S. McKie - A Crisis in Faith. Roman State Religious Policy in the Third Century (2012)

8/19/2019 S. McKie - A Crisis in Faith. Roman State Religious Policy in the Third Century (2012)

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A Crisis in Faith: Roman State Religious Policy in

the Third Century

Dissertation submitted for MA (res) City of Rome

Setember !"#!

Stuart Mc$ie


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Contents

Introduction 1

Tradition and the Romans 4

Case Study 1 – Severus Alexander 13

Case Study 2 – Gallienus 22

Case Study 5 – Aurelian 3

Conclusions 4

!i"ures 43

#i$lio"ra%hy 4&


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Chater # % &ntroduction

In A' 24() the le"ions under the command o* a %rominent "eneral did +hat many $e*ore

them had done) and %roclaimed their leader as em%eror o* Rome, This man added to his name

that o* an illustrious and dei*ied em%eror) and announced himsel* as Tra-an 'ecius,1 !aced +ith the%ro$lems that $eset the em%ire at the $e"innin" o* his rei"n – $ar$arian invasions) economic

colla%se and natural disasters +ere all increasin"ly common in the middle decades o* the third

century – 'ecius issued a decree that +as com%letely di**erent to anythin" enacted $y a Roman

em%eror, .e ordered that all his su$-ects across the Roman em%ire must sacri*ice to the "ods *or

the +ell/$ein" o* the state, 0o s%eci*ic cult +as mentioned) and many o* the records sim%ly re*er to

ancestral "ods,2 This excluded the God o* the Christians) and the decree unleashed a %ersecution

that sa+ many Christians martyred *or re*usin" the sacri*ice, 'ecius seemin"ly intended to secure

his %osition $y *orcin" a lar"e/scale act o* devotion and loyalty) as +ell as *osterin" the %eace o*

the "ods in a time o* crisis,3 In doin" so he set u% traditional reli"ion as the marer o* Roman/ness)

and the structure throu"h +hich that state could) *or the *irst time) identi*y and %unish those +ho

re-ected this identity,4

The context o* the third century in +hich the %ersecution o* 'ecius *eatures has $een the

su$-ect o* scholarly de$ate *or many decades, The so/called third/century crisis has $een "reatly

discussed and dis%uted) and the terminolo"y has $een challen"ed re"ularly,5 hether +e use the

term crisis to descri$e the +hole %eriod) s%eci*ic %oints +ithin it) or not at all) +hat cannot $e

denied is that the Roman em%ire *aced challen"es un%aralleled in any %revious %art o* its history, &

ar +ith %eo%les alon" the *rontiers) es%ecially the German %eo%les and the ersians) +ere

almost constant *rom the 1(s) and civil +ars $et+een rival claimants to the throne +eaened

Romes a$ility to de*end itsel*, The need to %ay a lar"er army) and o*ten to $ri$e them into

su%%ortin" a cou%) %ut strain on the economy) +hich sa+ hu"e devaluation o* the coina"e alon"

+ith ram%ant in*lation, 0atural disasters +ere also common) es%ecially earthuaes and %la"ues)

and all o* this com$ined had a "reat e**ect on the morale o* the em%ire, Reli"ion +as used to mae

sense o* the crises) and used as $oth an excuse *or +hy the situation had $ecome so dire) as +ell

as a method to return Rome to its *ormer "lory,

Scholarshi% on the third century has o*ten *ocussed on the military and economic situation

1Rives 1(((6 142,

2otter 246 241/2,

37ane !ox 1(8&6 452/3,

4Rives 1(((6 153,

5Recently $y Stro$el 1((36 3,

&9anders 2126 12/3,

1


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in the em%ire) leavin" reli"ion to relative ne"lect,: Traditional narratives o* reli"ion in this %eriod

si% *rom the in*amous rei"n o* ;la"a$alus) +hich ended in 222) to the re*orms o* Aurelian in 2:4

+ith only $rie* mentions o* +hat occurred in the intervenin" 5 years,8 .istorians o* Roman reli"ion

have *ocussed a "reat deal o* attention on the %ersecution o* Christians in this %eriod) as +ell as

on the a%%arent dominance o* eastern/in*luenced sun +orshi%) creatin" an ima"e o* system that

+as intolerant) insecure and at the mercy o* *orei"n cults, The study o* the Roman sun "od has

$een %articularly susce%ti$le to these accusations) and there is a revie+ o* the literature on this

to%ic in the case study on Aurelian,

It is my contention that these are inaccurate ima"es) and that traditional Roman %olytheism

+as alive and +ell in the third century) remainin" true to its roots des%ite the turmoil o* the times,

Recent scholarshi% su%%orts this claim) as there is a +elcomed trend to+ards a more nuanced

readin" o* third century reli"ion) and an a$andonment o* the older narratives o* decline and

decadence,( The aim o* this dissertation +ill $e to examine the traditional as%ects o* state reli"ious

%olicy in the third century) throu"h case studies o* three em%erors6 namely Severus Alexander)

Gallienus and Aurelian, Throu"h an examination o* the evidence *or the %olicies o* these three) it

+ill $e %ossi$le to sho+ ho+ the traditional reli"ion o* Rome +as used to -usti*y and secure the rule

o* an em%eror $y connectin" him to Romes "olden %ast, These three have $een chosen *or a

variety o* reasons, artly they have $een selected $ecause they rei"ned *or com%aratively lon"

times, In a century +hen em%erors chan"ed +ith startlin" *reuency) the 13 and 15 year rei"ns o*

Severus Alexander and Gallienus are im%ressive, 24?, The economic situation is dealt +ith $y Cra+*ord

>1(:5? and the military $y Southern and 'ixon >1((&?,

8This is true even o* the most recent edition o* the Cambridge Ancient History volume 12) +ith Garth

!o+dens cha%ter on reli"ion main" very *e+ mentions o* the %eriod *rom the end o* the Severans to

Aurelian) des%ite $ein" a volume s%eci*ically *ocussed on the third century >!o+den 25?,

(!or exam%le in the +or o* #errens >24?) .i-mans >1((&a) 1((&$ and 2(? and 9anders >212?,

2


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$io"ra%hies is shay to say the least, Syme called the $io"ra%hy o* Severus Alexander almost total

*iction) and the other lives should $e used +ith extreme caution) and +here %ossi$le only +ith

su%%ortin" evidence *rom other sources,1 To *ill in the "a%s in the literary sources it had $een

necessary to %ut "reater reliance on the archaeolo"ical evidence availa$le *rom the %eriod)

es%ecially e%i"ra%hic and numismatic materials, ith re"ards to reli"ious %olicy) coina"e %rovides

a *antastic +indo+ onto the +ays in +hich the im%erial "overnment %ro-ected ima"es o* itsel* out

into the em%ire, Ima"es on coins are al+ays sym$olic o* the state in some +ay) and +hether

chosen $y the em%eror himsel* or some lo+er o**icial they still re%resent +hat +as im%ortant to the

re"ime,11 'e%ictions o* "ods and descri%tions o* their role +ithin the state reli"ion +ere common on

Roman coins throu"hout the im%erial %eriod) and remained so in the third century) and this cou%led

+ith the *act that they %rovide continuous chronolo"ical and "eo"ra%hical covera"e maes them a

valua$le resource in the study o* Roman reli"ion,12 Alon" +ith coina"e) there is the evidence

inscri$ed on stone) *or exam%le the records o* the Arval #rethren that +ill $e discussed in the case

study o* Severus Alexander) and also manuscri%t and %a%yrus documents lie the codex/calendar

o* 354 and the Feriale Duranum, #uilt structures such as tem%les are also crucial %ieces o*

evidence) althou"h o+in" to the economic situation in the Roman em%ire o* the third century) the

state +as not a$le to com%lete $uildin" %ro"rammes on the monumental scale o* %revious times,

There +as also a su%era$undance o* existin" tem%les) meanin" that there +as little need *or ne+

$uilds,13 0evertheless) there are some tem%le $uildin"s that are im%ortant to this study) es%ecially

Aurelians ne+ tem%le o* Sol on the Cam%us 9artius,

There is a +ealth o* evidence *or %rivate reli"ion *rom the third century) as *rom other%eriods in Roman history) in the *orm o* household shrines and altars) %ersonal dedications and

*unerary monuments, .o+ever) there is a distinction $et+een %rivate and %u$lic reli"ion) in terms

o* the sources o* *undin" and the %osition o* the %eo%le +ho carried out the rituals, !or reasons o*

s%ace and clarity) this dissertation +ill *ocus entirely on the cults) *estivals and $uildin"s +hich have

clear state s%onsorshi%) and +ill exclude %rivate +orshi%,

The com$ination o* various in*ormation sources is enou"h to allo+ us to %iece to"ether

Roman im%erial reli"ious %olicy under the em%erors I have selected) and +hat I aim to sho+ is that

traditional "ods and %ractices remained at the heart o* %u$lic reli"ion durin" the third century,

1Syme 1(:16 111,

11.o+"e"o 1((56 43) :,

12ibid 6 &2,

137ie$eschuet@ 26 (85/&,

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Chater ! % Tradition and the Romans

At the outset) it is +orth examinin" exactly +hat +e mean $y tradition) and +hat the

Romans themselves thou"ht a$out it, This cha%ter +ill ex%lore the Roman attitude to their

traditional reli"ion) ho+ its $orders +ere %oliced and the uses to +hich it could $e %ut in +idersocial and %olitical contexts, The %erce%tions and uses o* tradition in the third century +ere *irmly

rooted in the actions o* the %recedin" centuries o* Roman history) and this cha%ter +ill aim to sho+

the %redecessors o* the third century %olicies that +ill $e discussed in the case studies later,

The 'ods of Rome

Roman state reli"ion +as as old as Rome itsel*) havin" its ori"ins in the mythical *oundin"

o* the city and the actions o* Romulus) 0uma and the ;truscan in"s, The tem%le o* u%iter

7ivy 1,1(,2?,

1&!estivals in honour o* Ceres) "oddess o* a"riculture and harvests >


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lon"er an issue, u%iter rea%%ears on the coina"e o* 0ero 18 and many su$seuent em%erors used

u%iter as a divine s%onsor,1( The ulio/Claudians had not $een +ithout their "ods) as the "rand

tem%les o* A%ollo alatinus) 9ars ltor) and =enus =ictrix attest, =enus and A%ollo in %articular

+ould retain their associations +ith Au"ustus throu"hout the later centuries o* Roman history) and

+ould $e used $y some em%erors to connect themselves to him) as +e +ill see +ith Gallienus in

cha%ter *our, The "od o* +ar) 9ars) sym$olised the military mi"ht o* Rome and his ima"e +as

%redominantly used on coina"e +hen the su%%ort o* the army needed to $e ensured, This +ill $e

seen later +ith all three em%erors I +ill $e usin" as case studies,

Aside *rom =enus) other *emale deities +ere honoured $y the state) +ith =esta occu%yin" a

%rominent %osition, .er tem%le in the !orum "uarded the sacred hearth) and her vir"inal

%riestesses sym$olised the virtue and *ertility o* the %eo%le o* Rome, Another "oddess) udicitia)

had $een +orshi%%ed *or centuries $e*ore Au"ustus) and under the em%ire +ould sho+ the

im%erial household as a source o* ins%iration *or virtue and morality,2

The roles o* many "ods chan"ed over time) de%endin" on the +hims o* the %eo%le or the

conscious %olicies o* the em%erors and "overnment, Saturn and 0e%tune) +hile clearly "ods in

their o+n ri"ht +ith im%ortant individual mytholo"ies and attri$utes) +ere over time reduced to

names on %o%ular *estivals at various times in the year,21 In these contexts the "ods themselves

too a $ac seat) +ith the *estive as%ect o* cele$ratin" +ith *riends and *amily $ein" the central

as%ect o* the occasions, The %eo%le o* the em%ire evidently had their *avourite cele$rations) and it

is +orth remindin" ourselves that Roman state reli"ion +as im%ortant to %eo%le $eyond the narro+

con*ines o* the im%erial household and senatorial aristocracy,Sol) the Roman sun "od) has occu%ied a much de$ated %lace +ithin the %antheon o* Rome,

;arlier scholarshi% charted a develo%ment +here$y a small/scale indi"enous deity +as re%laced

$y an a""ressive *orei"n rival +ho +ould eventually $ecome the uncontested head o* Roman

reli"ion,22 Aurelians role is %aramount in the *ortune o* this "od) and +ill $e discussed in detail in

case study three, At this %oint it +ill su**ice to dra+ on the +or o* .i-mans) +ho sho+s

conclusively that the icono"ra%hy o* Sol never chan"ed throu"h all o* Roman history) des%ite his

increasin"ly %rominent role in im%erial %ro%a"anda,23 This su""ests that the Sol o* the later im%erial

%eriod +as the same traditional deity that had $een +orshi%%ed in Rome since the early days o*the re%u$lic) and drastically chan"es our vie+ o* late/third and early/*ourth century %a"anism,

As +ell as deities in the traditional sense) Roman state reli"ion %aid homa"e to dei*ied

18!ears 1(816 :,

1(!ears 1(::6 1(4/:,

27an"lands 2&6 3&,

21!in) .oey and Snyder 1(46 1&(/:,

22This vie+ is $est summed u% in .als$er"e 1(:2,

23.i-mans 2(6 &21,

5


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em%erors) and +orshi%%ed them +ith tem%les) *estivals an %riesthoods much lie any other "od,

0ot all divi had their o+n individual tem%les and %riesthoods) +ith some *amily mem$ers $ein" %ut

to"ether) *or exam%le Antoninus ius and his +i*e !austina) +ho shared a tem%le in the !orum,

The im%ortance o* individual divi rarely lasted lon"er than their associated dynasty) as the

immediate %ast +as more relevant than the more remote,24 This is untrue o* %aradi"ms lie

Au"ustus or Tra-an) +ho +ere still held u% as model em%erors lon" a*ter the death o* their

relatives) as +e shall see in the case studies later, Scholars have su""ested that the dei*ication o*

em%erors +as a didactic dis%lay on the %art o* the senatorial aristocracy) +hich +as intended to

sho+ the next em%eror +hat a+aited those +ho con*ormed to the senates ima"e o* an ideal

ruler,25 The im%erial cult is im%ortant in the develo%ment o* Roman state reli"ion) as it +as the chie*

source o* innovation throu"hout the im%erial %eriod) in the addition o* ne+ deities and the $uildin"

o* ne+ tem%les,2& In the third century) Severus Alexander +as the last em%eror to receive a

dedicated %riesthood) and a*ter his death Divus +as a standard im%erial title, ;ven still) the

im%erial cult clearly e%t its si"ni*icance) as the divi coina"e o* 'ecius demonstrates, This em%eror

minted a series o* coina"e de%ictin" 11 divi *rom a variety o* dynasties) and throu"h this action

lined himsel* to his divine %redecessors,2:

Religio ersus Superstito

It +as not sim%ly a matter o* +hich "ods +ere +orshi%%ed that constituted traditional

reli"ion in the minds o* the Romans, 0e+ "ods could $e introduced) *or exam%le Aescula%ius) +ho

+as $rou"ht to Rome on the advice o* an oracle a*ter a %la"ue in the 2(s #C,28

hat +as moreim%ortant +as the manner in +hich reli"ion +as carried out) and the intended outcome o* reli"ious

action, In the +ritin"s o* Cicero +e "et the earliest exam%les o* se%aratin" out "ood reli"ious

%ractice *rom $ad) +ith the em%loyment o* the 7atin terms religio and superstitio.2( Good reli"ion

+as that +hich +as done +ith the $est interests o* the state or community in mind, #y ensurin"

that the "ods +ere honoured correctly) the Romans +ould secure their success at home and

a$road) in %eace and +ar, ro%ertius con*ident statement that D+e stand a stron" nation as much

throu"h pietas as throu"h the s+ordE3 re*lects this) and sho+s ho+ closely the survival o* the state

+as lined to reli"ion, The *avour o* the "ods +as not secured $y the satis*actory adherence todemands on morality) $ut $y the exact %er*ormance o* rituals,31 This is true *rom the earliest days o*

24ardman 1(826 8&,

25Gradel 226 34:/(,

2eard) 0orth and rice 1((86 253,

2:RIC ::/(&,

287ivy 1,4:) 11,

2(Cicero, De Nat. Deo. 2,28,:/2,

3Elegies 3,22,21/2,317ie$eschuet@ 1(:(6 &/1,

&


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Rome) and ritual action) rather than %ersonal $elie* or emotional commitment) +as the %rimary

em%hasis o* the system,32 The im%ortance o* ritual made it necessary to %reserve the exact

%rayers) movements and settin"s *rom "eneration to "eneration) main" them incredi$ly re%etitive)

and this re%etitive nature means that very *e+ descri%tions survive, The only *ull descri%tion o* a

Roman sacri*ice to survive at all is *ound in the +or o* a Gree) 'ionysius o* .alicarnassus) +ho

+as a *orei"ner +ritin" *or a non/Roman audience,33 The im%lication here is that the %rocess +as

so u$iuitous that Romans sa+ no need to comment u%on it) and it +as only outsiders +ho

reuired a descri%tion, e no+ that these sacri*icial rituals and rites needed to $e %er*ormed to

an exact standard) and there +ere dire conseuences i* mistaes +ere made and le*t

unaddressed, Should the rite $e incorrectly carried out) it +ould need to $e re%eated until done

%er*ectly) other+ise the "ods +ould "o una%%eased,34 It *ollo+s then) that i* the Roman state o+ed

its survival and success to correct reli"ious conduct) then incorrect or illicit activity +ould endan"er

it,

In the late re%u$lic and early em%ire) $ad reli"ion +as anythin" done *or the "ood o* the

individual) +ith no re"ard *or its im%act on +ider society, This could include the %etitionin" o* the

traditional "ods) i* they +ere called u%on *or sel*ish or harm*ul reasons)35 ho+ever) the ma-ority o*

accusations o* superstitio came directed to+ards %eo%le or activities %erceived as non/Roman,

This included the rituals and %ractices o* e+s) 'ruids and Germans)3& as +ell as ma"ic and

%ro%hecy) +hich +ere seen as $ein" in*luenced $y ;"y%tians or other eastern %eo%les,3: These

cults +ere tar"eted over others +ith *orei"n ori"ins) *or exam%le) 9a"na 9ater and Aescula%ius)

$ecause there +as a %olitical threat inherent in them, 9a"na 9ater and Aescula%ius had $een$rou"ht to Rome on the advice o* oracles at times o* stri*e) and +ere there*ore tolerated $ecause

o* their a$ility to %rotect the em%ire, 0o such situation +as a%%arent *or udaism) 'ruidism or the

reli"ion o* the Germanic %eo%les) +ho +ere in no +ay connected to the city o* Rome) nor its

history) and re%resented the $elie*s o* enemies o* Rome, There +as a -usti*ia$le *ear o* reli"ious

action enacted $y enemies) and the %o+er that it could turn a"ainst the Romans,38

Astrolo"y) ma"ic) and %ro%hecy $ecame more and more %roscri$ed as the im%erial %eriod

%ro"ressed $ecause o* the %erceived a$ility *or them to %redict and in*luence the health and +ell/

320orth 1(:&6 1,

33'ion, .al, :,:2,15/8,

34lin, N.H. 28,1/11B Cic,de.H.R 23,

35Cic, Pro Cluentio. &8,1(4,

3& e+s – Cicero Pro Flacco &:B 'ruids – Tac, Hist. 4,54 >here the 'ruids connect the $urnin" o* the Tem%le

o* u%iter Ca%itolinus to the loss o* Roman su%remacy) sho+in" once a"ain the intimate connection

$et+een Roman %iety and success?B Germans – Tac, Hist , 4,&1,

3:9artin 246 133,

38!or exam%le .anni$als oath to destroy Rome) re%orted in 7ivy 21,1,4

:


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$ein" o* the em%eror) on +hom the *ate o* the +hole Roman system came to rely, 3( Tacitus relates

several moments +here accusations o* usin" ma"ic a"ainst the em%eror and his consort are used

to discredit mem$ers o* the im%erial household)4 and it is tellin" that) des%ite their existence and

use *or almost the entire s%an o* Greco/Roman history) the only ex%licit mention o* curse ta$lets in

any survivin" literary source is +hen some are *ound in the house o* Germanicus a*ter his death,41

They +ere evidently only deemed im%ortant enou"h to mention +hen their use directly im%acted

u%on a close relation o* the em%eror,

The %osition o* the em%eror and his *amily in the Roman reli"ious system +ill $e discussed

in more detail later) so *or no+ it +ill su**ice to say that a*ter Au"ustus) much o* Roman state

reli"ion came to involve securin" divine %rotection *or the em%eror, This +as the case *or the Arval

#rethren) a %riesthood that +as ori"inally a"ricultural in outloo) $ut +hich too u% annual

sacri*ices to the sa*ety o* the em%eror a*ter the re*orms o* Au"ustus,42 ith state reli"ion so $ound

u% +ith the security o* the em%eror) ma"ical or %ro%hetic rituals that could %otentially harm him

$ecame a serious re-ection o* Roman values and normal %ractice) hence the ne"ative %ortrayal in

literary sources,

Religio, superstitio and Christianity

Alon"side e+s) 'ruids and the other "rou%s o* *orei"n reli"ious "rou%s $randed as

superstitiones) the Romans also %laced Christians) and as the church "re+ in stren"th and

num$ers it +ould $ecome the *oremost amon" them, !rom the earliest re*erences to the *aith in

Roman sources +e "et a ne"ative im%ression) as Suetonius) Tacitus and liny descri$e it asmale*icent) in*ectious and shame*ul,43

Their o$-ection to Christianity +as t+o*old,


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Rome and udaism) an action unthina$le to the traditional Roman mind,

This connects to the second o* the t+o o$-ections to Christianity *rom traditional Roman

reli"ion6 their re*usal to acno+led"e the ancient "ods o* Rome or to %artici%ate in %u$lic sacri*ices,

The *amous letters $et+een liny the Foun"er and Tra-an concernin" the %rosecution and

execution o* Christians is our earliest source *or this clash $et+een the Roman "overnment and

the o$stinate Christian re*usal to sacri*ice,48 At this early sta"e) there is a clear reluctance on the

%art o* the "overnment to actively see out Christians and *orce them to either sacri*ice or $e

executed) ho+ever their seemin"ly atheistic re-ection o* Roman reli"ion and es%ecially their non/

%artici%ation in rituals desi"ned to sa*e"uard the em%eror – and $y extension the +hole Roman

+orld – +as already +orryin", hen assessin" the reli"ious $elie*s o* those +ho +ere accused o*

$ein" Christians) liny had them o**er +ine and incense at a statue o* Tra-an) as this +as the

clearest +ay they could sho+ their commitment to Rome and its traditions, This use o* the im%erial

cult to sho+ loyalty +ould *eature heavily in 'ecius and =alerians %ersecutions in the third century)

as many %rovincial "overnors o+ed their %osition to the em%eror, #y *orcin" Christians to sacri*ice

to the em%eror they not only "au"ed the %iety o* the accused $ut also sho+ed their o+n loyalty to

the man +ho "ave them their %osition,4(

As $rie*ly mentioned a$ove) much o* Roman state reli"ion a*ter Au"ustus +as re*ocussed

around the %erson o* the em%eror) his *amily and divine ancestors, As Pontife !aimus the

em%eror +as the o**icial head o* Roman reli"ion)5 and +ith an ever/"ro+in" num$er o* dei*ied

%redecessors the im%erial household +as connected more and more to the divine +orld, The

em%erors %osition as the paterfamilias o* the Roman state household meant that sacri*icesensurin" his security and success ensured that o* the state as a +hole,51 To re*use to tae %art in

these sacri*ices then) +as not only to deny the traditions o* Rome $ut to actively %ut the survival o*

the state in dan"er,


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them as activities no Christian could %er*orm, I* +e try to see this *rom the Roman %oint o* vie+) +e

can a%%reciate +hy Christians +ere la$elled as superstitiones) as this do""ed concern *or their

o+n individual salvation *le+ in the *ace o* centuries o* reli"ious tradition that u%held reli"ious

action *or the collective "ood o* the community as the ultimate dis%lay o* religio.

Scaegoats and crises

#y the third century) the un*ortunate com$ination o* the increase in the num$ers o*

Christians and the series o* terri$le disasters that $eset the Roman em%ire made them attractive

sca%e"oats *or the em%ires *ailin"s, .o+ever) they +ere not the *irst "rou% on +hom the Roman

%eo%le had %inned $lame *or catastro%hes) and there +as a lon" history o* reli"ious %ersecution at

times o* crisis, As +e have seen) the success o* the state in %eace and +ar +as attri$uted to the

correct honourin" o* the "ods, It *ollo+s then) that military de*eat) %la"ue) *amine and other

disasters +ould $e the result o* some a**ront to the "ods +hich had lead to divine an"er and

%unishment, #y %er*ormin" %uri*ication rituals54 or ex%ellin" minority reli"ious "rou%s) the Romans

sou"ht to %lacate the "ods) and re/esta$lish "ood relations +ith the divine, Throu"hout the im%erial

%eriod) various "rou%s includin" e+s) %hiloso%hers and Isis/+orshi%%ers +ere all ex%elled *rom

Rome at times o* civil stri*e in an attem%t to ensure the %urity o* the city as the centre o* state

reli"ion,55 The decisions made $y em%erors in the third century to insti"ate %ersecutions o*

Christians should $e seen +ith this history in mind, Althou"h the Christian %ersecutions +ere

uniue in the ca%ital %unishment meted out) they should still $e vie+ed +ithin the context o*

traditional Roman res%onses to crisis, e no+ that Christians +ere $lamed *or the disasters thatoccurred in the em%ire *rom a series o* Christian res%onses to the accusations, !rom Tertullian)

Arno$ius and Au"ustine o* .i%%o +e see that natural disasters) military de*eats and %oor harvests

+ere attri$uted to the irreli"ious $ehaviour o* Christians,5& The standard res%onse seems to $e to

%oint out that there +ere %lenty o* calamities $e*ore the $irth o* Christ) $ut the +ide chronolo"ical

s%read o* the Christian +riters de*endin" themselves in this +ay seems to su""est that their

ar"ument *ell on dea* ears, The reli"ious survival o* Rome mattered more than the history lessons

the Christians attem%ted to "ive,

1((&6 818/(? su""ests is a retro-ection o* im%erial %eriod %reoccu%ations +ith

ensurin" stron" $oundaries o* acce%ta$le reli"ion.

55 e+s ex%elled $y Claudius >Suet, Claud. 25,4? and Ti$erius >Suet, #ib. 3&,1?) hiloso%hers $y 'omitian

>Suet, Dom. 1,3? and Isis/+orshi%%ers $y Ti$erius >Suet, #ib. 3&,1?,

5&Tert, Ap. 4B Arno$ius Against Heat$ens 1,4/5B Au"ustine CD. 2,3,

5:Gordon 1((6 215/&,

1


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%hysical centre o* reli"ion +as lessened and detached) to the %oint +here Rome could $e

+orshi%%ed in the city itsel*, .adrians monumental tem%le o* =enus and Rome $et+een the !orum

and Colosseum im%orted a cult that had $een %resent in the Gree east *or centuries) $ut had

never $een +orshi%%ed in Italy,58 It is evidence o* the dislocation o* Roman %o+er a+ay *rom the

"eo"ra%hical location o* the city and into a much more a$stracted *orm,5( The idea o* Rome +as no

lon"er strictly limited to the %hysical ur$an area on the $ans o* the Ti$er) as it had $een in the

re%u$lic and early %rinci%ate)& $ut +as ex%anded out to the *rontiers) and the limits o* Roman

%o+er o* earth6 i* they even existed,&1 It +as %ersoni*ied in the "oddess Roma Aeterna) and also in

the %erson o* the em%eror) +ho em$odied the %olitical and military %o+er o* Rome) and its reli"ious

%edi"ree throu"h his dei*ied %redecessors, The *ocus o* state reli"ion +as moved onto the

em%eror) and althou"h the Ca%itoline tem%les remained central to the ritual %ractices o* Roman

reli"ion) their %ur%ose shi*ted onto securin" the sa*ety and success o* the em%eror) rather than a

sim%le honourin" o* the "ods $y the senate and %eo%le,

Alon"side this comes the increase in the im%ortance o* the em%eror mentioned earlier)

%uttin" a "reat amount o* %ressure on his shoulders to ensure the *avour o* the "ods, In the "ood

times) em%erors could rea% "reat %ro%a"anda re+ards *rom this situation) *or exam%le Tra-an)

+hose successes allo+ed him to $e %roclaimed as under the s%ecial %rotection o* u%iter) &2 and

claim his rei"n as a "olden a"e o* reli"ious virtue,&3 .o+ever) +hen times +ere hard and the

em%ire +as threatened) it could o*ten $e seen as do+n to a *ailin" on the em%erors %art to secure

the *avour o* the "ods and lead to "rum$lin"s a$out +hether they +ere the ri"ht man to rule,&4 A

%oor ruler could *orm -ust as attractive a sca%e"oat on +hom to $lame a crisis as a minority "rou%)and as a result) em%erors made conscious e**orts to dis%lay their traditional %iety and connections

to the "ods, This is somethin" I +ill $e discussin" in "reat detail in the comin" cha%ters,

This cha%ter has taen in a vast s+athe o* Roman reli"ious action) *rom ancient and

traditional sacri*ices to u%iter on the Ca%itoline) throu"h to curse ta$lets and Christianity, The

sheer variety o* +ays in +hich %eo%le could communicate +ith the "ods is sta""erin" to us) and

589ellor 1(:56 14,

5(urcell 26 41&,

& The s%eech that 7ivy >5,52? %uts into the mouth o* Camillus a*ter the Gallic Sac in 3( #C sho+s -ust

ho+ crucial the city) and in %articular the Ca%itoline and !orum) +as to the conce%tion o* Roman reli"ion

u% to the *irst century A',

&1 u%iters +ords in the Aeneid come to mind6 DTo these I set no $ounds) either in s%ace or timeB unlimited

%o+er I "ive to themE > Aen. 1,2:8/(?,

&2RIC 24(,

&3'imitriev 246 215/&,

&49ac9ullen 1(:&6 3,

11


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the relationshi%s $et+een them continue to $e *ruit*ul *ields o* discussion *or scholars,

Traditionalism as a *eature o* Roman reli"ion dominates the o**icial cults o* the state) and %ervades

almost all %olicies o* em%erors *rom Au"ustus on+ards, It +as throu"h dedication to u%iter) 9ars)

=enus and all the rest that the em%erors connected themselves to the "lories o* Romes %ast) and

ensured their o+n successes throu"h divine aid, The $orders o* traditional reli"ion +ere en*orced

$y the use o* the %e-orative term superstitio to denote any %erson) ritual or $elie* thou"ht to $e un/

Roman, Into this cate"ory +ent excessive or maliciously/intended devotions to traditional deities)

ma"ical rites includin" astrolo"y and cursin") as +ell as *orei"n "rou%s such as e+s and 'ruids,

Christians *ell outside the $oundaries due to their re-ection o* the traditions o* udaism and o*

Rome) as +ell as their tenacious re*usal to en"a"e in sacri*ices desi"ned to sa*e"uard the em%ire,

!or that +as the main %ur%ose o* the traditional reli"ion o* Rome6 to %lacate the an"er o* the "ods

and secure their su%%ort *or *uture ventures, hen thin"s +ent +ron" it +as natural to assume that

the "ods had not $een a%%eased in the correct manner) and that some *orm o* im%iety +as to

$lame, This led to %ersecutions o* Christians and may have $een a contri$utin" *actor in the uic

turnover o* em%erors in the mid/third century, In the *ollo+in" case studies +e +ill see ho+ three

di**erent em%erors used traditionalism in their o+n reli"ious %olicies) and the +ays in +hich this

chan"ed over the course o* the %eriod,

12


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Case Study # % Seerus Aleander: the *ast Dynast

The Severan dynasty had come to %o+er a*ter Se%timius Severus victory in the civil +ar o*

A' 1(3, Althou"h Se%timius) Caracalla and Geta are all interestin" characters +hose rei"ns are

im%ortant in the history o* late/secondearly/third century Rome) it is +ith the latter em%erors o* thedynasty that +e are concerned here, Severus Alexander and es%ecially his %redecessor

;la"a$alus are in*amous names +ithin the lists o* rulers o* Rome, #oth +ere only in their mid/

teens +hen %roclaimed em%eror) and $oth +ere murdered at youn" a"es, Reli"ion +as an

im%ortant *actor in the *ates o* the t+o youn" rulers) and has $een instrumental in de*inin" their

re%utation in the centuries since their deaths, Althou"h the %rimary su$-ect o* this case study is

Severus Alexander) it is im%ossi$le to consider his reli"ious %olicy +ithout *irst discussin"

;la"a$alus, The dramatic and +ell/no+n events o* the youn" Syrians time in Rome led to his

do+n*all) and a conscious reaction *rom his successor, As their actions are so closely related it is

necessary to *irst s%end a little time outlinin" the reli"ious %olicies o* ;la"a$alus,

The case of +lagabalus

The Syrian city o* ;mesa had $een the home o* the "od ;la"a$al since the *irst century

A',&5 orshi%%ed in the *orm o* a $lac stone o*ten de%icted +ith an ea"le) the "od *its into the

Anatolian and north/Syrian cate"ory o* storm or mountain "ods +ho +ere o*ten liened to

Heusu%iter,&& There are many variants o* s%ellin" o* the "ods name in literature) inscri%tions and

coins – he is variously called ;la"a$al) .ela"a$alus) Aela"a$alus and .elaia"a$alos amon"

others – $ut to avoid as much con*usion as %ossi$le I +ill re*er to the "od as ;la"a$al and the

em%eror as ;la"a$alus,


16/52

house the em%erors %atron "od must have $e"un in earnest on the alatine,:


17/52

they attem%ted to reassure the %u$lic that the im%erial *amily +as as devoted to traditional reli"ion

as ever,:& hen it $ecame clear that there +as no savin" the youn" em%eror *rom the *ury o* the

Roman %eo%le) they ensured the survival o* the dynasty $y %romotin" ulia 9amaeas son

Alexander to Caesar) and havin" him ado%ted $y ;la"a$alus,:: hile in the %osition o* Caesar)

Alexander issued coins de%ictin" sacri*icial im%lements and $earin" the le"end I;TAS AG,:8

These can $e seen in a similar vein to the coins issued $y his mother and "randmother discussed

a$ove) and an attem%t to set him u% as cons%icuously di**erent to the em%eror, .o+ever) it +as not

until ;la"a$alus had $een dis%atched that the dama"e control could *ully commence,

The reaction against +lagabalus

As soon as ;la"a$alus +as dead) Alexander and the im%erial +omen re%ealed and

corrected all o* the +orst elements o* ;la"a$alus rei"n, In "overnment) the un+orthy men +ho had

$een elevated to %ositions o* %o+er +ere removed) and re%laced $y $etter men such as l%ian

and Cassius 'io,:( Senators such as these had $een youn" men under 9arcus Aurelius) and a*ter

the in*amy o* the rei"ns o* Commodus) Caracalla and ;la"a$alus there no+ seemed an

o%%ortunity to reca%ture the $lessed %rime o* the Antonines) +ith their o+n a"e and +isdom "ivin"

advice in the runnin" o* the state,8 The im%erial +omen +ere care*ul to maintain senatorial

acce%tance o* the ne+ $oy/em%eror) *ormin" a council o* hand/%iced senators +ho +ere

consulted on %olicy,

A+ay *rom %olitics) the $lac stone o* ;la"a$al +as sent $ac to ;mesa)81 and the tem%le

that had $een $uilt to house it on the alatine +as rededicated to u%iter ltor6 the Aven"er,82

Thetraditional "ods o* Rome +ere $ac in *orce) and the coina"e o* Severus Alexander de%icted

u%iter) 9ars) Romulus and Sol)83 as +ell as %ersoni*ications lie ax) Aeuitas) ietas and

7i$ertas,84 7e"ends on the coins %roclaimed 9ars and u%iter as =7Tunder ;la"a$alus in RIC ?6 uno – RIC 253B =esta – RIC 2:&B ietas – RIC 2&4B

udicitia – 2&8,

::Cassius 'io 8,1:/18,

:8RIC 3) 382,

:('io 8,1/2,

8Syme 1(:16 1&/1,

81'io :(,21,2,

82This is cele$rated on coins – RIC 412) 413 and 14&,

83u%iter RIC 14/&B 9ars RIC :1/5B Romulus RIC 85/&B Sol RIC 111/2,

84ax RIC 1&4/8B Aeuitas RIC &3/4B ietas RIC 1:/1B 7i$ertas RIC 1/12,85RIC 558 >*i"ure 2?,

15


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the army) +ith coin issues sho+in" the fides and pietas o* the army and soldiers) and many

re%resentations o* 9ars,8& There are also inscri%tions *rom this %eriod ex%ressin" a resur"ence in

the %o%ularity o* =esta) throu"h rene+ed em%hasis on the virtue o* =estals as a sym%tom o* the

+el*are o* the state,8: This may have $een a reaction to the outra"es ;la"a$alus committed

re"ardin" this cult) and the su$seuent restoration o* the tem%le o* =esta and its sacred o$-ects $y

Severus Alexander ,88

Ima"es o* the em%eror sacri*icin" in the traditional manner and the use o* the le"end

I;TAS A=G +ere also common) sho+in" the active %artici%ation o* Several Alexander in the

ancient rituals that %reserved the state and ensured its success,8( Almost all o* these ima"es and

le"ends had $een used $e*ore $y %revious em%erors) to the %oint +here 9attin"ly and Sydenham

could descri$e the overall themes as re"ular and conventional,( This in itsel* is note+orthy) as

there had $een nothin" conventional a$out ;la"a$alus coins sho+in" his Syrian deity and all the

stran"e ceremonies than +ent +ith it,(1 The o$vious and cons%icuous return to the icono"ra%hic

%ro"rammes o* %ast em%erors +as an attem%t to assure %eo%le that it +as $usiness as usual at

the to% o* "overnment) and that everythin" had returned to normal, Alexander also issued

memorial coins o* Caracalla) connectin" himsel* +ith the dei*ied son o* Se%timus Severus) there$y

omittin" ;la"a$alus) +hose memory had already $een erased $y a senatorial damnatio memoriae%

*rom the dynastic *amily tree,(2

The extend to +hich ;la"a$alus had disseminated the +orshi% o* his "od throu"hout the

em%ire is unno+n) as the evidence is incredi$ly scarce, I have mentioned a$ove the *e+ cities

that ado%ted the cult outside Rome) and their %osition on the route *rom ;mesa to the ca%italseems to su""est that there +as no em%ire/+ide %olicy o* introducin" the +orshi% o* ;la"a$al,(3

There is no mention o* the "od in either the records o* the Arval #rethren or the Feriale Duranum)

and these are the t+o $est sources +e have *or %u$lic ritual durin" the rei"n o* Severus Alexander,

Public ritual under Seerus Aleander

e are incredi$ly *ortunate to have t+o *antastic sources *or %u$lic reli"ion under the last

Severan) in the *orm o* the records o* the Arval #rethren and the %a%yrus calendar *rom the military

to+n o* 'ura ;uro%os in Syria, These sources "ive us a detailed %icture o* the "ods +orshi%%ed $y

8&!I';SI;TAS ;K;RCIT=S9I7IT=9 – RIC 138) 13() 1:1B 9ars – &) :) 21/5) 3&/: etc,

8:CI& &,2134) &,32414,

880oc 1(36 25:,

8(;m%eror sacri*icin" RIC 4() 5) 54) &8/:) 81) 2:3B I;TAS A=G RIC 1:) 2(,

(9attin"ly and Sydenham >vol, 4,2? 1(386 &4,

(1!or exam%le RIC ;la"a$alus &1) 8&) 131/5) 14&/:)

(2RIC :1:/2,

(3Ics 2(6 118,

1&


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the Roman "overnment in the mid/third century and the +ays in +hich it +as carried out) $oth in

the ca%ital and the %rovinces, As Rome is the %rimary *ocus o* this study) I +ill discuss the Arval

records *irst,

!rom their sacred "rove *ive miles outside Rome) the Arval #rethren had $een %rimarily

dedicated to 'ea 'ia since Re%u$lican times) $ut a*ter Au"ustus they too u% annual %rayers and

sacri*ices *or the sa*ety o* the em%eror,(4 There +ere 12 $rothers at a time – all solidly senatorial

throu"hout the orders history – +ith the em%eror al+ays included as the thirteenth,(5 !rom the

$e"innin" o* the *irst century A' they set u% inscri%tions at their "rove recordin" their activities

there and at various tem%les and sacred sites in the city) o*ten +ith exhaustive detail, The

im%ortance o* this record *or our no+led"e o* Roman %u$lic sacri*ice has only recently $e"un to

$e realised $y scholars) and the excellent +or $y , Scheid in translatin" the texts and inter%retin"

the in*ormation is indis%ensa$le,(&

ithin the records) there seems to $e a "eneral trend to+ards increasin" detail over time)

$ut re"ardless o* chan"es in the manner o* recordin" the overall ritual content remained

remara$ly standardised over the three centuries throu"h +hich the Arvals recorded,(: Their

annual vo+s and sacri*ices *or the sa*ety o* the em%eror are %articularly indicative o* the

relationshi% $et+een the im%erial household and state reli"ion) as under Alexander they include

sacri*ices *or the em%eror) his mother) ulia 9amaea) and the +hole divine household, (8 This is a

much +ider "rou% o* %eo%le than had $een usual under %revious em%erors) and sho+s ho+ central

ulia 9amaea and the im%erial household +ere to the runnin" o* the em%ire as re"ents *or the $oy/

em%eror,The Arvals o**ered their 0e+ Fear sacri*ices in A' 231 on the Ca%itoline in *ront o* the cella

o* uno) as they had since the time o* Ti$erius) usin" the same *ormulae and o**erin" the same

victims to the same "ods,(( This remara$le continuity s%eas volumes on the %osition o*

traditional reli"ion in the Roman mind) and the "oes some +ay to %rovin" ho+ crucial it +as to

retain the rituals o* the ancestors, e can also a%%reciate even more stron"ly ho+ much o* a

+rench the re*orms o* ;la"a$alus must have $een) %resentin" hu"e and un%recedented chan"es

to a system that had $een codi*ied over 2 years $e*ore) and re%eated +ith little or no variation

ever since, The Arval records *rom ;la"a$alus rei"n are *ar *rom com%lete) +ith the most detailedcomin" *rom the *irst year6 A' 218, As this is $e*ore the $lac stone o* ;la"a$al a%%eared in Rome

+ith its hi"h %riest in to+) it is unsur%risin" that there is no mention o* the Syrian "od in the lists o*

(4#eard 1(856 11&,

(5Gradel 226 18,

(&


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deities to +hom the $rothers sacri*iced that year, !rustratin"ly) +e have only *ra"ments *rom the

*ollo+in" years) and so it is im%ossi$le to say +hether ;la"a$al %layed any %art in the sacri*ices o*

the Arval #rethren) $ut it +ould not $e im%lausi$le to tentatively assume so) considerin" +hat +e

no+ o* the em%erors actions re"ardin" other %riesthoods and cults in the city, I* ;la"a$alus had

added his "od to the rituals) Alexander +ould clearly have had to remove any mention o* ;la"a$al

a*ter his %redecessors death) and there are indeed no such +ords in the detailed records *rom

0ovem$er 224, hat +e do have in that year) and a"ain in 24 under Gordian III – the last

em%eror under +hom the Arvals recorded – is a list o* stoutly traditional deities6 'ea 'ia) anus)

u%iter) 9ars ltor) uno) the 7ares) !ons) !lora) Summanus and =esta, These +ere accom%anied

in 224 $y 2 dei*ied em%erors and em%resses6 %ro$a$ly Au"ustus) Claudius) =es%asian) Titus)

0erva) Tra-an) .adrian) Antoninus ius) 7ucius =erus) 9arcus Aurelius) Commodus) ertinax)

Se%timus Severus) Caracalla) 9arciana) 9atidia) lotina) !austina) ulia 'omna and ulia

9aesa,1 This num$er had chan"ed as divi +ere either ne+ly added) or came in to re%lace those

+ho had lost %o%ularity or +ere no lon"er relevant, !or exam%le it is %ossi$le that in A' 224 ulia

'omna and ulia 9aesa had re%laced Sa$ina and one o* the !austinas) +ho had $een in the total

o* 2 included in A' 218,11

The im%erial cult +as the source o* the vast ma-ority o* the innovations in Roman state

reli"ion under the em%ire) and the divi +ere the only "ods +ho +ere success*ully added to the

state cult in the centuries a*ter Au"ustus,12 Almost hal* o* the ne+ tem%les $uilt in Rome *rom

Au"ustus u% to Constantine +ere dedicated to dei*ied em%erors andor em%resses,13 e should

not $e sur%rised then) +hen +e turn our attention to the Feriale Duranum and see the hu"e %artthat the im%erial cult %lays in the *estivals it records,

The immense value o* the calendar *ound at 'ura cannot $e overstated, It is one o* the very

*e+ calendars that survive *rom the %eriod $et+een the late/*irst century and the Codex/Calendar

o* 354) and is there*ore the one %atch o* li"ht in the dar o* our no+led"e o* %u$lic ritual durin"

the middle centuries o* the Roman em%ire,14 Its use +as intended *or a very s%eci*ic "rou% o*

%eo%le) namely the co$ors '' Palmyrenorum) $ut the content is strictly Roman) +ith no

consideration o* the locality in +hich it +as used, There are no Syrian "ods mentioned) and there is

no overall military theme to the cele$rations,15 hat +e have then) seems to $e an o**icial list o**estivals com%iled centrally and ori"inally outlined in the time o* Au"ustus) +hich +as then

1 Gilliam 1(&(6 28:,

11 ibid 6 28:/8,

12 Gradel 226 3&&,

13 #eard) 0orth and rice 1((86 253,

14 !or Roman calendars see 'e"rassi 1(&3,

15 !in) .oey and Snyder 1(46 1&:,

18


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distri$uted to the troo%s in the %rovinces,1&

The calendar closely mimics that o* the state cults at Rome) and the "ods +orshi%%ed are

+ithout exce%tion ancient and traditional, The Ca%itoline Triad *eature heavily) either individually or

as a "rou%) and are -oined $y 9ars) =ictory) 0e%tune) Roma) Saturn and =esta, There is a lar"e

num$er o* im%erial anniversaries cele$rated – includin" $irthdays) dates o* ascension and dates o*

death – mostly o* mem$ers o* the Severan dynasty or %rominent ancestors, T+enty im%erial

individuals are mentioned) *ar out+ei"hin" the num$er o* re"ular "ods included in the calendar)

sho+in" ho+ im%ortant the im%erial cult +as in state reli"ion, The rituals on the Feriale Duranum

included the ne+ year vo+s and sacri*ices *or the +el*are o* the em%eror and the survival o* the

em%ire that +ere also cele$rated $y the Arval #rethren,1: These %articular ceremonies +ould have

$een crucial *or the army to o$serve) as they +ere at the *ront line o* the e**orts to secure the

em%ire and ensure its successes, It +as on their shoulders that the ho%es and *ears o* the em%ire

ultimately rested) and so their need to "ain divine *avour +as %aramount,18

At 'ura) each "od received a%%ro%riate $lood sacri*ices accordin" to the traditions o*

Rome) male victims *or male deities and *emale victims *or *emale deities) and even the order in

+hich the "ods are invoed closely mirrors the records o* the Arvals, These animal victims)

es%ecially the oxen that +ere o**ered to u%iter and the male divi ) +ere very ex%ensive) and

there*ore mared the state occasions as se%arate and more lavish than any local or domestic acts

o* +orshi%,1( In their commentary on the Feriale) !in .oey and Snyder ex%lain these traditional

as%ects o* the calendar as a didactic instrument that *ormed %art o* a %rovincial soldiers education

into the service o* Rome,11

This is liely to $e true) as pietas +as a %art o* military loyalty) and onto% o* this +e have already seen ho+ im%ortant %u$lic dis%lays o* devotion to traditional reli"ion

$ecame *or marin" out the di**erence $et+een %eo%le +ho +ere loyal to Rome and those +ho

+ere not, The standard character o* the calendar sho+s that the military +ere not considered

se%arate *rom the Roman %eo%le as a +hole) and creates the im%ression o* the +hole em%ire

o**erin" sacri*ices at the same time to the same "ods) a uni*ied %icture no dou$t intentionally

%ro%a"ated $y the "overnment in Rome,

There is clearly an em%hasis on cults and *estivals deemed necessary *or the %ros%erity

and survival o* the Roman state) as +e have seen, This "oes $eyond any military theme) *or1& !ish+ic 1((16 488/(, Althou"h no calendars survive *rom other %rovinces) !ish+ic has com%iled a list

o* dated inscri%tions recordin" *estivals in various +estern %rovinces that coincide +ith dates on the

Feriale Duranum – see ibid 6 5(8/&:, This is a su$stantial amount o* su%%ortin" evidence *or the claim

that these *estivals +ere cele$rated across the em%ire) and not limited to 'ura,

1: The text o* the Feriale Duranum is translated in !in 1(:16 428/() and can $e com%ared to the text o*

the Arval #rethrens records under Severus Alexander in Scheid 1((86 313/2,

18 !in) .oey and Snyder 1(46 25,

1( ibid 6 1(,

11 ibid 6 2&,

1(


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exam%le the inclusion o* +orshi% o* =esta and (alus publica. .o+ever) there is an allo+ance *or

cele$rations +ith a "reater %u$lic %o%ularity) *or exam%le the 0e%tunalia and Saturnalia *estivals)

+hich +ere incredi$ly %o%ular amon" lo+er classes o* Romans) as +ell as slaves, 111 These +ere

liely retained on the o**icial calendar to "ive a $rea *rom monotony and drud"ery to soldiers and

civilians alie) rather than *or any o**icial need) or even out o* any devout dedication to the "ods

themselves,

'es%ite his overt and %u$lic devotion to the traditions o* Rome) Severus Alexander

eventually succum$ed to the *icle +ill o* the %eo%le and the army) and +as murdered alon" +ith

his mother +hile on cam%ai"n in Germania, 9aximinus +as declared his successor $y his o+n

le"ions) and the crisis o* the third century $e"an,112

Severus Alexanders 13/year lon" rule is characterised as one o* conservatism and

%ra"matism +ith re"ards to %olicy, A com$ination o* in*luence *rom his mother) +ho had already

seen one em%eror *all *or o**endin" traditional Roman sensi$ilities) and *rom senators +ho -um%ed

at the o%%ortunity to attem%t a recreation o* the Antonine em%ire o* their youth) resulted in a rei"n

in +hich the reli"ious %olicy adhered very stron"ly to the models o* the %ast, A*ter the death o*

;la"a$alus it +as crucial *or the ne+ em%eror to $e seen to com%letely re-ect the reli"ious

outra"es that had led to his %redecessors do+n*all) and so the traditional "ods +ere returned +ith

a ven"eance, The alatine tem%le +as reclaimed *or u%iter) and he *eatured %rominently on

Severus Alexander coina"e +ith the e%ithets =7T


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re%eated, Rome +as in sa*e hands +ith Severus Alexander and his mother in char"e,

n*ortunately *or Severus Alexander) events outside reli"ious %olicy +ere a "reater decidin"

*actor on his *ate than his conduct re"ardin" the traditional "ods, .e never acuitted himsel*

%articularly +ell in $attle) and the over$earin" nature o* his mother $e"an to ir the troo%s under

his command, In a time +hen ca%acity to rule +as $ecomin" synonymous +ith a$ility to lead

military cam%ai"ns)114 the youn" Severus +as too *ar *rom the ideal leader the army desired) and

he +as des%atched in *avour o* the *irst true soldier/em%eror6 9aximinus,

114 Cam%$ell 256 2:,

21


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Case Study ! % 'allienus: &n the +ye of the Storm

#et+een the death o* Severus Alexander in 235 and the ascension o* Gallienus in 253) as

-oint em%eror +ith his *ather =alerian) over a do@en men claimed the %ur%le) and the situation in theem%ire $ecame even more severe, A vicious cycle develo%ed) throu"h +hich the throne +as

contested $y increased num$ers o* men %romoted $y the le"ions, The *rontiers +ere assaulted

*rom several directions at once) and i* the em%eror +as not %ersonally in command o* a victorious

army then the men mi"ht %roclaim their o+n "eneral as em%eror, This usur%er +ould then march

o** to Rome +ith his le"ions to secure his %osition) leavin" the *rontier +eaened) and allo+in"

*urther $ar$arian attacs) +hich may then $e re%elled $y another local commander) +ho mi"ht then

$e %roclaimed em%eror) startin" the +hole cycle a"ain,115 The main external threats to the em%ire

o* =alerian and Gallienus came *rom t+o "rou%s) the ersians in the east) under a %articularlysuccess*ul leader named Sha%ur I) +ho had $een em%eror since his *athers death in the 24s)11&

and the Goths *urther +est) +ho raided alon" the 'anu$e *rontier) as +ell as across the #lac Sea

into Asia 9inor,11: It +as *rom the areas under attac $y these %eo%les that many o* the soldier/

em%erors came) es%ecially Illyricum) +here 'ecius) .ostilianus) Claudius II) Muintillian) Aurelian)

ro$us and 'iocletian +ere all $orn and served as military leaders, .o+ever) Italy could still

%roduce em%erors) as sho+n $y the su$-ect o* this case study) Gallienus,

'allienus as co,emeror

Gallienus and his *ather =alerian) +ith +hom he shared the o**ice o* em%eror $et+een 253

and 2&) +ere o* distin"uished Italian aristocratic stoc,118 They immediately divided res%onsi$ility

*or the em%ire) +ith =alerian "oin" east to meet the ersian threat) and Gallienus tain" the north

and +est, The reli"ious %olicy o* the -oint rei"n is dominated $y =alerians %ersecutions o*

Christians) +hich +ere decreed in 25: and 258, As discussed earlier) %ersecution o* Christians +as

%rimarily motivated $y a desire to %uri*y the em%ire) and throu"h endin" insults to+ards them) once

a"ain %ut Rome in the *avour o* the "ods,11( =alerians attacs +ere milder than those o* 'ecius

t+o years earlier) as %unishment +as %rimarily exile or con*iscation o* %ro%erty) and there +as a

"reater reluctance to create martyrs, !or exam%le) in 0umidia) the "overnor sentenced Christians

to the mines i* they re*used to sacri*ice) rather than havin" them executed,12 =alerian *ocussed his

%ersecution on the church hierarchy – the %riests) deacons and $isho%s – as +ell as hi"h/class

115 atson 1(((6 5,

11& 'rin+ater 256 35,

11: Todd 256 445/&,

118 'rin+ater 256 41,

11( See a$ove) cha%ter 2,

22


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laity) rather than reuirin" every %erson in the em%ire to sacri*ice) as 'ecius had done, 121 This

*ocus sho+s ho+ im%ortant the reli"ion o* the aristocracy still +as *or the "overnment o* Rome)

and that it remained this class that %redominantly summed u% Roman reli"ion) des%ite the

centuries that had %assed since Ciceros time,122 There +as never a %eriod o* Roman history +hen

there +as not %ressure on mem$ers o* the senatorial aristocracy to con*orm to traditional reli"ious

%ractices) and their community ima"e +as $uilt around the idea o* true Roman/ness,123 This

excluded any excess or deviation in reli"ion) as it +as the senators +ho occu%ied the o**ices and

%riesthoods that +ere entrusted +ith carryin" out the ritual %ractices that %leased the "ods,124

0aturally) the Christians sa+ the %ersecution as a terri$le attac on their *aith) and

descri$ed =alerian as a +iced and cri%%led creature) +ho +ould surely $e the tar"et o* Gods

+rath,125 hat %art Gallienus had in the decrees o* his *ather) +e do not no+) $ut it is unliely that

he +ould have o%%osed or hindered them in the %arts o* the em%ire under his control, The

%ersecutions continued *or three years) until =alerian +as ca%tured $y the ersians in 2&) and

Gallienus $ecame sole ruler o* Rome,

'allienus and the Christians

hen em%eror +ith his *ather) Gallienus +as al+ays considered the -unior %artner) and so

this case study +ill *ocus on the ei"ht years o* his sole rule) *rom +hich +e can $e more sure that

the %olicies and measures enacted +ere *rom either himsel* or his o+n administration) not that o*

=alerian,12& hatever his o%inions on the %ersecution o* Christians +hile =alerian +as em%eror)

Gallienus %ut and end to it almost as soon as his *ather had $een taen ca%tive in 2&,12:

SomeChristians %ortrayed this as $ein" done throu"h Gallienus *ear o* their God) +ho had dis%layed his

dis%leasure at the %ersecutions $y allo+in" =alerian to $e ca%tured) as +ell as throu"h the

increased $ar$arian invasions o* the em%ire,128 This is most liely an inaccurate assessment) as

there is no evidence to su""est that Gallienus ever acno+led"ed the Christian God, It is more

liely that he ended the %ersecutions $ecause o* a realisation that they +ere ine**ective) and that

violence alone +as not the ans+er to the Christian issue, 12( Gallienus +as hailed as a $rin"er o*

12 #rauer 1(:56 111/(, orin" in the mines could $e a death sentence in itsel*) as the conditions +ere

incredi$ly dan"erous,

121 #rauer 1(:56 111/3,

122 7ane !ox 1(8&6 551,

123 #eard) 0orth and rice 1((86 22(/3,

124 Gordon 1((6 24/5,

125 ;us, H.E. :,1,

12& All coins re*erenced in this cha%ter are *rom the Gallienus6 Sole Rei"n section o* RIC 5,1 unless stated,

12: erome C$ron. ad. Ann. 25(,&,

128


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%eace $y #isho% 'ionysius) +ho used 9essianic uotes *rom Isaiah to descri$e the ne+ youth and

li"ht that re-uvenated the em%ire,13 Considerin" that these +ords come *rom a letter intended *or

an entirely Christian audience) +e can a%%reciate the *eelin"s o* relie* and rene+ed loyalty +ithin

the Christian community a*ter the end o* the %ersecutions, Christians once a"ain %rayed *or the

continuation o* the state and the sa*ety o* the em%eror) as they had done in %revious times,131

-.e/ Age- roaganda

The ho%e *or the da+nin" o* a ne+) %eace*ul a"e that +e can detect in Christian literature

*rom the $e"innin" o* Gallienus sole rei"n +as mirrored and am%li*ied in the o**icial reli"ious

ima"ery used on coina"e, It +as im%erative *or Gallienus to distance himsel* *rom the catastro%hic

circumstances surroundin" his *athers humiliatin" ca%ture) and reassure the Roman %eo%le that

he had not inherited =alerians mis*ortune, ;ndin" the %ersecutions *its into a %ortrayal o* the

em%eror as a man o* %eace) not only $ecause it sto%%ed the su**erin" o* Christians) $ut also

$ecause it removed a source o* stri*e and disorder *rom +ithin the em%ire,132

Gallienus +as one o* a small "rou% o* em%erors in the third century +ho had "enuine

*amilial claims to the throne) $ut a*ter =alerians ca%ture in ersia it +ould have not $een +ise to

em%hasise them, Instead) he cele$rated his maternal connections to !alerii >in ;truria? $y issuin"

coins $earin" the le"end =IRT=S !A7;RI)133 and made use o* ancient 0e+ A"e ima"ery +ith coins

de%ictin" anus) the traditional Roman "od o* transitions and ne+ $e"innin"s,134 Gallienus also

$rou"ht $ac the ima"e o* direct investiture o* %o+er $y u%iter onto Roman coina"e) +hich had

last $een used $y Se%timius Severus, #y claimin" that his %o+er came directly *rom u%iter)Gallienus +as side/ste%%in" his *athers in*amy,135 .e also reached $ac into Roman history) and

set u% Au"ustus as the model em%eror *or his rei"n, ';< A=GST< a%%eared on his coina"e) 13&

and there +as a %rominent %lace *or =enus) the divine mother o* the ulio/Claudian dynasty)13: and

A%ollo) +ho +ere Au"ustus %atron "ods, Au"ustus +as a %o+er*ul tool in the ima"e o* a %eace*ul

ruler) as shall $e discussed *urther in the case study o* Aurelian,138

Invasions into the em%ire made the *irst years in %o+er di**icult *or Gallienus) $ut his

ener"etic travellin" across the Roman +orld to ensure the de*ence o* his realm contradicts the

13 ;us, H.E. :,23,2/4,

131 Tert, Apol. 31/2,

132 'e #lois 1(:&6 183,

133 RIC 5(&B 9anders 2126 1:8,

134 RIC 45, The coins $ears the le"end IA0< ATRI) *urther dissociatin" Gallienus *rom his ca%tive *ather,

135 !ears 1(816 115/&,

13& RIC () 28 >*i"ure 3?,

13: RIC 288/(,

138 #elo+) cha%ter 5,

24


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ne"ative ima"e %ut across in the .istoria Au"usta,13( It +as crucial that he could de%end on the

loyal su%%ort o* the le"ions durin" these years) and coins +ere issued +ith le"ends %raisin" the

!I';S 9I7IT=9) and others de%ictin" 9ars) the "od o* +ar, 14 It +as not until 2&5/&) +hen the

Goths had $een success*ully $eaten $ac and the ersians had $een de*eated $y


28/52

exotic animals a*ter he cele$rated the Secular Games,14: The latter exam%le may +ell have $een a

direct in*luence on Gallienus) +hose series included ti"ers) %anthers) lions) +ild $oars and

antelo%es) as +ell as mythical creatures such as +in"ed horses) "ry%hons) hi%%ocam%s and

ca%ricorns,

'e #lois %ut *or+ard the theory that the animal series +as an attem%t to stren"then

Gallienus %osition amon" the troo%s)148 $ut this has $een challen"ed $y ei"el) +ho convincin"ly

%ro%oses a more liely motive $ehind the coins, The choice o* "ods +as made $ased on their

%roven history o* aidin" Rome in times o* need) as +ell as their stron" connections to Si$ylline

%ro%hecies and "ames +hich entertained the %le$eians,14( Gallienus rei"n came at an incredi$ly

di**icult time *or the Roman em%ire) and there*ore an ex%licit %lea to "ods +ho had aided Rome

since the re%u$lic maes a "reat deal o* sense, The "ods on dis%lay are all ancient and traditional)

and com$ined +ith the other deities Gallienus de%icted on his coins – =esta) =enus) .ercules)

9ars) Aescula%ius) Romulus and Remus and the )enius populi Romani – cover almost the entire

Roman %antheon,15

.is +ide and varied calls *or aid to the "ods mae Gallienus coina"e some o* the most

ori"inal *rom the third century) +hen the increased uantities needed to %ay the army led to an

overall decline in the uality o* icono"ra%hic desi"n on im%erial coins,151 The overt reliance on

traditional moti*s sho+ that it +as still to the ancient "ods o* Rome that the state turned in times o*

crisis) and Gallienus +as no exce%tion, Althou"h +e have none o* the ritual evidence that exists

*rom the rei"n o* Severus Alexander – the Arval #rethren had sto%%ed recordin" in 24) under

Gordian III – +hat +e can deduce *rom his coina"e leads us to assume that the traditional reli"iono* Rome must have continued under Gallienus +ith all its %olytheistic character in tact,

Philosohy and Philhellenism

There have $een su""estions that Gallienus set in motion a trend to+ards solar mono/ or

henotheism) under the in*luence o* the %hiloso%hers lotinus and or%hyry,152 The %hiloso%hical

school that they %romoted – neo%latonism – sa+ all the various "ods o* the Roman +orld

>excludin" that o* the Christians? as emanations *rom the


29/52

that this %hiloso%hy had any im%act on the reli"ious %olicies o* Gallienus, 0either o* the

neo%latonist %hiloso%hers +ere in su**iciently close contact +ith the em%eror to in*luence his

thou"ht) althou"h they +ere active in Rome in the 2&s,154 It is true that Sol has a "reater

%rominence in the icono"ra%hic %ro"ramme o* Gallienus than under any %revious em%eror –

excludin" ;la"a$alus – $ut there is no su$stantial di**erence $et+een the sym$olism used $y

Gallienus and that o* the traditional Sol) +hich su""ests no ne+ conce%t o* the deity, 155 Sol is

de%icted in the traditional manner6 +ith a radiate cro+n) holdin" a +hi% andor a "lo$e) and ridin" a

uadri"a, This icono"ra%hy +as +ell esta$lished $y at least the second century) 15& and remained

unchan"ed throu"hout the third) as +ill $e discussed in the case study o* Aurelian,

The lac o* evidence *or the in*luence o* neo%latonism is $aced u% $y a consideration o*

the %ur%ose o* ima"es on coins, As they +ere circulated throu"hout the em%ire) and +ould $e

vie+ed $y a lar"e ran"e o* %eo%le) the icono"ra%hic messa"es had to have +ide a%%eal) or at least

$e understood $y the ma-ority, This "ave rise to the trend in the im%erial %eriod to+ards

standardised and easily understood ima"es) and a+ay *rom more nuanced and com%licated ones

that had a%%eared earlier in Roman history,15: In the Roman +orld) %hiloso%hy +as the %reserve o*

the literate minority) and there*ore de%ictin" the $elie*s o* neo%latonists on coina"e +ould not have

$een suita$le +hen attem%tin" to communicate messa"es to the masses,158

hiloso%hical discussions and theolo"ical s%eculation had had little e**ect on Roman %u$lic

reli"ion over the centuries) and ritual systems continued irres%ective o* the contem%orary *ashions

in %hiloso%hy,15( There*ore there is no reason to thin that) even i* there +as some other+ise

undetected in*luence o* neo%latonism on Gallienus) that it +ould have a**ected his %oliciesre"ardin" the ritual as%ects o* Roman reli"ion that are unrecorded *rom his rei"n,

Althou"h he may not have made use o* Gree %hiloso%hy in his reli"ious %olicy) Gallienus

certainly had a +ell/develo%ed relationshi% +ith other as%ects o* Gree reli"ion and culture, .e

+as initiated into the ;leusinian mysteries) %uttin" him in the com%any o* Au"ustus) .adrian

Antoninus ius) 7ucius =erus) 9arcus Aurelius) and Commodus) +ho had all under"one these

rituals,1& .e +as there*ore the *irst em%eror in over a century to $e initiated at ;leusis) and no

dou$t did so to claim a revival o* ancestral traditions, hilhellenism is a stron" characteristic o*

many o* the em%erors +ith +hom he lined himsel*) es%ecially .adrian, 7ie .adrian) Gallienus+as made Archon at Athens and on various occasions identi*ied himsel* +ith Heus anhellenios, 1&1

154 #rauer 1(:56 1&,

155 'e #lois 1(:&6 1&&/8,

15& .i-mans 1((&$6 133,

15: .o+"e"o 1((56 :5,

158 'e #lois 1(:&6 1&(,

15( Gradel 226 24/5,

1& 'e #lois 1(:&6 14&,

1&1 ibid 6 131/2,

2:


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The use o* .adrian as a model *or Gallienus rei"n is another *acet o* his %eace %ro%a"anda) much

lie the Au"ustan connections already mentioned,

.e revived the %olicies o* other em%erors too) includin" the Severi) +ho +ere the last rulers

$e*ore Gallienus to have statues erected at 'el%hi and to "ive tax $reas to victorious athletes,1&2

nder Gallienus) as +ell as his *ather =alerian) there +as a last *lourishin" o* the im%erial cult in

Asia 9inor,1&3 Althou"h no ne+ tem%les +ere $uilt *or these em%erors) there +ere *estivals

cele$rated in their honour at Antioch and 0icaea, In total) 28 di**erent cities minted coins

cele$ratin" the sta"in" o* various reli"ious *estivals durin" Gallienus rei"n) considera$ly more than

any other em%eror in the late/second or third century,1&4 This included traditional Roman *estivals

includin" Ca%itolia at .elio%olis and A%hrodisias)1&5 and +as %art o* the o**icial %romotion o* Greco/

Roman culture evident in his other actions,

I* the crisis o* the third century +as a storm that $attered the Roman em%ire) then the ei"ht/

year sole rei"n o* Gallienus can $e seen as its eye, The most intense $ar$arian invasions

occurred) t+o lar"e %arts o* the em%ire $roe a+ay) and a variety o* men challen"ed Gallienus *or

the throne, The in*lation and de$asement o* the coina"e continued to rava"e the economy) main"

it increasin"ly hard to %ay *or the de*ence o* the realm, All o* this) to%%ed o** $y %oor harvests and

natural disasters) made the Romans +onder i* the "ods had a$andoned their em%ire, A*ter the

ca%ture o* his *ather) Gallienus rei"n +as not "iven the $est start in this res%ect) and he made

every e**ort to distance himsel* *rom this in*amy, #y cham%ionin" Au"ustus and .adrian as his role

models) $oth o* +hom +ere +orshi%%ed as "ods) Gallienus reali"ned his ancestry onto moreillustrious *ore$ears) as +ell as concentratin" on his mothers no$le *amily tree, 9uch lie

Alexander Severus) Gallienus revoed un%o%ular reli"ious %olicies enacted $y his %redecessor) in

this case =alerians %ersecution o* the Christians, This $rou"ht the nascent church onto the

em%erors side) as evident in the letters o* #isho% 'ionysius,

'es%erate times called *or a drastic action) and Gallienus coina"e sho+s the len"ths to

+hich the Roman state +as +illin" to "o in order to re"ain divine *avour and end the %ro$lems it

*aced, ;leven di**erent "ods +ere %roclaimed as Conservator Augusti ) and the em%eror himsel*

+as liened to saviour *i"ures such as .ercules, Gods +ere chosen on the stren"th o* theiresta$lished traditional history o* comin" to the aid o* Rome +hen called) and their lins to

entertainments *or the %eo%le, A+ay *rom the city too) *estivals and cele$rations +ere %romoted) in

a %ro"ramme o* revival in the Gree east, Gallienus +as initiated at ;leusis and %atronised 'el%hi)

$oth sites reno+ned as %laces to "ain hel% *rom the "ods,

1&2 'e #lois 1(:&6 14&,

1&3 rice 1(846 5(,

1&4 Narl 1(:56 2:/8,

1&5 ibid 6 :2,

28


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Gallienus used his revival o* traditional reli"ion and his +ide %atrona"e o* di**erent "ods and

sacred sites as a -usti*ication *or his rule, It +as to $e a ne+) %eace*ul "olden a"e *or Rome in

+hich the old "ods +ould %rotect the em%ire and ensure its success as they had done in %revious

centuries, The intentions $ehind his %olicies meant that the neo%latonism o* lotinus and or%hyry)

+hich $lossomed in Rome durin" his rei"n) had little relevance to the "oals he +as tryin" to

achieve, There +as no %oint %romotin" $elie*s only held $y a *e+ mem$ers o* the literate elite

+hen attem%tin" to ensure the loyalty and %eace o* a "eo"ra%hically) economically and socially

diverse em%ire,

'es%ite his $est e**orts) Gallienus +as una$le to *ully "et to "ri%s +ith the issues *acin" the

em%ire, In the already esta$lished trend o* the third century he +as murdered on cam%ai"n in a

military cou%) the result o* +hich %ut Claudius II on the throne in his %lace, The em%eror +as

su%%osed to $e a divine saviour o* the em%ire) and his lac o* success made him a sca%e"oat *or

the trou$les, As discussed a$ove) the army and %eo%le could and did easily chan"e alle"iances to

other men +ho they %erceived as more *it to rule) and Gallienus *ell victim to this, .is memory +as

tarnished and his character dra""ed throu"h the mud) *acin" accusations o* non/traditional

$ehaviours and $elie*s,1&& This cha%ter has "one some +ay to+ards reha$ilitatin" our vie+ o*

Gallienus attitudes re"ardin" traditional reli"ion) in that it is clear that he valued it as much) i* not

more) than many other third century soldier/em%erors,

1&& 'rin+ater 256 4:,

2(


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Case Study 0 % Aurelian: the Sun,+meror

In the t+o years $et+een the death o* Gallienus in 2&8 and the sei@in" o* %o+er $y Aurelian

in 2:) the em%ire remained in the hands o* military "enerals %roclaimed em%eror $y their soldiers,

Claudius II and) a*ter his death *rom %la"ue) his $rother Muintillus) had led cavalry $attalions $ut+ere una$le to use their military ex%erience to unite an ever more *ractured em%ire, In the +est)

ostumus still controlled the Gallic ;m%ire se%arately *rom Rome) and =a$allathus and Heno$ia

had $roen a+ay in almyra, As had ha%%ened many times $e*ore) the le"ions under another

leader) this time Aurelian) declared their o+n "eneral em%eror) and the troo%s %reviously loyal to

Muintillus had him murdered $e*ore s+itchin" sides to Aurelian,

Althou"h his rei"n +as to $e considera$ly shorter than those o* the other t+o em%erors I

have discussed in this dissertation) Aurelians in*luence on Roman reli"ion is ar"ua$ly much

"reater, .is %olicies re"ardin" Sol) his %atron "od) have dominated scholarshi% on third/century

reli"ion *or a hundred years) and as a result cannot $e i"nored, There has $een a stron" current in

scholarshi% that sees Aurelian as the %romoter o* a *orei"n "od) Sol Invictus) +ho +as totally

di**erent *rom the indi"enous sun "od o* Rome and had su%%lanted this deity some time in the

second century, nder a succession o* em%erors) es%ecially ;la"a$alus and Aurelian) Sol Invictus

conuered the Roman %antheon) neatly enca%sulatin" the *all into eastern/in*luenced decadence

that scholars in the late/nineteenth and early/t+entieth centuries sa+ as the overarchin" narrative

o* later Roman history,1&: 9ore recent studies o* sun +orshi% in Rome have $e"un to de$un these

o%inions) %redominantly throu"h a close examination o* solar icono"ra%hy on statues) inscri%tions

and coina"e throu"hout the +hole Roman %eriod, These sho+ that it is incorrect to la$el Aurelians

Sol as an eastern deity) and that the "od he %romoted +as the indi"enous sun "od that had $een

+orshi%%ed in Rome since the re%u$lic,1&8 I* +e acce%t that this is true) it is +orth $rie*ly examinin"

the %osition o* sun +orshi% in Rome $e*ore Aurelian) so that his re*orms can $e seen in their

historical context,

Sol before Aurelian % /hich god(s)1

The *irst issue +e must *ace +hen considerin" sun +orshi% in Rome is the %ro$lem o*

exactly +hich "od +e are looin" at, Con*usion on this %oint has $een one o* the "reatest reasons

*or the misidenti*ication o* Aurelians Sol as an eastern "od, To the su%%osedly distinct "ods – Sol

Indi"es and Sol Invictus – +e can add 9ithras and ;la"a$al) $oth o* +hom a%%ear as Sol Invictus

1&: This ar"ument is %romoted $y the central study o* Roman sun +orshi% o* the t+entieth century)

.als$er"he 1(:2. This $oo $rin"s to"ether an incredi$le +ealth o* source material) $ut its core

ar"uments have since $een convincin"ly dis%roved) es%ecially $y .i-mans 2(,

1&8 .i-mans 2(6 &21,

3


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on Roman inscri%tions) as +ell as Syrian #aalim1&( such as u%iter .elio%olitanus +ho have $een

"iven solar connections $y various scholars over the years, In acce%tin" .i-mans conclusions that

there is no distinction $et+een Sol Indi"es and Sol Invictus +e can remove that %articular uestion)

and I have covered ;la"a$al in detail earlier, That deity +as usually re%resented as a conical stone

and an ea"le) not in the standard +ay that Romans de%icted Sol – ie as a youn") radiate male

either standin" or drivin" a uadri"a) and holdin" a +hi% andor "lo$e, 1: ;la"a$al +as clearly a

se%arate deity *rom Sol) and there is no reason to thin that he had any %resence in Rome $e*ore

the rei"n o* ;la"a$alus) nor that Aurelian +ould reintroduce him in the 2:s,1:1

The other Syrian #aalim) as +ell as 9ithras) can $e dismissed in a restatement o* the

%ur%ose o* this dissertation, 0either 9ithras nor Syrian "ods lie u%iter .elio%olitanus ever

received any central state *undin" or s%onsorshi% in Rome, They never *eature in the records o*

the Arval #rethren or any o* the state fasti that survive to us) nor are they ever re%resented on

im%erial coina"e minted in Rome, 'es%ite a vast and healthy scholarly tradition) es%ecially in the

study o* 9ithraism) they *all outside the remit o* a dissertation *ocussed on state reli"ion in the third

century, There is no evidence that the Sol +orshi%%ed as %art o* the state calendar *rom at least

the early *irst century A'1:2 had any connection to 9ithras) as even .als$er"he notes,1:3 Althou"h

9ithras +as incredi$ly %o%ular amon" soldiers stationed across the +hole Roman em%ire) the

evidence *rom 'ura ;uro%os that has already $een examined sho+s that this %o%ularity had no

in*luence on the o**icial calendar distri$uted to the army,1:4 The evidence su""ests that Sol as

+orshi%%ed $y the state should not $e con*used +ith 9ithras) ;la"a$al or any eastern deity) and as

a result these "ods +ill not $e considered here,

Sol before Aurelian % temles2 festials and riests

!rom the evidence availa$le to us) there seem to have $een at least three tem%les

dedicated to Sol in the early em%ire) t+o o* +hich +ere liely older,

ro$a$ly the oldest +as the -oint tem%le o* Sol and 7una in the Circus 9aximus) +hich

some scholars have traced $ac even as *ar as the time o* the ;truscan in"s,1:5 It +as considered

old $y Tacitus) and a%%ears to have $een re%resented on a coin o* 9ar Anthony) main" it late/

1&( #aalim >sin"luar #aal? +ere storm "ods ori"inatin" in 0orth Syria and Asia 9inor) usually identi*ied +ith

Heusu%iter, !or more in*ormation see Seyri" 1(:1,

1: .i-mans 1((&$6 12:,

1:1 .i-mans 1((&a6 84,

1:2


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re%u$lican at the very earliest,1:& Coins issued under Tra-an and Caracalla1:: de%ict the tem%le in

the cavea on the slo%es o* the Aventine) and althou"h this has yet to $e con*irmed $y archaeolo"y)

Tertullians descri%tion o* the tem%le as $ein" surmounted $y a statue o* Sol and located on the

*inish line in the circus maes this location liely,1:8 The connection $et+een the tem%le and the

*inish line o* the race trac) as +ell as its use as a +inners %odium led Tertullian to claim that the

+hole structure +as chie*ly dedicated to the sun) and the o$elis erected $y Au"ustus on the s%ina

+ould have added to this,1:( The tem%le is mentioned in the Fasti Praenestini >dated $et+een A'

&/(? and the calendar o* 354) in the entries *or the 28th Au"ust) +hich seems to have $een the main

*estival dedicated to Sol and 7una,18

!rom else+here in the Fasti +e no+ o* another tem%le to Sol) this time on the Muirinal)

+here cele$rations +ere held on Au"ust 8th or (th *rom as early as A' :,181 n*ortunately very little

else is no+n a$out this tem%le) includin" its exact location and desi"n, There is a $rie* mention o*

the structure $y Muintillian) +ho uses the term pulvinar.182 sually this re*ers to a couch set u% *or a

"od) *or exam%le the one reserved *or u%iter at certain state $anuets,183 The site must have *allen

out o* use $y the *ourth century) as there is no mention o* it on the calendar o* 354,

As +ell as these t+o tem%les) there may have $een another across the river in Trastevere,

It is only attested throu"h inscri%tions) $ut a%%ears to have $een located some+here close to the

orta ortese,184 The a"e o* the structure is unno+n) $ut as it reuired restoration in A' 12 it is

liely to have $een $uilt a num$er o* decades $e*ore this,185


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$e*ore Aurelians re*orms, There are at least three sacerdotes (olis attested on inscri%tions) and

they seem to $e *rom less than illustrious $ac"rounds,18( 0one o* them date to $e*ore the second

century) and +e have no idea +here the o**ice +as $ased in the city) $ut considerin" the a"es o*

the tem%les o* Sol it is liely that the %riesthood existed $e*ore the *irst dated o**ice/holder,

hen all the evidence *or cult activity surroundin" Sol in Rome $e*ore Aurelian is

considered) the im%ression +e "et is *airly lo+/ey, The tem%les are not lar"e or im%ressive and

the %riesthood lacs the %resti"e "iven to other cults, hen the state cult $ecame directly involved

it +as throu"h -unior o**icials such as the ,alatores, hen +e come to examine Aurelians re*orm o*

the cult o* Sol in the 2:s it should $e done +ith this $ac"round in mind,

Sol *eatured on im%erial coina"e under various em%erors *rom =es%asian on+ards)1( and

received dedications in the *orm o* monuments *rom the lies o* 0ero and Au"ustus,1(1 .is

involvement in earlier im%erial ima"e/construction and %ro%a"anda is com%lex) and as a result +ill

$e dealt +ith +hen discussin" its usa"e $y Aurelian to dra+ com%arisons to earlier rei"ns) and to

sho+ that little o* +hat Aurelian did +as ori"inal) $ut rather adhered to already esta$lished

traditions,

Aurelian: Restorer of the 3orld

The Historia Augusta relates that durin" his *inal $attle a"ainst Heno$ia) Aurelian and his

troo%s +ere saved *rom disaster $y some divine *orce that the em%eror later reco"nised as Sol

+hen visitin" the tem%le o* ;la"a$al in ;mesa,1(2 The em%eror too u% the sun "od as his divine

s%onsor) and the literary sources *or this are $aced u% $y a study o* his coina"e, In the *irst yearso* his rei"n) the icono"ra%hy o* Aurelians coina"e is *airly standard) *reuently honourin" u%iter

Conservator) =enus) and 9ars,1(3 u%iter is the %rimary divine s%onsor o* his early rei"n) and is

sho+n handin" Aurelian the "lo$e) usin" an ima"e that had $een common since the early second

century,1(4 .is pietas is em%hasised +ith a common de%iction o* the em%eror sacri*icin" at an altar

in traditional dress,1(5 9uch lie Severus Alexander and Gallienus) Aurelian needed the army on his

side throu"h the $attles o* his early rei"n) and used his %redecessors methods o* issuin" coins

+ith %ro/le"ion le"ends such as C


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the dissemination o* the ne+ ima"ery can even $e detected emanatin" *rom +here Aurelian +as

stationed in almyra out to the other mints) *rom east to +est,1(: The $attle/chan"in" event may

have even $een commemorated on an issue de%ictin" Sol +ithout rays) su""estin" that it +as an

ecli%se +hich $oosted the soldiers moral,1(8 !urther victories over the Goths) as +ell as the

reinte"ration o* the Gallic em%ire) rein*orced Aurelians use o* victory ima"ery) and his coins

%roclaimed him as R;STIT=T18(56 55?) and has $een acce%ted $y the ma-ority o* scholars ever since,

24 Torelli 1((26 112,

25 9oneti 1((26 12B Torelli 1((26 114,

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contradictory names "iven to the various structures included on them seem to su""est that the

Renaissance artists did not have a clear idea +hat they +ere dra+in") +hich maes Torellis

dismissal o* the cella $uildin"s a convincin" ar"ument, ;ither +ay) a cella is not strictly necessary)

as an o%en/air tem%le *or Sol +ould con*orm to =itruvius) +ho advises that structures dedicated to

Sol) 7una and other sy/"ods $e le*t o%en to their %resence) to $etter *acilitate a%%reciation o* their

%o+er,2& This is *ollo+ed in sites such as the Circus 9aximus) +hich +as chie*ly dedicated to Sol)

as discussed a$ove,


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Sol in Rome after Aurelian % the senate and eole

The involvement o* the senatorial aristocracy in state reli"ion at Rome had continued into

the im%erial %eriod des%ite the reduction o* the senates %olitical %o+er, Senators occu%ied all o*

the ma-or %riesthoods) and in the third century some o**ices $ecame increasin"ly accumulated and

inherited +ithin certain *amilies,213 hen he elevated Sol to his %rominent %osition as im%erial

conservator ) Aurelian %romoted senatorial involvement $y addin" another %riesthood over +hich

they could com%ete, The Pontifices (olis +ere a maredly di**erent "rou% o* men than those +ho

had $een sacerdotes (olis $e*ore 2:4) +ith a considera$le num$er o* senators) and even some

*amous names such as =ettius A"orius raetextatus and 9emmius =itrasius


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one reserved *or *ood distri$ution) and sacred *unctions $ein" carried out throu"h the -oinin" room

in the lar"er enclosure,

Aurelian created a ne+ uadrennial cele$ration o* Sol in the Circus 9aximus) *urther

demonstratin" to the Roman %eo%le ho+ valua$le the sun "od +as to their continued sa*ety and

ha%%iness,


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Sol that +ere to adorn his coins +ould not have $een un*amiliar to the %eo%le +ho used them, The

radiate cro+n had a%%eared on the silver coina"e o* every em%eror since Caracalla) 22: and divine

investiture ima"ery) sym$olised in the trans*er o* the "lo$e *rom a "od >usually u

S. McKie - A Crisis in Faith. Roman State Religious Policy in the Third Century (2012)

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Transcript of S. McKie - A Crisis in Faith. Roman State Religious Policy in the Third Century (2012)