlled by uprooting them at their initial stages of

developments. The fully grown plants can be controlled by cutting them with suitable sharp

cutting instruments like Khukri, Sickle, knife etc. This method is not a permanent solution for

the control of plant growth in the monuments and historic buildings because plants like Peepal

tree, banyan tree, Morinda may regenerate with more vigour when they are cut. However it

may be a very effective method for the prevention of plant growth when applied during initial

stages of development of plants in the historic building and monuments (Sivagamasundari,

2011).

2) Chemical Method

In this method certain chemicals are applied which are able to kill the plants in a few

weeks of time. These chemicals usually called as herbicides effects the killings of plants in

two ways. In one case, these herbicides block the photosynthetic activities of the plants and

thus the plants are gradually killed in a couple of months. In another case, certain chemicals

used as herbicides destroy the cells and tissues of the plants thus resulting of the gradual

killing of the plants. Herbicides like Glyphosate (Glycin 41%), Paraquat, 2,4-D (Disodium

salt), Atrazine (Wettable powder) etc., when sprayed over the leaves of plants can kill the

plants by blocking the photosynthetic activities. 1% solution of sodium arsenate or arsenite in

water can destroy the cells and tissues of plant when injected in the stem of plants

(Deivarasan, 2013).After the plants are dead, it should be carefully removed by dismantling

certain portions of the monuments. After removal of plants the cracks and gaps should also be

repaired along with the repair of the dismantled portions so as to prohibit further growth of

plants. (Agrawal et al, 1995).

4. CONCLUSION

The study of wall flora provides a better understanding of the urban environment. At the

same time the investigation of those artificial habitats are of special importance in the

maintenance and preservation of archeological monuments. So, the present study shows the

dynamics of species diversity on the walls and towers of Sri Mayuranathar temple

Mayiladuthurai, Nagapattinam district of Tamil Nadu. Prevention is better than cure. Regular

care and maintenance can reduce the chances of plant growth on monuments. To prevent the

growth of plants on monuments and temples, the following preventive measures can be taken.

Regular cleaning of the monuments will ensure the removal of dead organic matter which is a

good source of nutrients for the growth of plants. Higher plants generally grow in the cracks

and cavities present on the temples. Therefore repair of such cracks and cavities at the earliest

will prevent higher plant growth.


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( Received 27 July 2015; accepted 12 August 2015 )

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