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Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction

Human history is, in one sense, a history of technology. The

trajectory of social evolution is clearly discernible with innovations and

experimentations of individuals and societies. The role of technologies in

altering political and psychological landscaping of societies is an

undisputable fact (Kendall,2007:88; Lenski & Lenski,1987:257; Norris,

2000a:121; Russell, 1952:11; Teich, 2005:170; Rajagopal,2001:6). Starting

from the age of agrarian social formation, political society was wrought and

enthused by corresponding technologies. Political institutions and ideologies

were shaped in tune with the dominant technologies of the

time1.Technological capabilities altered the cultural construction of societies

and mental orientations of individuals2. The philosophical foundations of

technology and information was developed through five paradigms

(Wijnhoven,2009:4)3. It identifies data and information as the fundamental

propellants of philosophical pursuits. At the conceptual level, technological

progress figured a key role in the discussion of modern liberal capitalism

(Barney,2004:37).

The Marxian approach links technology with capitalism and

identifies it as a commodity that may have long term political connotations in

the new society. Machine- intensive technologies may result in drastically

reducing the human labour and consequently wages (Hollander, 2008:96).

To Marx the continuous scientific and technological progress is highly

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advantageous to the capitalist order and put further burdens on working

class4. He observes, “ The handmill gives you society with the feudal lord;

the steam mill, society with the industrial capitalist”5. To him,The

intervention of machinery is accelerating the case of globalisation and at the

same time accentuate the sufferings of labour.He elaborates:

We need not recall the fact that the great progress of the division of labour began in England after the invention of machinery. Thus, the weavers and spinners were for the most part peasants like those one still meets in backward countries. The invention of machinery brought about the separation of manufacturing industry from agricultural industry. The weaver and the spinner, united but lately in a single family, were separated by the machine. Thanks to the machine, spinner can live in England while the weaver resides in the East Indies. Before the invention of the machinery, industry of a country was carried on chiefly with raw materials that were the products of its own soil; in England – wool, in Germany – flax, in France – silks and flax, in the East Indies and the Levant – cottons, etc. Thanks to the application of machinery and of steam, the division of labour was about to assume such dimensions that large-scale industry, detached from the national soil, depends entirely on the world market, on international exchange, on an international division of labour. In short – the machine has so great an influence on the division of labour, that when, in the manufacture of some object, a means has been found to produce parts of it mechanically, the manufacture splits up immediately into two works independent of each other (Marx,1847:63).

Schumpeter (1942) sees technological change and innovation as a

force of creative destruction, which will eventually demise the social

institutions of capitalist society. But later Marxians were more positive

towards technology and innovations .To them, technology released from the

distortions of capitalism and private property would provide for well-

distributed freedom from toil. The liberal tradition always admitted the role

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of technology in promoting good life6. With the industrial society democratic

ideologies were well appreciated and strong appeals were made for

democratisation of society and state. This in turn was supplemented with

technological developments7. In post industrial societies knowledge was

accredited as the basic source of innovation and policy formulation (Drucker,

1990: 256).

Conceptually politics is a discourse on power. Both in thought and

action it has been the central preoccupation throughout the history of human

society (Luard, 1990:1). But this power has moved far beyond the territory of

sovereign and became a civil asset (Foucault, 1997: 549). The civic pattern

of power deployment and distribution in any political system pertains to the

modalities of communications in the given system (Rajagopal, 2001:6). With

the advent of electronic communication technologies, the boundaries of

political sphere were reconstructed in tune with the incessant information

flows that collided with the existing patterns of power distribution. This was

further accelerated by the innovations in technology and consequent change

in social behavior and organizational structures (Castells,1997:375)8.

The industrial revolution and allied technologies led to participatory

democracy and democratic institutions9. This technological impact on

political process is more evident with the advent of Information society

(Lane,2009:21; Ghosh,2010:248; Grewal,2008:192; Walton,2007:381;

Coleman, 1999:71; Dai,2000:7)10. In modern times the proliferation of

Information and Communication Technologies11 (ICT) resulted in an

unprecedented and unpredicted change in the nature and course of human

society. The scenario is well articulated by Mathews,

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Widely accessible and affordable technology has broken government’s monopoly on the collection and management of large amount of information and deprived government of the deference they enjoyed because of it. In every sphere of activity, instantaneous access to information and the ability to put it to use multiplies number of players who matter and reduce the number who command great authority. The effect on the loudest voice - which has been governments – has been the greatest. (Mathews, 2003:204).

The network society12 and the digital transformation of social

transactions heavily influenced the nature of power relations in modern

society. Toffler (1981) predicted a new mode of production and consumption

facilitated by new Information and Communication Technologies. Toffler

foresees the evolution of an entirely new civilization. The impact of change

is material and non- material that it even alters the value systems (Ghose,

2007:208)13. Subsequently political institutions and polities were forced to

undergo a transformation in the nature and scope of their activities. This

change is a necessary historical outcome of the constitution of body politic.

The body politic, no less than the human body, begins to die from the very moment of its birth, and carries within itself the cause of its destruction. But both may have a constitution more or less robust, more or less capable of enduring. The physical make up of man is the handiwork of nature: the constitution of the state is the product of an art. It is not in men’s power to prolong their lives, but they can prolong the life of the state for as long as possible by devising for the best conceivable form (Rousseau).

As such the body politic in order to resist its natural destruction must

tune to the changed environment. Evidently the inevitability of digital

transformations with respect to governments is well acknowledged. The

technical rationality of new governance is further supported by the

governance gap arguments (Micheletti,2000). Coleman,(2007:370) identifies

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a deliberative deficit in contemporary democracy, which is characterized by

absence of open space and venues of critical discussion. With ever-

increasing channels of engagement and ever-growing space for deliberation,

technological innovations compensate the gaps and deficits and provide for

smooth interaction between the governors and the governed. The connection

between government and technology is well knitted and has strong historical

support pillars14.

1.2. Government and Governance

The widespread use of the term governance signifies a paradigm shift

in the outlook of political theory towards a diffused and networked model of

administration. This can be constructed as an impact of the technological

interventions in political process. Earlier the term government was well

accepted as the synonym of power deployment and diffusion. But in the

modern society, where hegemonies were rejected and public sphere and civil

society notions challenged the authority notions, automatic power diffusion

in horizontal plane became imminent. With the advent of complex society,

individual actions became irrelevant in the face of new set of issues, which

required collective choices. This collective choices and decisions were

propelled by new information and technological innovations. Further the

‘hollowing of state capacity’ made dents on the ‘Government’ claim to give

way to ‘Governance’ (Crozier, 2010:505). The emergence of ‘critical

citizens’ (Norris, 1999:269) also demanded new patterns of governance.15

Political scientists who were engaged in studying who gets, what, when and

how (Lasswell, 1936) were forced to reflect upon new themes. This included

‘why Americans hate politics’ (Dionne, 1991), the vanishing voter

(Patterson, 2002), the decline of the public (Marquand, 2004) and disaffected

democracies (Pharr & Putnam, 2000).

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Governance has become a global discourse with a breadth that

suggests its usefulness for exploring the fundamental questions of

democracy, civic agency, and politics (Boyte, 2005:536). The origin of the

term ‘governance’ is related to the Greek term kybernesis which means

piloting or steering. It suggests that government is no more an authoritarian

controller, rowing and leading the society, but a co-operative steer-man,

helping for safe voyage and anchorage for the civil society16. According to

Newman;

Governance’ is a term that has become central to analyses of shifts in the role of the nation state, in the process of policy making and policy delivery, and in the nature of power and influence in the public policy system. Briefly, it is argued that the power of the nation state has been eroded and that governance processes are now characterized by multi-level interactions between different tiers within and beyond the nation state (Newman ,2005:719).

It is infact a ‘reinventing’ (Osborne & Gaebler,1992) of government

functions rather than refutation and revolutionisation. It is more people

oriented than system-centric. To many, governance implies identification of

horizontal networks of public, private and nonprofit organisations as the new

active structures against hierarchical organisational decision making pillars17.

However, the term governance is suffering from conceptual clarity (Morell,

2009:539). In order to gain a conceptual clarification it is better to identify

the difference between ‘Government’ and ‘Governance’. Government occurs

when those with legally and formally derived authority and policing power

execute and implement activities: Governance refers to the creation,

execution and implementation of activities backed by the shared goals of

citizens and organisations, who may or may not have formal autthority18.

Generally, it is defined as the political direction and control exercised over

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the actions of the members, citizens or inhabitants of communities, societies

and states19. The World bank links governance with good governance20. It

says,

Good governance is optimized by predictable, open and enlightened policy making, a bureaucracy imbued with professional ethos acting in furtherance of the public good, the rule of law, transparent processes and a strong civil society participating in public affairs.

The Governance debate necessiated a reorientation in the structures

and functions of political process (Knight et al.,2006)21. The growing

demand for good governance along with the developments in Information

and Communication Technologies led to E-Governance. It is suggested that

new technologies will provide better governance possibilities (Kalam,

2005)22.

1.3. E-Governance

The term E-Governance is identified with the use of Information

and Communication Technologies in governance. The United Nations

defines E-Government as, “utilizing the internet and World wide Web for

delivering government information to citizens”. In the broad sense it

encompasses the states institutional arrangements, processes and

relationships (Bhatnagar,2004:10).The definition accomodates civil society

and political institutions in the governance process. The broad view also

accommodates private sector along with government and civil society

(Dawes, 2008: 587)23. According to Kovacic,

E-Governance includes all processes and structures by means of which the new ICT can be used by government to enable; administration of government and delivery of services to the public

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(E-Government); all forms of electronic communications between government and citizen with the aim of informing, representing, encouraging to vote, consulting and involving of citizens (E-democracy) and transact business with its partners, clients and the market (Government Electronic business) (Kovacic, 2007:181).

According to UNDP the concept of E- Governance,

.. allows the possibility of increasing, enhancing and deepening citizen participation in the policy and decision making processes of government through a spectrum of electronic activities-electoral campaigns, voting, consultation and participation in the policy process, public opinion polling and communication exchange between elected officials and constituents, resulting in strengthening accountability and transparency of government actions. (UNDP, 2004:5).

E-Governance relates to the entire range of government roles and

activities, shaped by and making use of information and communications

technologies (Brown, 2005:243). Information and Communication

Technology (ICT) is presently offering advanced tools for democratic

renewal (Takao, 2004: 237). With these tools state- citizen interaction is

rendered to higher levels of collaboration and cooperation. E-Governance

promotes democracy by ensuring transparency and increasing the degree and

quality of public participation in government. With the Internet and intranet

citizens will get complete access to governmental information. There will be

free consultations among people and groups. Political power will be diffused

among citizens enabling them to be better participants of democracy.

Nowadays the fast moving technologies and better informed citizens force all

governments to shift into an electronic environment of governance. Barney

observes,

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In a liberal democracy, communications in forms ranging from simple registration of preferences to more robust deliberation is, formally at least, considered indispensable to the practice of public judgment and to the authorization of public action. Those actions, furthermore often take communicative forms, such as the publication of laws, the delivery of education, the dispensation of services and the various acts of persuasion, propaganda and protest that together occupy so much political space in contemporary liberal democracies. Consequently, the technologies that mediate communication contribute substantially to the possibilities of politics at any given context (Barney, 2004:108).

Thus E-Governance becomes an inevitable feature of modern

government24. Systems and processes have to be adapted to a completely

new service model. Administrative mechanism undergoes a revolutionary

change. For example, intake processes are made self-service and even in the

middle of the night a citizen should get an immediate (automated) response

about the status of the application. The ‘electronics commons’ (Feldman,

2000:23) environment is highly inclusive as it provides better platforms of

interaction and expression. The argument with E-Governance is that it

provides for SMART (Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive and

Transparent) mode of governance. (Bingham et al., 2005; Dunleavy et al.,

2005; Lane,2009). There is evidently a marked change from democratic state

to democratic society (Boyte, 2005). The WEB 2.025 revolution made a

revolutionary impact on the patterns and functions of World Wide Web.

WEB 2.0 is characterized by its interactive and social nature. It offers

dynamic, non-hierarchical and interactive platforms and paved way for the

emergence of new social media. Blogs, Twitter and Face book offer the best

examples for the new social media26.

Against the traditional communication channels, the new generation

communities are self-propelled and capable of re-engineering at any given

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point of time. These initiatives provided for the creation and development of

the smart mob. Smart mob always identify themselves as smart and dynamic

actors in the system thereby undermining the static participatory models.

Drucker (1990: 59) identifies the evolution of ‘mass movements’ in modern

societies. These movements are highly organized and effective in propelling

particular interests27.

Figure 1.1 Global Growth of Internet Users 2001-2011

Source ICT Statistics from ITU, http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics, Accessed on 22-05-2012.

*Estimated Users

The importance of internet and new social media is well

acknowledged by major state actors all over the world. Besides well laid

policies and programmes many countries include constitutional provisions

for the promotion of new social spaces. In countries such as Estonia, France,

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Finland, Greece and Spain, Internet access has already been made a human

right. With over Two Billion internet connections and an amazing growth

rate of 480% (During 2000-2010) the internet is becoming a popular tool in

developing social contacts and in organizing social actions. According to

ITU estimates, 45% of the world’s Internet users are below the age of 25.

This provides further rationality for the acceleration of E-Governance

initiatives. As such the penalty of control and limitation is high on the

authority and user side. Consequently connectivity and spectrum

infrastructure development is gaining priority in the agendas of state and non

state actors. This is not particular to democracy. Autocratic regime also

depends on internet for effective governance.(Lagerkvist, 2005; MacKinnon,

2008; Shie, 2004).

Table 1.1: Growth of Internet Users 2006-2011 (in Millions)

Area 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011**

Developed 649 720 755 781 840 915

Developing 503 653 826 1012 1209 1505

Total 1152 1373 1581 1793 2053 2420

Source, Compiled from Key Global Telecom Indicators for the World Telecommunication Service Sector, International Telecom Union. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/ at_glance/KeyTelecom.html, accessed on 13-05-2012.

*Estimated Value

1.4. E-Governance in India

In tune with the global trends, the E-Governance initiatives in India

started in early 70’s. But in the initial days policy makers were highly

sceptical about the role of computers and information technology. They held

on to the ‘screw driver’ technology in the field of information technology28.

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In late 80’s the then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi initiated the task of

computerization on a large scale. Many departments were computerized.

Documents were digitalized and government websites appeared.

The Information Technology Act-2000 gave legal sanctity to all

electronic records and other activities carried by electronic means. However

these efforts were proved to be insufficient to meet the expectations of the

people. Corruption free administration, Open Government, transparency and

participation still remained as unachievable goals. It is in this context that the

10th Five Year Plan observed that good governance is one of the most crucial

factors required, for achieving plan targets29. The plan documents stressed

institutional reforms, reforms on delivery mechanism and reforms in

supportive and subordinate framework of legislation. For this new model of

governance, the plan stresses effective use of Information and

Communication technologies30. The Eleventh five year plan (2007-12) states,

“The national E-Governance Plan is one of the major Eleventh Plan

initiatives that the department has prepared to contribute to the wider

development and progress of Indian society.” The department of Information

Technology initiated India Mission 2007 to setup one lakh service delivery

centers to the benefit of six lakh villages by the year 2007. The Electronics

Delivery of Services Bill 2011 guarantees that the government and all public

authorities shall deliver all public services by electronic mode within five

years. This will enhance transparency, efficiency, accountability,

accessibility and reliability in delivery of public services. The Government

of India also introduced a bill titled ‘The Right of Citizens for Time Bound

Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of Their Grievances Bill,

2011’. The bill advices the use of electronic means for better service

delivery.

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Even though efforts for E-Governance are still in developing stage,

observing other indicators like telephone subscriber growth of 1.86%

(Monthly), teledensity of 78.66%, personal computer growth of 29% and

mobile phone sector growth of 90%, it can be predicted that E-Governance

will have a determining role in deciding the governance of future India. The

Eleventh Five Year Plan provides for an assistance of Rs 2900 crore to states

under the head National E-Governance plan. The approach paper on the 12th

five year plan (2012-17) also identifies E-Governance as an effective tool in

attaining inclusive growth and good Governance.

Table 1.2: Telecom Subscription in India as on 31st March 2012

Sl. No. Particulars Wireless Wireline Total

1 Total Subscribers (Millions) 919.17 32.17 951.34

2 Urban Subscribers (Millions) 595.90 24.62 620.52

3 Rural Subscribers (Millions) 323.27 7.55 330.82

4 Overall Teledensity 76.00 2.66 78.66

5 Urban Teledensity 162.82 6.73 169.55

6 Rural Teledensity 38.33 0.89 39.22

Source, Press Release No. 86/2012, TRAI, New Delhi, 3rd May, 2012

Indian telecommunication industry is the worlds second-largest in

terms of number of subscribers, and the world's fastest growing market in

terms of number of new subscribers. India had 919.17 million mobile phone

subscribers at the end of March 2012. The country has the world's third

largest Internet users with over 121 million users (of whom 40 million use

the Internet via mobile phones) as of March 2012. According to TRAI

figures total Broadband subscriber base has increased from 13.54 million in

February 2012 to 13.79 million in March 2012, there by showing a growth of

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1.86% per month. The Yearly Growth (March 2011-March 2012) in

broadband customer base in India is 14.8%. As on December 2011, the

internet subscriber base in India is 22.39 million and number of wireless data

subscribers as on February 2012 is 431.37 million ( TRAI,2012:1).

1.5. The Research Problem

The deployment of Information and communication tools in the

governance process resulted in far reaching results. In the first place, it

provided for a participant and vibrant democracy. The emergence of new

social media strengthened the link between government and civil society.

Many of the apolitical structures were politicized with the interaction of new

technologies and media. The political public sphere also gained advantage

with the incessant flow of information and communication31. Together with

this there is a change in the representative- constituency relation. The

introduction of internet brought about radical changes in the pattern of

human life and behaviour. With their online experience people expect quick

decisions and fast answers and no more tolerate poor delivery in public

services. This requires a fundamental change in the attitude and structures of

service providers. It follows that the digital culture automatically retains its

foot prints in the governance environment. Thus local governance is facing a

necessary digital transformation.

The necessity of digital transformation being accredited, the

imminent issue is the implementation and management of these transition. In

a democracy this function is to be taken over by the public leaders. They

were to motivate and gear-up the public administration innovations. This is

possible only if the leaders are well familiarized with the pros and corns of

E-Governance. Their perception and acceptance of E-Governance are the

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foundations of overall transformation of society. This is very particular to

local governance in two aspects. Firstly the introduction of E-Governance in

local governance ensures smooth organizational management. The leaders

can effectively monitor the officials and the officials can limit political

excesses. Secondly elected officials can become more self sufficient and

independent with the digital personal aids and the resultant data sources.

Their constituency relations remain vibrant and active as people establish

online contacts with the representatives. This facilitates better democratic

deliberations. With regards to delivery in policies, ICT can enhance decision

making process by providing ample data and better resources. The decision

making process is further enabled with better and quick feedback provisions

of new technologies. Physical service delivery competencies were also

enhanced with the intervention of new ICT.

The state of Kerala has always been a role model for all other states

in the use of Information and Communication Technologies. The

Government of Kerala acknowledges the critical importance of Information

Technology as an instrument for the overall development of the state. The

state Government announced its first IT policy in 1998. It was followed by

IT policies in 2001 and 2008. The draft of 2011 IT policy is released and it

goes a further step by attempting to establish a Kerala brand of IT. With

globally acclaimed human development indicators in the field of health and

literacy32, it is a place where innovations are easy and necessarily plenty. In

connection with Information and Communication Technologies, Kerala has

the advantage of high tele-density and better infrastructure support that

extends even to the remotest villages. As on December 31, 2011, Kerala

occupies the second position in urban telephone density (254.7). In rural

telephone density Kerala gained third position during the period (56.63). In

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the case of overall teledensity Kerala occupies the fifth position (107.24). In

the case of mobile penetration Kerala has crossed the 100% mark and this

provides an ample environment for M-Governance initiatives in the state.

Many of the E-Governance initiatives in the state gained global reputation

and accreditations. Thus the state of Kerala is moving into an era of E-

Governance.

The District of Kannur occupies an important position in the political

map of Kerala. It was the venue of many agrarian and national movements.

Starting from the medieval periods, the land is well known as a hub of

famous centres of learning and culture. With respect to Local Self

Government it has many successful credentials. The peoples planning

programme got highest support from the district. In the case of

E-Governance, Kannur has many achievements. The Akshaya, E-Literacy

programme was successfully completed in the district, thus making the

district fully e-literate. It is the first district in the state, were Ente Gramam-

an e-portal of village community was introduced33. In a short span of time

Ente Gramam gained national and global attention. In 2010, Kannur was

declared as the first e- district in the state34.This was supplemented with

modernization of many government departments and functions in the district.

In the given context the response to these innovations are critical. In

the first instance the grass root level leaders must be equipped to meet the

challenges. It is the leaders who convey the message to the public in general.

Grounding on the highly politicized nature of the people in the district,

success of E-Governance initiatives highly depend on the attitudes and

approaches of political leaders. With the growing demand for

decentralization, local governance structures are to become the key players

in future governance systems. Any governance innovations should address

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these grass root organizations. But there should be more subsequent physical

and mental infrastructures to support the new format of governance. As far

as the literature available with the researcher suggests no study has been

conducted in this line. The few available studies are general in nature and

majority of the literature deals with e-literacy projects. There were also few

attempts to map the IT industry and IT scenario in the state. It is in this

context that the present study focused on acceptance and perception of

representatives on E-Governance in grass root institutions is undertaken.

1.6. Theoretical Foundations

For theoretical support the study relies upon the network society

concept of Manuel Castells. Theories of information society appeared in

early 70’s. In 1973, Daniel Bell discussed the coming of post industrial

societies. For this society, information is the steering mechanism. Bell was

followed by Herbert Schiller, who identified commodification of information

as the most significant feature of information society (Nayar, 2004). Peter F

Drucker (Drucker, 1980,1990,1993) anticipated the coming of mass

movements and new forms of organization. At a later stage, Pippa Norris

interpreted the post industrial societies in terms of ‘virtual democracy’

concept (Norris, 2000a:120-121). Jurgen Habermas argued on the existence

of a public sphere. To Habermas the public sphere is an essential component

of sociopolitical organization because it is the space where people come

together as citizens and articulate their autonomous views to influence the

political institutions of society. Information is to be the heart of the new

public sphere. Public sphere theories were further elaborated with Graham

(1999:37) where internet is described as a transformative technology. The

situation is well described by Papacharissi,

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The fact that people from different cultural backgrounds, states, or countries involve themselves in virtual political discussions in a matter of minutes, often expanding each other’s horizons with culturally diverse viewpoints, captures the essence of this technology. The value of the virtual sphere lies in the fact that it encompasses the hope, speculation, and dreams of what could be (Papacharissi, 2000:23).

To Manuel Castells, there is a shift from a public sphere anchored

around the national institutions of territorially bound societies to a public

sphere constituted around the media system including the internet35. The

multi modal functionality of the new medium is expanding the horizons of

public sphere (Castells,2008:90)36.The fragmented hyperpluralism of the

new media is encouraging interaction and exchange within social groups

sharing similar beliefs and values (Norris, 2002a:4). The resultant

ideological homogeneity strengthen the network bonds and provide further

impetus for demand articulation and social solidarity37.

In his celebrated work, The Rise of the Network Society (1996)

Castells argues that a new social structure is in the making, the Network

Society. Net work is essentially the foundation of the new social organisation

and its process. To him “our societies are increasingly structured around a

bipolar opposition between the ‘Net’ and the ‘Self’ (Castells, 1996:3). The

network logic suggests that with the growth of networks penality of being

outside the network increases38. The network society is specifically tuned for

inclusion and empowerment. Castells afirms:

The net is particularly suited for the development of multiple weak ties. Weak ties are useful in providing information and opening up opportunities at a low cost. The advantage of net is that it allows the forging of weak ties with strangers, in an eagalitarian pattern of interaction, wher social characteristics are less influential in

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framing, or even blocking communications. Indeed offline and online, weak ties facilitate linking of people with different social characteristics, thus expanding sociablity beyond the socially defined boundaries of self recognition (Castells, 1996: 388).

In the second book on information society, Castells (1997) probes the

transformation of state, politics and democracy under the condition of

globalisation and new communication technologies. During the reign of

information, the organisation and strategies of political system are becoming

obsolete. Their autonomy is being denied by the flow of information39. The

argument is ,“ Politics is fundamentally framed in its substance, organisation

, process and leadership by the inherent logic of media system, particularly

by the new electronic media” (Castells,1997: 375). The cultural trajectory of

network society is also determined by communication technologies (Castells,

2011:776)40.Consequently there is strong evidences for the development of a

new pattern of sociability based on networked individualism (Castells, 2007:

240).

The network society concept establish that new technologies

contribute to enhance participation in local government41. As societies are

becoming highly networked, it is essential to approach the representative-

constituency communication through the net work approach. People are

becoming more and more expectant of the outcome of policies and are

having wider information avenues to monitor and control the policy regime.

On the other hand, the emergence of new ICT made positive strides at the

representative level. With the networked enviornment the decision support

systems of representatives are considerably enlarged and constituency

monitoring is becoming an easy job. The net work logic also pressurises the

delivery mechanisms to produce efficient and speedy results. Thus the

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process of local governance and the social settings of any given locality can

be studied only in the larger frame work of network society.

1.7. Operational Definitions

The study makes use of some technical terms and usages. For the

purpose of research these terms are standardized and are defined in practical

terms.

Acceptance: For the present study acceptance is defined as a level of

affirmative responses measured in terms of actual usage and possession.

Blog: Blog is a website usually maintained by a person with regular entries

of commentary, description of happenings, graphics or video. Readers were

allowed to post comments on the entries.

Broadband: High-performance telecommunications connection that is always

on (i.e. does not require dial-up as for a telephone), enabling users to access

and interact with other people and a variety of multimedia information,

services, and technologies via Internet, Web, cable, and other capabilities.

The data transmission speed varies according to national regulations. In India

Broadband is defined as the line which carries a data at the speed of 250

Kbps or more.

Chat room: A virtual space on the Internet where online users can enter and

exchange comments, typically focused on a particular topic.

Cybercrime: Criminal acts, such as fraud, committed using the Internet and

other computer-based systems.

Cyberspace: A way of referring to the online world encompassed by the use

of the Internet and other ICT networks.

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E-Governance: E-Governance denotes the application of Information and

Communication Technology in the governance process of state and civil

society.

Hotspot: Location where a Wi-Fi wireless broadband link is accessible.

ICT: The operational definition of Information and Communication

Technology for the purpose of this study is, ‘All the digital technologies that

aid Information and Communication Process’. This includes fixed phones,

mobile phones, computers, internet and television.

Internet: A network of computer networks around the world based on

standards and protocols that enable computers in different networks to

communicate with each other.

Local area network/ Intranet: ICT network covering a relatively small local

area, such as a house, school, office, coffee bar, farm, or neighborhood.

Micro chip: A thin slice of silicon, containing large numbers of integrated

circuits used for processing and storing information in computers.

Perception: Perception is defined as the level of understanding reflected in

attitudes and orientations.

Search engine: Software, such as Google, that uses keywords specified by

the user to find relevant information on the Web.

Smart Phone- Smart phone is defined as that mobile communication

instrument which provides for 3G or higher range of data communication.

Social Network Service- A web based service that provides tools to build

social networks or social relationships. A social network service basically

contains a profile or representation of each user, his/her social links and

variety of other services.

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Twitter- A free social networking and micro blogging service that enables

users to send and read messages known as tweets.

Virus: A software program designed to infiltrate, take control of, or damage

the recipient’s computer system, including spreading the virus quickly

around the world by using the recipient’s computer.

Web: The World Wide Web containing multimedia information in a vast

number of computer- based Websites around the world that can be accessed

via the Internet through a simple user interface.

Website: One of the computer-based repositories of information and other

digital resources that can be searched and accessed through the Web.

3G- A multimedia technology for mobile cell phones with the potential for

transmissions at speeds in the lower end of the broadband range offering

video, Internet access, and other advanced communication capabilities in

addition to basic telephony and texting.

Title of the Study

The title of the study is Acceptance and Perception of E-Governance

among Elected Representatives of Local Bodies in Kannur District.

1.8. Objectives of the Study

1. To examine the level of acceptance of E-Governance among the

elected representatives of Local Bodies in Kannur District.

2. To assess the perception of E-Governance among the elected

representatives of Local Bodies in Kannur District.

3. To identify the socio-economic characteristics of respondents and to

assess their acceptance and perception of E-Governance with respect

to selected socio-economic factors.

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4. To find out the barriers to the acceptance of E-Governance among the

elected representatives of Local Bodies in Kannur District and to give

suggestions for improvement.

1.9. The Hypotheses of the Study

1. The acceptance of E-Governance (reflected in actual usage and

possession) among the elected representatives of Local Bodies in

Kannur District is low.

2. There is significant change in the acceptance of E-Governance

among elected representatives of Local Bodies in Kannur District

after getting elected.

3. There is significant change in the acceptance of E-Governance

among elected representatives of Local Bodies in Kannur District in

relation to selected socio-demographic factors- domicile status, sex,

religion, age, political affiliation, education and income.

4. There is significant change in the perception of E-Governance among

elected representatives of Local Bodies in Kannur District in relation

to selected socio-demographic factors- age, sex, domicile status,

religion, political affiliation, education, official status, term in office,

income, profession and degree of political engagement.

5. The elected representatives of Local Bodies in Kannur District

possess a high perception about the use of E-Governance.

1.10. Methodology of the study

The universe of the study is the representatives of Local Self

Governments in the district of Kannur. The study is conducted among the

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elected members of Municipalities and GramPanchayats in the district. In the

case of municipalities samples were taken from all the six municipalities.

Gram Panchayats were divided on the basis of geography and samples were

taken from East, West, South, North and Central parts of the district. In this

effort 51% of the Gram Panchayats were covered. As the general features of

the population is already known the samples were limited to 10% of the

population.

For sampling purpose, a multistage sampling method was adopted.

Initially, quota was assigned to Municipalities and Panchayats. From each

category, further quota was designed on the basis of gender. This was done

in tune with the reservation of seats in the local bodies. The individual

samples were taken according to stratified random sampling technique.. Thus

the sample contains 159 elected representatives of Local Bodies in the

district. The data were collected from the respondents during July 2011 to

November 2011.

The study made use of questionnaires, field observation and

interviews. The workings of certain government initiatives that make use of

E-Governance were also examined. For this purpose some services were

examined through experimental method. Certain real time services were

requested from E-Governance initiatives and effectiveness of the same was

evaluated. This was supplemented with on site status verification of different

government websites.

The respondents were provided with a questionnaire to gauge their

perception and acceptance of E-Governance. Acceptance of E-Governance

is measured in terms of the possession of tools and usage patterns. It

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indicates the individual usage level in personal and public life. Perception is

defined in terms of sensitivity and measured with psychological scales.

Government officials and subject experts in the field of Information

Technology and local governance were consulted before finalizing the

questionnaire. The results were subjected to analysis using statistical

techniques and tools including averages, dispersion, percentages,

independent sample t-test, one way ANOVA and paired sample t-test. For

this purpose SPSS 16.0 version was used.

1.11. Limitations of the Study

The present study is conducted within the framework of scientific

norms pertaining to survey- based social science research. Possible cautions

are adopted to control observational and interpretational limitations.

However, the subjects of the study being human actors, the samples may not

represent complete group as such. Statistical tools have been used to reduce

sampling errors. The concept of E-Governance is vibrant and dynamic. The

nature and course of technology change at every instant. Every change in

technology influences the pattern and methodology of E-Governance. In this

case the study has taken possible care to incorporate the latest technologies

of the day, available within the time frame.

1.12. Chapterisation

The study is divided into seven chapters. The first chapter introduces

the idea of E-Governance. It starts from the impact of technology on

government and describes the shift from government to governance. The

evolution of information society is also examined. Consequently the network

theory of Castells is focused to explain the theoretical foundations of the

study. The concept of E-Governance is explained and its impact on the

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representative –constituency relation is explored. The introduction part also

deals with the relevance of the research questions. The methodology of the

study is also explained in detail. In this connection the few limitations are

also admitted. The chapter ends with an outline of the various chapters in the

work.

The second chapter deals with the review of existing literature on the

topic of E-Governance. Here the literature is classified into 15 sections. They

are; 1. Network society and public sphere, 2. New Social Capital,

3. Transformative Discourse, 4. Democracy and Good Governance, 5. New

Social Media, 6. Public Management, 7. Regulatory Framework, 8. Human

Rights, 9. Mobile Phone and Information Society, 10. Technology and

Divide, 11. The Gender Concerns, 12. Rural Development and Technology,

13. Local Governance and E-Governance, 14. Indian Scenario and, 15. ICT

in Kerala.

The third chapter provides an overview of E-Governance. The

historical development of ICT propelled governance is traced out. Special

reference is made to the reinventing government movement. The network

society concept is closely examined with reference to the public sphere and

social capital. The fourth chapter of the study is devoted to the

E-Governance initiatives in India. It starts with a historical narrative of

E-Governance in India. Various programmes and policies of the Government

of India in relation to E-Governance are outlined. The E-Governance

initiatives by the states and other government and public entities are

examined.

The fifth chapter of the study attempts to bring out a clear sketch of

E-Governance initiatives in Kerala. The evolution of E-Governance in

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Kerala is examined. E-Governance Initiatives by various government

departments and other entities are critically evaluated. The content and user

friendliness of selected initiatives are verified. Special attention is given to

the E-Governance initiatives in Local Self Government in the state. The

special significance of Kannur district in the study of E-Governance is also

illustrated.

Data analysis and interpretation is the focus of the sixth chapter. The

data are examined with the help of statistical tools and interpretations are

made accordingly.

The last chapter summarizes the study with the findings. Based upon

the findings certain recommendations are made for the improvement of E-

Governance initiatives. Avenues for further research are also incorporated.

Notes

1 It is argued that the formation of political society itself is credited to the development of technologies. Jean Jacques Rousseau, in his ‘social contract’ explains the origin of society in terms of technologies. Many theorists argue that the human society is made possible through technology. For an argument see Reach (2005).

2 Lenski (1987) makes the position clear in the statement, “Members of modern societies are not nearly so passive. New information in areas ranging from science to history has improved their understanding of human nature and of the world they inhabit, while new technological information has increased their capacity to adapt to that world. The result has been a growing awareness of humanity’s potential for shaping its own future. This basic belief underlies all of the new ideologies of the industrial era, and the members of modern societies have come to rely increasingly on these new ideologies, and less and less on traditional ones, in their efforts to control their lives and to shape the life of society as a whole”. (Lenski & Lenski 1987:269).

3 The five paradigms are, 1, Empiricism which speaks about concrete evidences, 2, Rationalism which deals with intellectual and deductive criteria’s of truth, 3,

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Kantianism which attempts for a different perspective to obtain a complete picture of phenomenon, 4, Hegelian dialectics that uses dialectic logic as an exchange of propositions and counter propositions to reach synthesis and, 5, Sinergian Pragmatism which probes deep into the modalities of knowledge dissemination. This stream of thought identifies human progress as more fundamental and important than the realization of ultimate truth.

4 Marx in his celebrated work on Capitalism traces out the development of Machinery. He says, “Like every other instrument for increasing the productivity of labour, machinery is intended to cheapen commodities and, by shortening the part of working day in which the worker works for him, to lengthen the other part, the part he gives to the capitalist for nothing. The machine is a means for producing surplus value”. (Marx, 1847:492).

5 To Marx technology is not a mere instrument which remains external to the purpose of human beings; rather it is a force which shapes the totality of social, economic and ideological relationships which constitutes the mode of production. Karl Marx in ‘Poverty of Philosophy’, quoted in Abbinett (2006).

6 For example J.S. Mill in his book ‘On Liberty’ strongly argues for individual initiatives. Refer Mill (1859:180). In ‘Principles of Political Economy’ he is concerned with potentials of technology in reducing human toil.

7 The technological revolution was a pre-condition for democratic revolutions. Tortella (2010) holds that, “The scientific – technical revolution was necessary for the democratic revolutions of twentieth century. Without great economic development, democracy would not have succeeded, and without the drive provided by technical progress the economy would not have grown as it has”. (Tortella, 2010:145).

8 There is evident change in the structure and logic of organizations in the information age. The argument is that the boundary limited organizations of the industrial society is to be restructured on the logic of networks. According to this view the most important characteristic of any organization is its range and number of points of connection.

9 The Utilitarian movement which ignited many new political experimentations including adult franchise was the result of industrial revolution which created a new middle class. The new middle class argued for the renovation of feudalist institutions which led to large democratization of the British polity.

10 Information society is characterized by a social organization in which information gathering, processing and transmission becomes fundamental source of productivity and power. Manuel Castells observes, “What characterizes the current technological innovation is not the centrality of knowledge and information, but the application of such knowledge and information to knowledge generation and information processing/ communication devices, in a

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cumulative feedback loop between innovation and the use of innovation” Castells (1996:31).

11 In the strict sense the term ICT includes not only the digital or electronic means. It includes every communication tools. For example, UNESCO’s use of the term refers to all forms of technology that are utilized to transmit, process, store, create, display, share or exchange information by electronic means. This broad definition of ICT includes radio, television, video, DVD, telephone (both fixed line and mobile phones), satellite systems, and computer. But in the present context the term ICT mainly targets digital technologies including computer, internet, mobile phone and the like.

12 The word ‘network’ describes a structural condition whereby distinct points (nods) are related to one another by connections. These connections are typically multiple, intersecting and often redundant. A net work exists when many nodes are linked to many other nodes, usually by many ties which cross the ‘ties connecting other nodes’. See Barney (2004:23).

13 “Technological changes affect not only the material progress of the society but also non-material aspects of life. New information technology creeps into personal privacy, even though they make financial transactions more convenient and cost effective. New medical technologies bring better comfort in life, but challenge the fundamental concept of life. Transport and communication technologies make the society more mobile, but undermine our concept of community. New technologies change the possibilities and costs of achieving or of circumventing valued outcomes and thereby change the values themselves.” (Ghose, 2007:208).

14 Teich (2005) observes “Governments have been involved with technology through out human history, at least since the day of the Pharaoh’s in ancient Egypt. Military technology was essential to the power of modern governments, and modern governments employ technology to stimulate economic growth, improve their citizen’s standard of living and pursue missions in other areas, including environment, public health and defense.” See. Teich (2005).

15 Norris (1999) observes, “There are now globally, more critical citizens, who value democracy as an ideal yet who remain dissatisfied with the performance of their political system and particularly the core institutions of representative government”. (Norris, 1999:264).

16 The term governance accommodates formal and informal structures in the decision making process. Government is only one of the actors in the process, leaving larger room for civil society and its institutions. The governance theme is associated with good governance which implies participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive governance which follows the rule of law.

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17 For a discussion see, Bingham et al. (2005).

18 The clarification is from Rosenau, cited by Bingham et al.(2005:548).

19 According to Bingham, Government occurs when those with legally and formally derived authority and policing power execute and implement activities; governance refers to the creation, execution, and implementation of activities backed by the shared goals of citizens and organizations, who may or may not have formal authority and policing power. As an activity, governance seeks to share power in decision making, encourage citizen autonomy and independence, and provide a process for developing the common good through civic engagement.

20 The World Bank developed six indicators for good governance, called Kaufmann-Kraay-Mastruzzi Worldwide Governance Indicators and they are voice and accountability. Political Stability and Lack of Violence, Government Effectiveness, Regulatory Quality, Rule of Law and Control of Corruption.

21 It is pointed that the state is to take a difficult but inevitable choice. “The state not only needs to be strong but also sensitive. It needs to perform multiple roles- of provider, facilitator and promoter. The state needs to walk along a narrow path flanked by two dangerous crevices. On the left there is the risk of falling into behavior that is dominating, totalitarian, hegemonic and centralized. On the right there is the risk of falling into behavior that is laissez faire, shrunken and powerless to control the market. To walk the path involves a difficult balancing act, yet, if citizen needs are to be satisfied, this is what the state must do”. Knight et al.(2006:163).

22 APJ Abdul Kalam notes, “The internet revolution has proved to be a powerful tool for good governance initiatives. An important dimension of the internet potential is the possibility of providing any time- anywhere services. Along with this, there is a conscious effort to place the citizen at the centre of focus of governance where citizens are being perceived as customers and clients”. See Kalam (2005:37).

23 Dawes (2008) examines E-Governance in terms of five interrelated objectives. They are 1, Policy frame Work, 2, Public Services,3 Government Operations, 4, Citizen engagements and 5, Administrative and institutional reforms. See Dawes (2008:587).

24 Development and use of ICT gained priority in the agenda of UN agencies and global funding agencies like World Bank. For example, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) prescribed by United Nations targets the technology proliferation. Target 18 of MDG stress on availing the benefit of new Information and Communication Technologies in co-operation with the private sector. See www.un.org/millenniumgoals/.../The%20Millennium%20 Development%20Goals%20Report%20200, Accessed on 17-09-2011.

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25 The term ‘Web 2.0’ was coined by Darcy DiNucci in 1999 in the article

"Fragmented Future”. In Web 2.0 software applications are built upon the Web as opposed to upon the desktop. Web 2.0 concepts have led to the development and evolution of web-based communities, hosted services, and applications such as social-networking sites, video-sharing sites, wikis, blogs etc. It is characterized by interactive nature and instant response.

26 The specialty of these networks is that they are highly solid and operate in real time frameworks. For instance, an adverse public policy or an off-hand statement from a politician often results in vehement traffic in online forums. This is well evidenced with the Philippine ‘Smart Mob’ of 2001. On January 17, 2001, during the impeachment trial of Philippine President Joseph Estrada, loyalists in the Philippine congress voted to set aside the key evidence against him. Less than two hours after the decision was announced, thousands of Filipinos, angry that their corrupt president might be left off the hook, converged in Manila. The protest was arranged, in part, by forwarded text messages reading, “GO 2EDSA, WEAR Blk”. The crowd quickly swelled, and in the next few days, over a million people arrived, choking traffic in Manila. It is estimated that Seven million messages were sent within a week. Despite the supportive attitude of the Congress the president was sent out of power within three days. See Shirky (2011:28).

27 Drucker observes that a new pattern of pluralism is evolving in developed countries. It is performance- focused, single task institutions. The new mass movements of this pluralist environment are minority in strength but are highly effective with their single- interest focus.

28 The screw driver technology means importing parts and assembles them at home. Up to 1984, manufacture of computer in the private sector was strictly banned in India. See, Subramanian (1992).

29 The 10th plan document makes it clear that “E-Governance has to be a priority area in the Tenth Plan and a clear roadmap to make it a national programme must be formulated without any delay”. Planning Commision (2008,Vol.2:816).

30 The major E-Governance targets were introduced in the plan document. It states, “In the Tenth Plan it is proposed to focus on the re-engineering of procedures and rules which are in fact the core of any effective programme of E-Governance. The master plan for E governance for the Tenth Plan emphasizes the need for a focused vision about the objectives of introducing E-Governance. The range and standards of delivery to be achieved within well defined time frames will need to be clearly laid down. Due attention will be given to the sustainability, interactivity and standardization of any E-Governance activities. Resources will be raised both from the public and private sectors. Within the ambit of E-Governance, it will be necessary to develop G2G, G2C, G2B functionalities. One of the major initiatives envisaged

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in the IT sector is to take IT to the masses”. See Planning Commission (2008,Vol.2:187-188).

31 The notion of the political public sphere centered on the idea that private persons might come together through reasoned communication to consider public issues and inform public policy. Because the parties would be well formed individual persons, and because their discourse would be both rational and critical, the resulting public opinion would be a productive resource for guiding society, not the lowest common denominator of popular passions. This process of opinion formation is greatly enhanced by the intervention of new media.

32 According to the 2011 population census data Kerala state is having the highest literacy rate of 93.91 against the national average of 74.04%. The state of Mizoram stands second with 91.58% literacy. See Government of India (2011:9).

33 The word ‘Entegramam’ in Malayalam means ‘My village’. The project was launched in 2008 with the financial support of UNESCO in nine Gram Panchayats and one Municipality in Kannur district.

34 E--District proposes integrated, seamless, and online delivery of citizen services at the district level through automation of workflow, backend digitization, integration and process redesign. This project proposes to deliver around 50 services on-line at the district level and its subordinate offices. In the initial stage Kannur and Palakkad districts were selected for the project, vide G.O. (Rt) No.83/ 2009 /ITD Dated Thiruvanthapuram, 18-04-2009.

35 Castells comments, “I contend that social power throughout history, but even more so in the network society, operates primarily by the construction of meaning in the human mind through processes of communication. In the network society, this is enacted in global/local multimedia networks of mass communication, including mass self-communication, that is, the communication organized around the Internet and other horizontal digital communication networks.” See Castells (2011:779).

36 “To harness the power of the world’s public opinion through global media and Internet networks is the most effective form of broadening political participation on a global scale, by inducing a fruitful, synergistic connection between the government-based international institutions and the global civil society. This multimodal communication space is what constitutes the new global public sphere”. Castells. (2008:90).

37 Piipa Norris (2002a) clarifies the situation, “The Internet is a medium where users have almost unlimited choices and minimal constraints about where to go and what to do. Commitments to any particular online group can often be shallow and transient when another is but a mouse click away. Most purely

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online communities without any physical basis are usually low-cost, “easy-entry, easy-exit” groups. To avoid cognitive dissonance, it is simpler to exit than to work through any messy bargaining and conflictual disagreements within the group. Like adherents to particular left-wing or rightwing talk radio shows, or readers of highly partisan newspapers, the result of participating in online communities could be expected to reinforce like-minded beliefs, similar interests, and therefore ideological homogeneity among members”. Norris (2002a:4).

38 This argument is deducted from Metcalfe Law proposed by Robert Metcalfe (1973). The law estimates the value of network (V) as, V= N(N-1), where N is the number of nodes in the network.

39 “Interactive electronic communication and particularly wireless communication, provides a powerful platform for political autonomy on the basis of independent channels of autonomous communication, from person to person and from group to group…The network logic of the communication process makes it a high volume communication channel, but with a high degree of personalization and interactivity…”. Castells et al. (2006:266).

40 “In the network society, culture is mostly embedded in the processes of communication, particularly in the electronic hypertext, with the global multimedia business networks and the Internet at its core”. Castells (2011:776).

41 See, Castells,(1997:415).