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Running head: SYSTEMIC CHANGE IN ORGANIZATION

Systemic Change in Organization: an exercise of power or relationship

Bernard B Young

University of Cincinnati

College of Education Criminal Justice and Human Services

Urban Educational Leadership Program

18-UEL

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Systemic Change in Organization: an exercise of power or relationship

Leaders, administrators, and educators at all levels find frustration in their efforts to

conduct a successful process of education in the changing environment of the past several

decades. In the field of health services, many leaders have needed to assess their approach to

leadership in response to the changing environmental conditions. One of the definitions that

Burns offers for leadership is that “leadership is an aspect of power, but it is also a separate and

vital process itself.” (1979). Burns holds that being in a position of leadership places an

individual or group in a position to becoming a power wielder. He also admits that not all who

wield power are leaders. There is an essential relationship between power and purpose. When

we make a judgment distinguishing the leader from the person who is merely wielding power we

must makes an assessment of the degree to which the emphasis is placed on demonstrating

power over resources versus a demonstrating a guidance of followers toward the effective use of

power and resources toward a goal’. Burns stated it this way:

Leadership over human beings is exercised when persons with certain motives and purposes mobilize, in competition or conflict with others, institutional, political, psychological, and other resources so as to arouse, engage, and satisfy the motives of followers. (Burns, 1979, p. 18)

In his theoretical description of leadership, Burns (1979) distinguishes styles of

leadership along a continuum. Transactional leadership is placed at one end of the

continuum where its practitioners exhibiting the behavior of the power wielder. At the

other end of the continuum is transformational Leadership. The transformational leader

takes into account the concept of developing a morally appropriate relationship with the

stakeholders of the organization and the community in which it is located. The

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transformational leader was the ideal leader for both Burns and Bass (Bass, 1990; Bass &

Steidlmeier, 1998).

Table 1

The Levels of Leadership Model Used in the Pioneer Leadership Program

Level/exemplar Description Regard forCommon Good

Level 3: Transformational(Burns 1978)

Leaders engage with each other in such a way that leaders and followers raise each other to higher levels of motivation and morality.

High. Followers are truly engaged. End values are based for Interaction and action.

Level 2: Turn of the Millennium(Rost. 1991)

Leaders influence relationship among leaders and followers, who intend real change that reflect their mutual purposes.

Moderate. Process must be noncoercive, but the morality of the purpose is deemed irrelevant.

Level 1: “Mainstream”Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 2002)

Process intended to organize group to accomplish group goals.

Low/moderate. Group (organizational) goal and task accomplished by priorities.

Level 0: Machiavellianism(Machiavelli, 1986)

Goal is solely for the leader to stay in power by any means.

None. People are merely a means to an end.

(Gibson & Pason, 2003, p. p. 24)

This paper will contrast the two ends of the leadership style beginning with transactional

leadership and moves toward transformational leadership (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1998). It should

be noted that to discuss leadership using this scale does not provide a recognition of all styles of

leadership nor does is serve as the only potential manner we could develop a scale. We could

have used a distinguishing format similar to that used by Gibson and Pason (2003) The scale

they offer is the “Levels of Leadership Model”(See Table 1) which they first delivered as a

conference presentation made by Gibson (2003). This model provides different levels of power

wielding versus follower engagement that corresponds to points along the continuum from

transactional to Transformational leadership but the model fails to accurately indicate that

leaders adjust their leadership styles according to situation and purpose. The model offered by

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Gibson and Pason also present a much more dichotomous view of different styles of leadership

than that theorized by Burns, or the view of Bass (1979; Bass & Steidlmeier, 1998)

Bass and Steidlmeier (1998) point out that all good leaders present some degree of both

transactional and transformational leadership style. I will recommend a course of action for the

urban educational leader that I feel will best result in successful goal attainment. I will assess

transactional leadership and transformational leadership. These styles of leadership provide

techniques to direct the focus of an organization and its resources. These styles also move

followers, through either internal or external pressures, toward meeting goals and objectives that

are formulated for some perceived benefits. I will present support for putting in place a

transformational leadership style that includes the role of change agent.

The Community of followers, particularly in urban settings, has become less

homogeneous. Followers offer a new and sometime conflict voice as compared to the old status

quo. Modern urban educational leaders must take a new, changing and critical position in the

world. This change is necessary in order for the urban educational leader to serve the diverse

population that develops inside their sphere of influence effectively.

Current conditions have lead to mainstream leadership, which tend to be transactional

leaders, to becoming more sensitive to issues of perceived bad judgment, but they continue to

resist initiating critical discussions of social, political and economic concerns. They have turned

their focus toward a desire to gain support of the economic center and the elite. The mainstream

political, economic and social leadership often see the racially, economically and socially

disenfranchised as being outside the circle of influence, as well as lacking and incomplete in

some capability in some. In the practice of the urban educational leader, this disenfranchised

population is a substantial part of the people the urban system must serve and educate. It is

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important that the urban educational leaders maintain their territories as areas that pursues

education change that that is able to matches urban educational needs. (Dantley, 2003)

The urban educational leader may take on a role of managing but it is our intent to focus

our discussion on his role as urban leader in the organization. We will recognize that as a

function of practice the urban educational leader may function as a manager in the process of

enacting systemic change. The recommendations are focused toward those who seek to

demonstrate the abilities to define the future, bring followers into line with the vision, and

generate within followers the energy to make the vision happen (Caldwell, 2003).

Transactional Leadership Style

Explanations of transactional leadership take into account the effort of the leader to

instigate an action that will cause follower to perform actions that the leader has assessed as

being to his benefit in some way. Seltzer and Bass calls these factors “initiation and

consideration” (Seltzer & Bass, 1990). Burns stated that the theory of transactional leadership

holds that leadership decisions are based on a process of continuous political and psychic

haggling. The aim of both the leader and follower is to increase their individual stores of

political and psychic power and maintain their levels of self-gratification. This bargaining

practice between the leader and his followers is seldom equal in its trading. The practice

bargaining is more often than not, based on a process of providing a performance that would

have the leader communicate in a manner that he feels will gain him a favorable response from

his followers. The leader would act in a manner that his actions will manipulate followers into

responding the way that he desire. This maneuver would be based on the leaders

comprehension, from previous observations, as to his followers’ motivation. Burns point out that

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in this type of leadership style the leader take action based on cost-benefit considerations.

(Burns, 1979)

Bass stated that there are ways that transactional leaders make clear to their followers

what they must do to gain reward or avoid pain and punishment The ways that the leader

expresses this as a reality may be straight forward or passive. In its passive form no action is

taken unless something goes contrary to the leader’s desire. When the leader does act it is swift

an decisive (Bass, 1999). In the past, I have use this type of leadership style and found it to be

successful only temporarily. In my case, there was a failure to gain buy-in to a mutually

expected behavior pattern. The tactic would generates an avoidance behavior to a negative

response by me as leader in the form of deception.

In several organizations where I have worked I have found transactional leadership style

to appeared successful on the surface, but fostered an underlying mistrust and anxiety for both

the leader and the followers in the organization. The one consistent approach in the action of the

leaders and the followers that I find in transactional leadership style is a calculated action based

on return rather than mutual benefit. This focus is consistent across leader relationships with

organizational managements, staff, funders and external stakeholders. (Bass, 1997). This

relationship defeats the intent of the urban educational leader of supporting a critical education

process.

Transformational Leadership Style

The transformational/change agent process is a model that is consistent with the social,

philosophical and moral concerns of the urban educational leader. I support the transformational

model as a means to build an atmosphere that encourages the collaborative management of

resources between leader and follower. The external stakeholder are those individuals or groups

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with whom the organization may have an indirect relationship with or whom the organization

may seek to attract on involve as a meet of expanding resources. These stakeholders may be

advocates, contributors, volunteers or any number of other categories that may be of service to

the organization.

In his distinguishing of transactional leadership from transformational leadership, Bass

draws from the word of John F. Kennedy, Jr. an make the follow statement: “The

transformational leader emphasizes what you can do for your country; the transactional leader,

on what your country can do for you.” (1999) The transformational leader does not only seek to

reach an identified goal, he also wants to empower his followers. In describing this form of

leadership Bass attribute individual with the ability to reach out beyond the pessimistic view

Maslow and Machiavelli which limit action to self service behavior. Bass attributes the

authentic transformational leaders with the ability to transcend self-interest.

...the transforming leader is one who not only moved followers up on Maslow’s hierarchy, but also moved them to transcend their own self-interests, presumably including their own self-realization. [E. S.] Williams showed that transformational leaders display more citizenship behavior such as altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civil virtue, as well as imbue their subordinates with these same values. (Bass, 1999, p. 12)

The transformational leaders finds the external contacts to be important for reason

beyond their ability to provide resources they are also important because assessment of urban

leadership is no longer a process determined in isolated or in a self-defined process limited to

the confines of the educational organizations. Truly functional leadership requires a defining

community support and maintain it. This is true whether we are speaking about the practice of

urban high schools, urban adult education programs or urban community HIV/AIDS prevention

programs. The product must gain cooperation and collaboration with both the team providing

the service, the consumers receiving the service and the at-large community in which the process

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is being performed. This reality has been true and gaining strength since the mid 1970s (Bass,

1999).

Resistance in and Environment Seeking Change

Since receiving my B.A. at Xavier University, Cincinnati, Ohio, I have worked in

community. While I only worked for a brief period in a system directly involved in the

traditional primary and secondary school system I have worked in urban community with

organization have direct involvement in counseling education and consulting with individuals on

issues of substance abuse, sexual health, mental health and abuse issue.

For the last 20 years of a 37-year career, I have worked in the specific area of HIV/AIDS

prevention services as both a counselor providing services and an administrator directing and

monitoring service. I have found that even though the agencies that I have been associated with

have been either urban private nonprofit-organizations or urban local/regional governmental

organizations, they have suffered many of the same pressures that Zetlin and Lim (1998) identify

as a primary motivator in systemic change in urban education. The concern is the organization’s

ability to provide a visible process of change that supports the perception that the organization is

moving beyond maintenance and actual involved in changes that meet the services needs of the

community.

In the current atmosphere of diversity that exists in urban communities, there is an

ongoing demand for organizations and services to adjust their services to meet the continually

changing needs of the community. The developing question is how organizations will sustain

visible, innovative and supportive services in the eyes of all the stakeholders. Benchmarks of

Change: Assessing the Essential School Restructuring Effort (Prestine & Bowen, 1993) is a

study that looks at four schools that were actively involved in a five-year process of change. The

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purpose of the change was to help the school adapt changes that would improve student learning

in the urban communities. At the time of the study, the schools were half way through the

process and each school had a different degree of success. Prestine and Bowen, developed

benchmarks for judging the success of change (See TABLE 2). The benchmark provides

measurable goals for accessing change within each school.

Prestine and Bowen (1993) conducted a study which involved a study of four Illinois schools

that were in a process of deliberate change. The work of the study suggested the primary cause

of community demand for changes in an educational system is community frustration with the

conditions of public education. The study suggests that this level of frustration is caused by the

inability of the organization to maintain a visible indication that it Is actively pursuing positive

change in an efficient and timely manner. Other researchers have sited this work to as a source

of for indicating reasons for communities insisting on systemic. (Prestine & Bowen, 1993; Zetlin

& Lim, 1998). Prestine and Bowen also assessed the organizational and leadership responses to

community pressure, which they identified as the development of cycle of reforming active that

stretched for revisions developed in curriculum standards to dramatic changes in the fundamental

core and structure. Along with looking at the causal factor the affecting efficiency and

effectiveness of change Preston and Bowen all looked at leadership and leadership

responsiveness.

HIV/AIDS community service providers have been among the types of service

organizations whose survival has been dependent on the type of leadership that hold a

collaborative and open relationship between leader, follower, consumer and external stakeholder.

This open and collaborative relationship is essential to goal attainment and systemic change. An

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example that I have observed has been the development of the community based residential

program Caracole, Inc.

Caracole is the primary supplier of supportive residential housing for person affected by

HIV/AIDS in the Cincinnati, Ohio area. Caracole, Inc. received incorporated in 1987 and

opened its door to eight residents in 1988 (2003). Currently operating on a budget of more than

1.8 million dollars, Caracole has housed more than 1050 residents and has expanded its

HIV/AIDS related services to include rent subsidy, substance abuse recovery, and development

of Educational software and computer kiosk for HIV/AIDS prevention education.

Table 2

Coalition Benchmarks of Successful Change

Benchmarks Meaning Effect

Substantial Agreement Everyone Understands the whole school must change and acts accordingly.

Everyone who wants, stays; everyone who stays changes

Observable Change An identifiable group of Teachers and students works in and essential school format

Provides visible evidence that change is underway, but possibly creates “we-they conflict.

All-school participation Everyone is involved in some level beyond talk

Maintains Commitment and involvement

Systemic Leadership Each person leads in his/her own way

Assures continuation after key personnel leave

(Prestine & Bowen, 1993, p. 304)

Sue Butler, former executive director, along the founding board members of the

organization, who included Michael Richey, former clinic director of the Ambrose Clement

Clinic, STD Clinic for the Cincinnati Health Department and Dr. Carl Wyler, local physician,

made the initial choices of leadership style. As the initial leadership group these individual tried

may different styles during the first several years of the organization. They quickly move toward

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a style that centered around build a well-informed collaborative board and invested volunteers.

The organization also worked hard to establish a positive relation with the surrounding

community and local community council. It became important to expand the board and

volunteer participation and maintain a high degree of transparency in its fiscal and growth

practices. My first real recognition of this was as Caracole expanded from being a limit program

center in one house and expanded to several apartment buildings that could not hide for broad

community debate. The leader of the organization had carefully investigated the community that

they wanted to be location of their expansion. The staff of Caracole identified the chosen

neighborhood because of its appearance as being a racially mixed, liberal community that has

was openly accepting of other types of group facilities and homes for adjustment. The leadership

felt that the community would accept a facility housing ambulatory individuals who happen to be

HIV infected. They discovered that they could not ride in under the radar of extensive scrutiny.

The leadership style that was in effect for the program was significantly transformational. The

program executive and the executive board leaders had initiated as system of power sharing and

collaboration that was first built around the mission statement:

To provide safe, affordable housing and supportive services for persons and families living with HIV/AIDS. (Caracole, Inc., 3006)

Using the mission statement as a moral anchor that communicated to the staff, clientele and

board and leadership an anchoring point for constructing an authentic transformational leader

lead organization. Through this use of this style of leadership the agency that was able to

initiate a clear and transparent set of goal, objective and strategies that made use of all of

components which bass and Steidlmeier Identify as necessary to transformational leadership:

Idealized influence (or charisma) Inspirational motivation

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Intellectual stimulation Individualized consideration (1998).

The leadership was able to establish a commitment based on a moral high ground that not

centered on the ideas of leader, but was comprised of the mutually developed concern, ideas, and

strategies drawn from the staff, administration, board, clientele and community. This transparent

organization of involved individuals develop a clear understand of the necessary changes needed

for goal attainment. The entire organization, as a result of their feelings of ownership of the

organization, was able to both explain and sell the concepts developed out of the mission

statement.

The establishment of this type of leadership/follower relationship naturally supported the

development of staff and board members who were able to explain and transfer their belief in

and support of the organization to the community into which they wanted to expand in a

transparent way. The shared openness, honesty, and commitment along with an acceptable

moral stance improved the Bond Hill Community’s willingness to be open to receiving another

residential program. As a result, the community accepted Caracole willingly.

Despite the growing pressure for change and the realization by many, for whom change

could improvement their situation, there is a natural resistance to change. “The Change Agent’s

guide to Innovation in Education” reported this reaction. Paulo Freire described this response

among educators in a transcribed conversation with Ira Shor (1986). In the area of health

services, the natural tendency to resist change has become the focus of major social and political

conflict in mid size city. The shifting health services policies in Cincinnati Ohio is one example.

For approximately 40 years, Cincinnati has provided full service primary health care

through public health clinics. The current trend it for urban and rural health department across

the state to moved away from the provision of service outside of those services that are legally

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mandated by federal, state or local law and encouraged the development service such as primary

health care provide at the county and regional levels by private sector organizations. A Shifting

tax base and changing local priorities in political thought have create social, political, and fiscal

pressures to re-prioritize health services

City authorities are leaning toward a more conservative viewpoint. In a process that

began in 2004, local and state governmental, leaders have shifted away from the governmental

fiscal support of primary health care services and toward a pay as you go system or privatization

of the urban primary health care (Leingang, 2004). This change in direction has challenged the

thinking of past and current leaders in the public health field. The local health department

administration and staff in Cincinnati, in an effort to maintain status quo, undertook an all out PR

effort. The goal was not to give up the commitment to directly providing primary health care

services. The leadership, of the ten years prior to the most recent census and the current tax

revenue estimates, were able to challenge outside authority with the arguments of the cities past

prosperity, boasts of tradition, and anticipated revenue growth inside the department and the city.

These health leaders were able to maintain a transactional model and bargain, threaten, and

influence other city leaders into continuing to support the services of the past several decades.

The is a feat the is difficult that continues in the current urban atmosphere

The most recent budget battle proved to be a standoff with a budget reduction of 6.2% or

1.9 million dollars. This action did not produce any loss in current primary care services but did

escalate departmental tension and left it with no fiscal flexibility. The battle was a draw but the

war is not over. The current health commissioner who is new to the Cincinnati Health

department has yet to make clear the leadership style he will choose in the range from

transactional to transformational. As health commissioner, he comes to the table with far fewer

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resources to bargain in support of a transactional position. A transformational leadership

approach would reestablish a position of moral correctness. It would also expand the question of

resolution to involving more than the administrative leadership by providing a transparency that

would invite staff and community to become involve in resolving the issues involved.

Burns states that the transactional leader focuses on imposing his individual desire or

will on persons identified as followers (1979). Calabrese (2003) sees this style of leadership as

being a rigid outmoded exercise of power. Bass sees this type of leadership as being the

proverbial one hand washing the other, generating conflict and internal fighting for positions of

power and leadership within the organization. This type of conflict would be disastrous for the

Cincinnati health department. Bass offers transformational leadership, introduced by James

MacGregor Burns in 1978, as an alternative style that will promote greater effectiveness (Bass,

1997) . I advocate for the use of transformational leadership as a more effective style for the

urban educational leader because of the community organizational, educational and

environmental changes.

Conclusion

In the past few decades, regardless of their area of focus, the urban leader has faced

greater diversity in the environment. The success of the urban leader has become dependent on

the development of partnerships rather than the formulation of economic, political or social

deals. We can no longer judge leadership by the ability to control the resources within the

organization. Leaders must be able to expand their influence well beyond the previously

recognized organizational boundaries (Degeling & Carr, 2004). The changes have affected the

functionality of the urban educational leader.

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Focal areas of challenge could be grouped as “community needs; funding; technology;

human resources—student; accountability and assessment; and human resources—leadership,

faculty, and staff (Cejda & Leist, 2006, p. P. 255). It is no longer possible of an organization or

institutional process to exist without external or subordinate questioning of the organizations

practices and polices. Nor can the organization or the leader survive alone.

The Urban Educational Leader must be able to work in a situation of change. For the

urban educational leader change is always present. This premise holds true whether the urban

educational leader focuses is attention in the area of not-for-profit, for-profit, private or public

services. Leaders will find change is the one constant regardless of whether their target audience

is youth or adult or regardless of being directly involved in the process of informing and

educating or indirectly involved as an administrator or policy maker. Dissatisfaction with the

with the educational system and the increasing levels of conflicting points of view, and

increasing repression that is occurring in our communities is forcing the need for a leader who

facilitate effective change (Agocs, 1997; Giroux, 2004). The combined skill of the

transformational urban educational leader holds the key to successful enduring services in the

urban environment.

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