Rocky Plateaus Aparna Watve

Rocky plateaus (Northern Western Ghats and Konkan)

Aparna Watve, draft version

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Rocky plateaus

(special focus on the Western Ghats and Konkan)

Aparna Watve

BIOME

34/6, Gulawani Maharaj Road,

Pune 411 004.

Prepared for submission to the

WGEEP

2010



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Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Study area

Chapter 3: Biotic environment

Chapter 4: People and Plateaus

Chapter 5: Conservation

Chapter 6: Recommendations

References

Acknowledgment



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Chapter 1

Introduction

The Western Ghats

The Western Ghats is an imposing north-south hill range that forms the western edge of the

Deccan plateau. The Konkan-Malabar region, is a narrow coastal belt that extends parallel to

the Western Ghats, having some outliers like Matheran hills.

The Western Ghats hilltops are characteristically flat tabletops or mesas. The Konkan-

Malabar zone has large plateaus along the coast. The plateau surfaces of present are remnants

of original plain which has been altered considerably due to physical as well as chemical

weathering processes. In many areas the plateaus have large open rocky areas devoid of or

having very less amount of soil.

The toposheets of the region often mark these rocky plateaus as “rocky scrub” or “rocky

waste” or simply as sheet rock. Owing to the scarcity of woody species or forest cover, the

plateaus appear devoid of vegetation in the Remote Sensing images. This is probably the

reason why many of the rocky plateaus are identified as “wastelands” of category “Barren

Rocky Area” as per the department of Land Resources mapping of wastelands in India.

This paper describes in detail the physical and biological environment of the rocky plateaus in

the Western Ghats and Konkan region of Maharashtra.

Based on close observation, qualitative study and quantitative assessment it evaluates the

biodiversity of the rocky plateaus, which are “special habitats” of conservation importance.

Despite the fact that rock outcrops habitats (See Box) form striking landscape elements

throughout India and often have an immense cultural and religious importance, very few have

been studied for their biodiversity values. This paper is based on surveys carried out on rocky

plateau habitats between 2001 to 2010. It quotes observations from a quantitative study on

plant communities on the rocky plateaus of the Northern Western Ghats. Similar plateaus

exist in Karnataka, Goa and Kerala, and some observations from these states are also

reported.

Rock outcrops is a recognized habitat category under IUCN habitat classification. They are

generally defined as portions of exposed bedrock protruding above the soil level due to

geological activities. The term includes landforms ranging from cliffs, isolated hills and

platforms with diverse geology. Wiser & White (1999) identified rock outcrops as distinct

from the surrounding areas by having on average 55% ground surface of exposed rock

while S. Porembski & W. Barthlott, have stressed on the naturally formed or primary

outcrops which are exposed due to geological reasons such as volcanism, weathering etc.

(Porembski and Barthlott, 2000). Open rocky areas in the form of naturally exposed plateaus,



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monoliths, koppjes or cliffs are major components of the landscape in India, but are under

heavy biotic pressure.

The Rocky Plateaus

The northern sector of the Western Ghats and the Konkan lies approximately between 15060’-

20075’N and is is composed entirely of Deccan flood basalts, except in the southernmost tip

of Konkan. Details of origin, evolution and geomorphology of these regions are given by

Gunnell and Radhakrishna (2001). Many of the plateaus in region have undergone heavy

weathering and have well formed soil layers which support woody or forest growth. The

forest-clad plateaus have been discussed in many of the Western Ghats papers on vegetation

(Puri and Mahajan 1960; Pascal, 1988, Ghate, et al. 1997).

Many plateaus have rocky surface exposed as a result of lateritisation. In some parts the

laterite cap has eroded to expose the basalt again in the form of a rocky plateaus. There are

many similarities in species lists on rocky or soil-clad plateaus mainly due to the altitude

specificity of some of the species of plants and animals ex. Pinda concanensis. However,

present paper focuses on the flora and fauna specific to the rocky plateaus, comparing

only briefly with soil clad plateaus.

State of Art

The distinctness of rock outcrops from the surrounding is a major factor which leads to

exclusivity of the plant diversity on them. Hence, they have been described as “terrestrial

habitat islands” and the microhabitats on them as “islands upon islands” (Porembski et al.

2000). A large body of literature, exclusively on rock outcrops, exists for Africa, north and

south America and Australia. Azonal vegetation on tropical inselbergs in Africa, Australia

and America has been studied in depth (Burbanck and Platte, 1964; Wyatt, 1997; Porembski

& Barthlott, 2000a; Burke, 2002).

The geology and geomorphology of the Western Ghats has been a subject of great discussion

(Gunnell, 2001). Hence the origin and distribution of the rock outcrops especially of laterite

(= ferricretes) and also of basalt in northern Western Ghats is very well documented.

Geomorphologists and geologists like Fox (1923) have conducted intensive documentation of

hard rocky plateaus (=duricrusts) and mineral resources associated with it. But very little data

is available on the biodiversity aspects. Regional floristic studies have reported presence of

many narrow niched endemics and habitat specialist plants from low as well as high-level

rocky plateaus (Bachulkar, 1983; Deshpande et al., 1993a,b; Mishra & Singh, 2001; Yadav &

Sardesai, 2002; Joshi & Janarthanam 2004, Jagadale & Kanwar undated). Bharucha and

Ansari (1963) carried out some studies to analyze herbaceous vegetation in relation to soil,

slope and aspect on the slopes and screes of Western Ghats but detailed enumeration was not



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made. Chavan et al (1973) studied the Kas area near Satara, but did not restrict the study to

rocky parts. Ferricretes (=lateritic plateaus) exist in many countries, but very few ecological

studies have been conducted. They are known to be rich in species diversity, endemics and

edaphic specialists (Verboom & Pate, 2001) but only a few studies describe their vegetation

(Porembski et al., 1994; 1997, Porembski and Watve, 2005).

The lack of baseline information regarding the outcrops ecology has hampered efforts of

conservation. It is beyond the scope of this review to make a complete enumeration of the all

rock outcrops (ferricretes, basalt mesas, cliffs) in the Western Indian region. But it tries to

give an in-depth understanding of plant species and community diversity on rocky plateaus,

their patterns and effect of biotic pressures. Based on this, aims to

� identify ecologically sensitive areas,

� define conservation priorities,

� make management recommendations



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Chapter 2

Geology, geomorphology and geography

The Western Ghats stretches from Navapur on Gujarat-Maharashtra border till Kerala and is

almost continuous except a gap near Palaghat. It thus traverses through diverse bioclimatic

zones, and has a pronounced N-S gradient of increasing dry period. The Western Ghats in

Maharashtra and Goa differ in geology and bioclimate from the southern sector. The crest of

the Northern Western Ghats is around 1000m reaching to 1400m ASL at some places (e.g.

Mahabaleshwar). Jog et al. (2002) have described the general geology of the northern section

of Western Ghats. The base rock basalt has weathered to laterite on top, but the cover of

laterite has eroded in most places and remains only as caps on the summits of the Western

Ghats escarpment, especially in portion south of 18020’N (Widdowson and Cox 1996).

Laterites have also formed on the Deccan traps lavas along the plain of the Konkan-Malabar

coast. North of 18020’N (roughly Mahabaleshwar area), the lower basalt is exposed on the

summits again in the form of plateaus.

BOX 1. Laterite is a metamorphic type of rock observed in many areas with current or past

humid environments. It is a product of intense chemical weathering under leaching

environment and subsequent or simultaneous induration (Jog et al. 2002). It is rich in oxides

of iron and aluminum.

The primary division of rocky plateaus is made on the substrate as the lateritic plateaus

(laterite mesas/ferricretes) and the basaltic plateaus (=basalt mesas).

A. Ferricretes are indurated platforms of laterite typically with wide and flat to gently

sloping plateau-like tops and sharp escarpments marking the edges. Most floristic literature of

the region refers to these as “lateritic plateaus”, without making distinction between the

rocky lateritic plateaus and latiritic soil clad plateaus.

High level ferricretes: are seen between 150N to 18

020’N. They are extended inland

to 740E. These occur in Satara and Kolhapur districts of Maharashtra and in part of

Sangli, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg districts which stretch up to the Western Ghats

crestline. These are located between 800- 1200m ASL Photo 1a

Low level ferricretes: on the interfluves of the Konkan plains are much more

extensively preserved than the high level carapace. They occur in Raigad, Ratnagiri

and Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra, entire Karnataka and Kerala coast. These



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extend between the entire areas from sea coast to the foothills of the Western Ghats.

These are located between 50-200 m ASL. Photo 1b

Ferricretes are commonly known as “tablelands” owing to the wide flat or undulating rock

surfaces surrounded by steep edges. Locally they are known as “Sadas” in Marathi. But the

term is also applied to secondary exposures. Although personal observations indicates

presence of lateritic plateaus in between Belgaum to Chorla area, they are not as extensive as

those seen in Kolhapur or Satara districts.

B. Basalt plateaus- The basalt mesas are seen between 18020’ N-21

0N and 73

035’ to 73

050’

E. Photo 2. These are areas where the upper layers of laterite have eroded to expose the lower

basalt flows, and hence can occur at any altitude depending upon the degree of weathering

(e.g. most forts of the region have exposed basalt outcrops). The basalt outcrops at altitudes

900-1100m ASL at the crest of the Ghats are comparable with the ferricretes in flora and

fauna. They occur in Pune, Akole, Ahmednagar and Nashik districts. Locally in some areas

they are known as “katal”, or “kharam” lands. Katal is a term also seen applied to lateritic

plateaus but and more studies are required to understand the local terminology and use.

The terminology:

The correct technical terms to be used for the plateau types will be ferricretes (high level and

low level) and basalt outcrops. However, the more familiar terms lateritic plateau and basalt

plateau are chosen in this paper as they are widely used in the local floristic and faunal

literature. But the terms are used only in the sense of the “rocky plateaus” in this review.

The correct technical term use needs to be increased, especially in scientific literature and

with full understanding of the meaning.

The study:

The earliest exploration visits were made in 2001 and rigorous records of sites and local

diversity were kept. Between 2003- 2006 a quantitative study was conducted on the Northern

Western Ghats rocky plateaus with support of Department of Science and Technology. At the

same time short studies were carried out in the Panchgani plateaus (with support of Agharkar

Research Institute and Bombay Environmental Action Group) and on Konkan plateaus.

Qualitative observations continued from 2006 onwards till the time of writing this paper. The

findings presented here are thus a result of 10 years of observations both qualitative and

quantitative. In addition the study also quotes from the voluminous floristic literature

available from the region and faunal surveys.



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Basalt plateaus mapped in

white on Google Earth. Most

are too small in extent to be

visible at this scale.

Laterite plateaus roughly

between 16015’ to 180

From: Widdowson and Cox

(1996)

Grey and black areas are the

rocky plateaus.

Laterite plateaus roughly

between 80 to 150

From: Gunnell (2001)

Dark grey and black areas are

rocky plateaus



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Distribution Map based on RS and ground truthing

in the northern sector of the Western Ghats and Konkan

observation sites in red

List Of Localities

High Level Ferricretes:

Panhala, Amboli, Idarganj, Sawrai, Borbet, Burki, Masai, Girgao, Malaiwad, Wadi

Dhopeshwar, Zenda , Amba, Gothane , Mhavashi , Thoseghar, Chalkewadi, Boposhi, Kas, Khingar, Mahabaleshwar, Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, Dandeghar

Low Level Ferricretes:

Mollem (Goa), Savantwadi, Nerurpar, Kudal, Aare , Deogad, Talebazar, Achirne

Jaitapur, Rajapur, Navazarwadi, Guravvadi, Dorle, Dingni, Ratnagiri, Vayangani, Deverukh,

Ratnagiri, Jakadevi, Pachir , Dodavli, Abloli -Jambhari , Abloli, Male, Dhopave, Chikhalgaon, Nante, Tere Vayangani, Olgaon, Umbarle, Nigde

Basalt Mesas:

Korigad, Sakharpathar, Kune, Matheran, Terungan, Durguwadi, Warsubai,Naneghat, Malshej

Ghat Area, Harishchandragad, Anjaneri



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Abiotic environment

The regional climate is monsoonal being characterized by four month long monsoon.

Average rainfall 6000mm in the main range of the Western Ghats (Gadgil, 2002), which can

exceed 8000mm while in Konkan it is upto 200cm (Hobbhahn et al. 2006).

The monsoon shows three phases- early phase in July, when continuous showers are

interrupted by short sunny periods. In August, rain is continuous and conditions are foggy

with brief or none sunny periods in the region. In the late phase in September, conditions are

mostly sunny interrupted by a few heavy showers. In the post monsoon phase, in October,

conditions are hot and dry with rarely a few clouds or some post monsoon showers.

The monsoon is followed by eight month long dry period of winter (from October to January)

and Summer (between February to May). Humidity is maximum in monsoon (99%)and

minimum in the summer during day (14%) on the hill tops (pers. obs.).

Temperature

The average annual temperature ranges between 200-35

0C but shows extremes. The air

temperature varies from minimum of 40C to maximum of 42

0C at the top of the ghats. While

the Konkan temperatures are less extreme varying from minimum of 150C to maximum 40

0C.

Microclimate

The microclimate of the rocky plateaus is influenced by the regional climate. However, two

other factors have a major influence, viz. insolation (exposure to sun) and scarcity of soil.

Owing to this the environmental conditions experienced by the outcrops are more extreme.

There is also a large diurnal fluctuation in climate owing to the exposed nature of the sites.

During the dry period, the thin soil layer does not hold any moisture and the conditions are

dry, almost arid. However, in monsoon, the impermeable nature of the hard rock surface leads

to waterlogging of the soil and creation of wetland like habitat. As seen from this, the

microenvironment of the rocky plateaus tends to extremes, from xeric to water logged.

A short monitoring study of the micro-climatic conditions was made at two sites in Satara and

Kolhapur. Actual readings of temperatures of air, rock surface, soil and humidity were taken

on three outcrops for a 24 hr cycle at the peak of the summer (14-15 May). The humidity and

air temperature was taken about 10cm from the ground. Soil temperature was taken at 1cm

depth. The results are shown in figures 1a-d below. There was extreme diurnal variation in

humidity and temperature.



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Fig. 1a-d

Soil type

Red lateritic soils are prevalent at the high altitude and high rainfall areas. These are known to

be acidic oxisols (Dikshit 2002). On the sites, soil varied from sandy to sandy loam type and

was highly acidic (4.5-5.9), rich in organic carbon, available nitrogen and available potassium

but poor in available phosphates. .

Air

te

mp

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Chapter 3

Biotic environment

Rock outcrops across the world are known to harbour habitat specialist plants, many of which

show certain adaptive strategies like carnivory, poikilohydry (desiccation tolerance),

succulence etc. Owing to the microclimatic variations, at times species of xeric conditions

grow within a few inches from hydrophytic species on the rocky plateaus.

The rocky plateaus are separated by large areas with deep soil profile and occur as terrestrial

habitat islands. Scarcity of soil and harsh physical conditions prevalent on outcrops lead to

the formation of natural “azonal vegetation” dominated by herbs (See Box), that differs

widely from the adjacent semi-evergreen forests. Shrubby and stunted forest vegetation is

restricted to the edges of plateaus and some depressions where soil accumulates.

According to Walter (1954) in each Biome Zone, the vegetation would develop to its typical

climax condition, the zonal vegetation, unless stress-factors or extreme soil conditions

prevent such development, in which case azonal vegetations or pedobiomes occur. The

primary physical conditions that distinguish azonal vegetation types from zonal vegetation

types are stress-factors, such as unfavourable soils and poor or excessive drainage.

The rocky plateaus on the hilltops are generally surrounded by low statured dense semi-

evergreen forest described as Memecylon-Syzygium-Actinodaphene series by Pascal (1988).

In the areas of high biotic pressures such as Konkan, the forests have degraded to secondary

shrub-savannahs dominated by Carissa conjesta or scrublands dominated by Themeda

quadrivalvis and Heteropogon contortus.

Methodology

The distribution of rocky plateaus was mapped using toposheets, geological maps, remote

sensing imagery and ground survey. Around 30 different locations were documented and are

listed here.

Between 2003-2006, DST sposnored a Young Scientist project to quantitatively study plant

communities on rocky plateaus in the NWGhats. The aim was to record floristic richness,

phenology and microhabitat preference of plants on the high-level rocky plateaus. As a part of

this study, floristic surveys were carried out on six representative sites (2 from basalt plateaus,

4 from laterite plateaus, 2 each in Pune, Satara, Kolhapur districts) between 160-20

0N. Seven

microhabitats were identified following the classification suggested by Porembski et al.

(2000) for azonal communities on rock outcrops. The vegetation was sampled using

permanently marked 1X1m quadrats. A total of 150 quadrats were enumerated from six sites.

Vegetation sampling was carried out in the early, late and post monsoon phases that roughly



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correspond with the first week of July and September and end October. For each species total

ground cover was used as a measure of abundance. IVI and Shannon’s index was calculated.

Species were tagged in vegetative conditions and collected during flowering and fruiting

stages for identification. Voucher specimens for all the species were collected, processed

using conventional herbarium techniques and deposited in the herbarium of Agharkar

Research Institute (AHMA). The results of this quantitative study will be quoted in this

review.

Description of microhabitats

The rocky plateaus are gently undulating rocky surfaces that consist of discreet vegetational

habitat types as seen in rock outcrop ecosystems throughout the world. Jagadale & Kanwar

(undated) were the first to describe diversity of microhabitat specific plant communities (-

referred to as habitat niches by them). The microhabitat classification as per Porembski et al.

(2000), is followed here but with modifications.

A. Vegetation of rock surfaces

A1. Cryptogamic vegetation of rock surfaces [R]: Exposed rock surfaces on laterite as well

as basalt are completely covered by cyanobacterial crust and some crustose and foliose

lichens. The cyanobacterial crust imparts the typical blackish colour to the rocks. Immediately

after the onset of monsoon, the rocks become slippery due to the slimy sheaths of the

cyanobacteria. The layer can be a few mm thick with accumulation of some organic matter.

Nostoc spp. were seen. Lichens are generally rare but can form dense patches on some

boulders and rocks showing large cushions. They consist of typical saxicolous crustose

lichens.

Murdannia semiteres finds suitable growing sites in this thin humus layer and large patches

may be seen on uneven rock surface. (Photo 3)

A2. Cryptogamic vegetation of boulders [B]: boulders of different sizes upto a meter in

height occur often on the outcrop surfaces. On some ferricretes in Kolhapur, the entire surface

was covered by loose boulders which made it look like rock field (Photo 1). However, on

Satara ferricretes boulders were very few, probably removed for construction of local roads,

houses, pillars etc. The boulders are also covered by cyanobacterial crust, and have other

species according to the available surface, crags and height of the boulders.

Moss cushions and ferns are frequent on the boulders. Cheilanthus farinosa – silver fern is the

most common inhabitant of boulder bases. (Photo 4) Lithophytic orchids find this a suitable

place for growth at places forming dense cushions. Eria reticosa, Dendrobium spp.,

Utricularia striatula are often seen on vertical surface of boulders.



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A3. Vegetation of drainage channels [DR]: On the gently sloping outcrops, water drains

through slowly over the entire surfaces. But at places, drainage channels of 10 or more cm

width but very little depth are seen running downhill into small puddles. In some areas they

are deep channels with some vascular plants.

Eriocaulon dalzellii is seen in running water. Cryptocoryne spp. often occupy the sides of

such drainage channels and of shallow rock pools

B. Vegetation of rock crevices [CR]:

Crevices in rocks provide opportunities for establishment of the plants. Depending upon the

depth and width, they can be small or large. Small crevices are very common on the outcrops

and provide safe growing sites for mosses, ferns and some angiosperms. (Photo 5)

Indopoa paupercula, Tripogon bromoides, Fimbristylis tenera are dominant in crevices.

Ceropegia jainii finds safe growing site in crevices and is seen on the high level lateritic

plateaus. Neanotis lancifolia, N. montholoni, N. foetida often occupy rock crevices forming

colourful patches. Glyphochloa spp. (G. forficulata, G. acuminata, G. ratnagirica, G. talboti

and other Glyphochloa spp. ) often grow in crevices. Mollugo pentaphylla var. rupestris is

also seen in crevices.

C. Vegetation of depressions:

C1. Vegetation of ephemeral pools [SRP] :

Seasonally water-filled rock pools occur very commonly in large number of rocky habitats

throughout the world. Two types of ephemeral pools could be distinguished on the outcrops in

study area.

c1.1 Shallow pools commonly formed in places where water accumulates after flowing over a

gently sloping area. They have gently sloping sides, little accumulated soil at bottom and

about 2-5cm water depth. These are ephemeral in nature and dry up fast if rain stops for 1-2

days.

Pogostemon spp. Rotala spp., Dopatrium sp. are commonly seen in such pools on the rocky

plateaus. Aponogeton satarensis and Eriocaulon tuberiferum are specific to such pools on

high level lateritic plateaus. (Photo 6)

c1.2 Deep pools are more common on the basaltic outcrops. They form in large potholes, with

well defined and almost vertical rocky edges, have 10cm or more water depth and often have

a few cm of soil accumulated at the bottom of the pothole. Deep pools on lateritic outcrops

form in low-lying areas, where water accumulates, they may or may not have rocky edges and

are not as well defined as the basaltic potholes. Some of the deep pools can be more than 1m

deep and retain some water in the deepest part almost through the year. They have typical

aquatic vegetation of floating and rooted species.

Wiesneria triandra is seen on low level lateritic plateaus in such pools. Marsilea spp. Cyperus

spp., Pycreas spp. , Eleusine indica, Nymphoides spp. often occupy such deep pools on most



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rocky plateaus. The species of this microhabitat easily occupy adjacent secondary habitats

such as paddy fields with similar abiotic conditions.

C 1.3 Vegetation of Ponds

Many rocky plateaus have wide soil filled ponds which retain water for long periods. They

have deep layer of soil accumulated over many years and water depth may exceed 1 m in

monsoon. Their vegetation consists of typical hydrophytes including green algae, Nymphoides

spp., Jussia sp., Aponogeton natans, Crinum viviparum occupy ponds here. These are often

drinking and wallowing grounds of cattle and are highly disturbed.

C2 Soil filled depressions

Soil filled depressions occur where rock is relatively flat and soil and humus have

accumulated over the years. These are dominant feature of the rock outcrops especially the

basaltic outcrops in study area. They are not easily distinguishable by appearance as they

merge gradually with the undulating areas. For the present study two types of shallow

depressions could be identified

c2.1 Shallow depressions [SD] are defined as areas with soil depth ranges between 5-30cm.

After heavy downpours shallow depressions can remain inundated for some days. They are

mostly with herbaceous vegetation. (Photo 7)

Paspalum canarae, Smithia spp., Habenaria spp. Pycreas spp., Jansenella griffithiana,

Senecio dalzellii, Coelachne minuta, Linum mysorense are some common species observed in

this habitat.

Basalt outcrops differ from ferricretes in having dominance of Shallow Depression type of

microhabitat where Cyathocline lutea, Senecio dalzellii, Hygrophila serpyllum. Arundinella

ciliata are locally abundant.

c2.2 Deep soil filled depressions are defined as areas with soil depth more than 30cm. These

are areas where tall herbaceous vegetation or woody vegetation develops. They are mostly on

the fringes of the outcrops where weathered material, soil and humus accumulate for several

years. On high level laterite plateaus dense communities of Strobilanthes sessilies var. ritchie,

Impatiens lawii colonize such areas. Alongwith this Euphorbia spp., Eulalia spp. Senecio

spp., Pulicaria spp., Chemicristae mimosoides, Peristylus spp. are very common. (Photo 8)

D. Ephemeral flush vegetation [EFV]:

The term ephemeral flush vegetation (EFV) has been coined by Richards (1957) and denotes

a highly seasonal plant community that develops at the base of more or less inclined rocky

slopes or along the downslope fringes of monocotyledonous mats. Additionally Porembski

and Watve (2005) include under the term EFV a plant community that is physiognomically

and floristically similar to EFV on inselbergs and that occurs on flat, seasonally wet or even



17

inundated ferricretes where percolation of water is impeded by the presence of a hard

duricrust. An important precondition for the development of EFV is the continuous supply of

seepage water during the rainy season. The present knowledge about EFV is based on

relatively few studies conducted in Africa (e.g. Dörrstock et al. 1996). This habitat occurs on

tropical as well as temperate outcrops. During the rainy season, EFV has a lush physiognomic

appearance whereas the dry season aspect only shows thin soil covered with sparse desiccated

plant remnants. It is well-developed community on rocky plateaus as they slope gently and

have slow seepage of water.

This is dominated by Utricularia spp. (U. purpurascens, U. albo-caerulea, U. reticulata, U.

praeterita, U. uliginosa etc.) and Eriocaulon spp. (E. sedgwickii, E. eurypeplon, E. achiton,

E. stellulatum, E. cuspidatum etc.) (Photo 9, 11). Also seen are Swertia minor, Hedyotis

stocksii, Cyanotis fasciculata, Drosera burmanni, D. indica, Burmannia spp., Dichanthium

spp. and some other small ephemerals. Dimeria woodrowii and Trithuria konkanensis are

specific and common to lateritic plateaus EFV especially of Konkan, Goa, Karnataka region.

E. Deep soil

Areas of deeper soil (more than 1m or so) are often seen around the rocky parts described

habitat. These can support woody vegetation of shrubs or trees such as Celastrus paniculatus,

Memecylon umbellatum, Carissa conjesta, Catunaregam spinosa, Xantolis tomentosa etc..

Ficus spp. establish in deep clefts along the plateau edges. In less undisturbed parts Gnidia

glauca may attain a tree form being protected from constant lopping. Stunted vegetation of

high altitude plateaus Memecylon –Syzygium-Actinodaphne type (Pascal, 1988) is often seen

on the deep soil parts of the plateaus. However, the species composition is not described here

in details, as it is close to the perennial vegetation described by other forest habitat studies

(Puri and Mahajan, 1960; Pascal, 1988, Ghate, 1997; Watve et al. 2003) from this area.

In the quantitative study of the high level rocky plateaus, assessment of percent ground cover

by four microhabitat types was made based on soil depth in each quadrat. Percentages of

shallow depressions (SD) and Ephemeral Flush Vegetation (EFV) varied with locality. They

are not always distinct and could be differentiated mainly by soil depth and slope. The

Shallow Depressions were the most species rich microhabitat as also noted on the outcrops in

US (Burbanck & Platt, 1964). The moderately deep soil, 5-30cm, of shallow depression

allowed establishment of geophytes from Orchidaceae and Liliaceae. Compared to this, EFV

were poorer in species. Cryptogamic crust on exposed rocks consisted of Cyanobacteria and

very rarely lichens which were not completely inventoried here. Moss cushions were also

common and persisted in desiccated form in the dry period. In all the sites, species



18

composition changed moderately over the time as species showed a gradual increase or

decrease in dominance as per their life cycle.

The vegetation of all the rocky plateaus, irrespective of the rock type is dominated by small

herbs generally less than 60cm in height. Clumps of Tripogon bromoides, (Poaceae) and

Fimbristylis tenera (Cyperaceae) are common. The sites although slightly different in species

composition followed the same temporal (phenological) trajectory. Monocotyledons were

much higher in dominance compared to Dicotyledons. Poaceae was dominant throughout the

monsoon together with Cyperaceae and Eriocaulaceae.

Seasonal changes and phenology

A phase wise account of vegetation communities from selected sites is given in the box in

brief.

Although the rocky plateaus face extreme scarcity and high temperatures before monsoon,

some species characteristically flower during this period. Euphorbia panchganiensis

characteristically flowers during April-May the high altitude lateritic plateaus. Scilla

hyacinthina flowering is also seen on many rocky plateaus just before monsoon.

In the early monsoon, Poaceae members such as Glyphochloa spp., Isachne lisboae were

abundant and dominant together with Fimbristylis tenera (Cyperaceae) and Eriocaulon spp.

although all were in vegetative conditions. This phase was marked by the flowering of

Hypoxis aurea, Iphigenia stellata In August few species such as Dipcadi montanum,

Habenaria heyneana, H. panchganiensis, Swertia minor reached flowering peak. Lithophytic

orchids like Eria spp. on boulders are also seen to flower.

In the late monsoon phase in August-September, several species reach flowering peak. Most

dominant are Fimbristylis tenera together with Poaceae members. Hedyotis stocksii, Rotala

sp., Flemingia nilgheriensis, Jansenella griffithiana, Coelachne minuta, Indopoa paupercula

were most abundant at this time. Similar vegetation is seen on the Konkan plateaus. But

presence and abundance of Dimeria woodrowii is a unique feature of the coastal plateaus.

Gregarious flowering of Utricularia spp. and Eriocaulon spp. marks the late monsoon phase

and it is common to see blue and white masses of these groups. Large flowered bladderworts,

U. purpurascens, U. albo-caerulea on high altitude plateaus and U. reticulata and U. albo-

caerulea on low altitude plateaus are common (Photo 10). Ericaulon sedgewickii, E.

stellulatum, E. achiton, E. eurypeplon are some of the most abundant species on rocky

plateaus and many more Eriocaulon spp. have been recorded on rocky plateaus during this

phase of monsoon. Drosera indica, D. burmanni, Neanotis spp., Burmannia spp.,

Chemicraesta mimosoides, Senecio spp., Vicoa spp., Impatiens spp., Smithia spp. Geissaspis

spp. , Lindernia spp., Torenia spp. are some of the gregarious species in flowering peak on



19

rocky plateaus during this phase. This is the time that has attracted most of attention as the

plateaus look like multi-hued carpets of flowers.

The basalt plateaus have many common elements at generic and species level with the

lateritic plateaus. But species such as Smithia purpurea, Cyathocline lutea are typically

present on basalt outcrops or the surrounding secondary wet outcrops but NEVER on the

lateritic plateaus.

In the post monsoon phase, abundance and dominance of Poaceae reached peak with some

grasses such as Glyphochloa forficulata almost singly dominant in most quadrats on higher

altitude rocky plateaus. Many species of Glyphochloa have been recorded from Konkan

plateaus and it is one of the important, species rich genus in this habitat. Sub dominants

include endemic Dimeria spp. Ischaemum spp. and Dichanthium spp. that are in the fruiting

stages by post monsoon. Depending on the local moisture retention, Swertia spp.,

Lepidagathis spp. flowering is also seen even when other vegetation starts drying.

During winter the rocky plateaus are parched dry with the exception of a few individuals of

Blumea malcolmii, B. oxyodonta, Crotalaria vestita etc. In locally moist areas such as drying

rock pools, Pogostemon spp. and Rotala spp. remained. Indigofera dalzellii that occurs

commonly on the ferricretes starts flowering in May with pre-monsoon showers and

continues to flower throughout the monsoon, reaching fruiting stage in October.

Joshi & Janarthanam (2004) observed peak flowering of lateritic plateaus of Goa in

September. They conclude that availability of enough soil moisture in an otherwise dry

habitat (with low WHC) is important for flowering and phenology of herbaceous flora in the

plateaus is mostly controlled by rainfall pattern in addition to other environmental factors.

However, in our observation, general flowering event occurred after rainy period of August

and corresponded with mild rains and brief dry periods with bright light. Some of the eastern

plateaus (Masai plateau near Kolhapur) where rainfall is less harsh with sunny periods

throughout July and August showed early onset of flowering. Several studies have shown

relation between flowering and photoperiod (Pavón & Briones, 2001; Schaber & Badeck

2003, Gimenes, 2003). Hence, flowering seen on the rocky plateaus may be governed by

complex interaction of environmental, edaphic and biotic factors and needs to be analysed

experimentally using single species as well as community models.

Comparison of floristic associations

Plant communities

Although an exact phytosociological classification of vegetation is not attempted here, some

similarities with known vegetation types are noted.



20

Inventory of the Fimbristylis tenera dominated late monsoon community is to a certain extent

similar with Utricularieto- Eriocauletum pumili- community from ferricretes in Guinea

(Schnell, 1952); Eriocaulo-Utricularietea class from wet to shallowly inundated rock

depressions on West African inselbergs and ferricretes (Knapp, 1966,) and EFV described

from inselbergs (Dörrstock et al., 1996, Porembski, 2000) due to the abundance of Eriocaulon

and Utricularia. However, these species are not the only dominants. Relation also seems to

exist with an alliance Fimbristylion tenerae which was discussed by Bharucha and Ansari

(1963) from rocky areas of the Western Ghats. Fimbristylis tenera remains one of the

dominants in late as well as post monsoon communities.

The post monsoon community can be broadly described as Glyphochloa community, with

subdominant Dimeria, Dichanthium and Ischaemum. Some genera from this community viz.

Ischaemum, Arthraxon, Pseudanthistiria are frequent in grasslands at high altitude, high

rainfall area in Northern Western Ghats (Dabadghao & Shankarnarayan, 1973). But

dominance of Glyphochloa, Dimeria, Dichanthium is characteristic of rocky plateaus. These

taxa are some of the richest in species and endemics in the western Indian region and show

particular affinity to rock outcrops. Extremely localized species of all three genera are seen on

various rocky plateaus in wg and Konkan (Blatter & McCann, 1935; Bor, 1960; Deshpande et

al., 1993; Mishra & Singh, 2001; Yadav & Sardesai, 2002; Fonseca & Janarthanam, 2003)

indicating active speciation. The Poaceae community of post monsoon is unlike any reported

from other outcrops.

In spite of a few local variations in species dominance between sites, late and post monsoon

communities on different rocky plateaus are homogeneous. It is an important feature

considering the terrestrial island like distribution of the plateaus. This indicates that the

plateau vegetation from all sites has a common origin, and has undergone diversification

under similar environmental conditions. The flora is dominated by evolved families especially

monocotyledons. Poaceae is dominant along the Western Ghats followed by Acanthaceae,

Rubiaceae, and Fabaceae (Arora, 1964; Nayar, 1980, 1984; Karthikeyan, 1983, 1996;

Ahmedullah & Nayar, 1986; Sreekumar & Nair, 1991). Poaceae is richest in species and

endemics on the rocky plateaus, while Acanthaceae and Rubiaceae are underrepresented.

Subdominant families of rocky plateaus are Eriocaulaceae, Fabaceae, Orchidaceae,

Cyperaceae and Commelinaceae which are also common and dominant in peninsular India

(Sanjappa, 1992; Santapau & Kapadia, 1966; Sharma et al., 1984; Prasad & Singh 2002).

Monotypic Indopoa paupercula (Stapf) Bor and Bhidea burnsiana Bor are restricted to the

rocky areas in general and are abundant on the lateritic and basalt plateaus respectively.

Others like Ceropegia, Hedyotis have obligate endemic species on lateritic plateaus in

addition to several related species in the surrounding shrub savannahs, forests and wetlands.



21

The outcrops share a large number of species, especially dominants. Occurrence of same

dominant (showing highest abundance in terms of ground cover) species (Fimbristylis tenera,

Glyphochloa forficulata, Indopoa paupercula) suggests that vegetation of the lateritic

plateaus and basalt plateaus share a common pool of species. The presence and dominance of

exclusive endemics (e.g. Coelachne minuta on lateritic plateaus, Cyathocline lutea on basalt

plateaus) on both the landform types could be a result of multiple factors including

evolutionary history of the taxa, habitat, and nutrient or dispersal limitations. The specific

reasons can vary with each species. The overall similarity in species dominance on both the

rock types indicates that the vegetation belongs to the same association (-in the sense of the

word used in vegetation classification) and differs only at a sub-association or class level.

It is difficult to describe the vegetation type based upon the standard vegetation classification

system. Though grass cover is classified for India (Dabadghao & Shankarnarayan, 1973),

herbaceous vegetation has not been described following quantitative data. But based upon the

quantitative survey, the dominant community can be described as Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa

community, two species which are common to all the three types of rocky plateau form a

major portion of the vegetation throughout the growing period. The differences in community

are as follows:

Late monsoon phase high level lateritic plateaus : Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa – Eriocaulon

spp.- Utricularia

Post monsoon phase lateritic plateaus: Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa – Dimeria spp.

Late monsoon phase low level lateritic plateaus : Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa – Eriocaulon

spp.- Utricularia

Post monsoon phase lateritic plateaus: Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa – Dimeria spp.

Late monsoon phase basalt plateaus: Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa – Cyathocline lutea- Senecio

dalzellii

Post monsoon phase basalt plateaus: Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa – Dimeria stapfiana

Floristic diversity

Species richness and alpha diversity

A total of 360 species of phanerogams (angiosperms and pteridophytes) are listed from rocky

plateau sites in Maharashtra of which 146 are endemic, to either southern India, or to the

Western Ghats and Konkan-Malabar zone. The list will certainly increase as more sites are

surveyed throughout the growing season. But as the dominants remain more or less the same

on the rocky plateaus, the increase will mainly be due to the additions of few restricted

distribution species, vagrants from surrounding areas and invasives.



22

The quantitative study showed that therophyte dominated azonal vegetation of the rocky

plateaus had moderate species number and alpha diversity but was rich in species adapted to

extreme environment and endemics. In the quantitative study from six sites, a total of 145 sq.

m of area was enumerated and 132 species were reported (Watve, 2007) of which 35 % (57

sp.) were endemic. This included 126 angiosperms, 3 bryophytes and 3 pteridophytes. Several

other species of cryptogams, green algae, blue green algae, lichens, hepaticae could not be

enumerated floristically due to lack of taxonomic expertise on this taxa. The angiosperms

belong to 30 families of which Poaceae (36sp.) is dominant followed by Fabaceae (14 sp.).

Table 4.2.1 Average species richness per quadrat in different microhabitats

N

Late

2004

Post

2004

Late

2005

Post

2005

SD 11.641 5.32 14.026 11.333

R 9.745 3.564 10.979 9.34

SRP 14 18 15

EFV 10.105 3.667 11.632 9.816

Table 4.2.2 Average species diversity per quadrat in different microhabitats

H’

Late

2004

Post

2004

Late

2005

Post

2005

SD 2.574 1.437 2.848 2.609

R 2.25 1.158 2.617 2.442

SRP 3.217 3.798 3.508

EFV 2.396 1.191 2.696 2.498

Species turnover

The species turnover between seasons and between the sites needs to be studied to understand

the overall diversity of the habitat. The calculations of species turnover made for the six sites

of high level outcrops showes that it is less between closer sites than those further apart. The

highest species turnover is between the early and post phases, which is expected as many new

species emerge as the monsoon progresses and while the species composition changes

between early and late and late and post are gradual. The late phase has a number of species

from both the phases and hence is transitional in nature.



23

Raunkier’s life form spectrum

Therophytes dominate accounting on average for 77.5% of all vascular plants. This is in

marked contrast with the vegetation of the surrounding forest areas where phanerophytes are

the most common life-forms.

Ch = Chamaephytes; G= Geophytes, H= Hemicryptophytes, P= Phanerophytes, Th=

Therophytes, E= Ephiphytes

Life form spectrum: percentages of each class

Ch 4.082

E 1.531

G 13.265

Th 77.551

Ph 3.571

Plant adaptive strategies

Owing to the variable microclimate of the habitat, species adapted to one or more climatic

extremes are observed here. Various adaptations and adaptive strategies are seen in the flora.

Some are listed below.

A. Succulence: Cyanotis spp. seen on the rocky plateaus show some succulence in

leaves, probably an advantage in water retention. However true succulents which are

abundant on rocky areas of the drier eastern zones of Maharashtra (viz. Caralluma

spp.) are not seen on the Western Ghats and Konkan plateaus.

B. Hydrophytes: these are plenty and dominant in many areas as waterlogging is

common. (Rotala, Aponogeton, Pogostemon, Paspalum, Nymphoides spp. Crinum

spp., Polygonum, Jussia suffruticosa.). Ericaulon tuberiferum and Aponogeton

satarensis both tuber bearing, are restricted to the shallow ephemeral pools on rocky

plateaus. The potholes on basalt plateaus can have Eleusine, Coix, etc. which stand

much inundation. Isoetes spp. (I. sahyadrensis,I. panchganiensis) are hydrophytes

reported from the high altitude rocky plateaus.

C. Geophytes: belong to Orchidaceae, Liliaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Euphorbiaceae,

Aponogetonaceae are common.



24

D. Carnivory: This is an important strategy commonly seen on all types of rocky

habitats, esp. in humid tropics. Utricularia spp. and Drosera spp. seen on the rocky

plateaus are gregarious and probably at an advantage in the P poor soils owing to the

nutrients they can acquire from other organic matter. (Photo 12).

E. Desiccation tolerance: or poikilohydry is one of the least studied adaptive strategies

in Indian flora. The most commonly known species showing this is Silver fern

(Cheilanthus sp. Photo 4) that is seen on rocky areas on plateaus, cliffs, boulders etc.

Tripogon spp. are known to show this character. It is possible that other species on

rocky plateaus also show this character but more research is needed.

Endemism in flora

The diversity and dominance of endemics on the rocky plateaus of Western Ghats and

Konkan-Malabar region gives them a very high biological value. The reason for the high

endemism is probably the general increase of endemics in the Western Ghats region with

much environmental heterogeneity over short distances. Geographical isolation of populations

especially in grasses appears to be resulting in formation of highly localized endemic species

on different ferricretes e.g. Dichanthium panchganiensis, Dichanthium oliganthum etc.

Certain species (e.g. Eriocaulon spp. Utricularia purpurascens) display a high degree of

morphological variation between populations on different ferricretes which indicates that

differentiation processes are yet operative.

Rock outcrops are known to contribute towards local and regional species richness (Burke,

2003). Endemism on outcrops is in many cases correlated with the regional endemism (Seine

et al., 1998). So far, 146 endemic species have been recorded on the rocky plateau in the

Western Ghats and the Konkan region. They belong to only 31 families and 69 genera

Around 25 species have been excluded from the final list owing to the lack of conclusive data

regarding their occurrence on rock outcrops. This is just a preliminary figure as several of the

outcrops esp., in wildlife sanctuaries and other remote areas of Western Ghats are yet to be

completely surveyed. Thus, the contribution of rock outcrops towards regional biodiversity is

much higher than expected from their area of occupancy.

Poaceae is richest (42 sp.) followed by Eriocaulaceae (15sp.) and Fabaceae (14sp.). Dimeria,

Dichanthium, Glyphochloa, Eriocaulon, Utricularia and Smithia include many generalist

species of wide distribution in the region. But they have speciated into narrow endemics on

outcrops. Some like Dichanthium panchganiensis are restricted to a small population on a few

outcrops. Shukla et al.(2002) have observed similar manner of speciation in Isoetes on the

high- altitude plateaus in Western Ghats and central India. Dimeria woodrowii has relatively

larger population which is restricted to the Konkan –Malabar plateaus. Others like Ceropegia,

Hedyotis have obligate endemic species on rocky plateaus (Ceropegia jainii, Hedyotis



25

stocksii) in addition to several related species in the surrounding shrub savannahs, forests and

wetlands. There are close floristic similarities between lateritic and basalt plateaus, cliffs and

seasonal stream courses (Watve, 2003).

Forty endemics were common between all the rocky plateaus at high and low level. Many of

these are widespread in open sunny but moist habitats and are not exclusive to the outcrops.

Excluding these, many species (around 44) are common between high-level lateritic plateaus

and basalt plateaus. This indicates that factors linked to altitude such as rainfall, insolation,

wind and events leading to formation of the escarpment top may all be influencing present

distribution of endemism in the Northern Western Ghats rocky plateaus. The number of

species shared only between high and low level lateritic plateaus is comparatively small

(approx. 13) indicating relatively less influence of substrate on endemism.

All the species are essentially from open sunny areas, prefer shallow moist coarse soils and

can stand water logging to a certain extent. However, 40 species in this list are so far known

only from outcrop habitats and can be described as rock outcrop habitat specialist. They

include threatened species from diverse families like Aponogetonaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae,

Fabaceae etc. Their threat status needs to be critically assessed by taking into account

autecology, population biology and habitat. Joshi & Janarthanam (2004) have also reported

that the low-level lateritic plateaus in Goa have higher number of endemics compared to other

habitats in Goa region.

High endemism in substrate specific communities is well known across the world (Mota et

al.,2004, Chiarucci, 2004, Stevanovic et al., 2003, Ojeda et al., 2000, Keener, 1983). Owing

to the narrow distribution and small population sizes of endemics, many threatened species

occur in these areas. In United States, Baskin & Baskin (1988) report endemics demanding

high light intensity on outcrops while soil moisture did not have much influence.

Rock outcrops in study area are geomorphologically distinct landscape elements. Presence of

large number of endemic and habitat specialist species of which many are in the threatened

category indicates that rock outcrops contribute significantly towards regional plant

endemism. Von Gaisberg & Stierstorfer (2005) have shown a connection between distribution

of endemics and geomorphological and geochronological traits of outcrops on El Hierro

island. Generally, local diversification of plant life (including narrow endemics) is typical for

landscapes dominated by geomorphological irregularities at a scale of 10-2

-10km2 with a span

of persistence between 104-10

7 years (Kruckberg, 2002). This may account for the presence of

narrow endemics in Eriocaulon, Glyphochloa, Dimeria, Dichanthium etc. on various

outcrops.

From the present study it is clear that rocky plateaus contribute much more to the regional

endemism than can be expected from their area. In view of this, it is extremely necessary to



26

accord high conservation priority to the rocky plateaus. More detailed field surveys need to

be undertaken to study populations of threatened species from the plateaus.

Threatened species

The list endemic species on the rocky plateaus was compared with the list of threatened

species of Maharashtra compiled by Mishra and Singh (2001), to understand the need for

conservation. Fifteen species have been listed as critically endangered, 27 as endangered, 12

as vulnerable in this regional assessment which follows IUCN categories (Species marked in

the appendix). Evaluation of some of the hydrophytic species on rocky plateaus was carried

out in 2010 as a part of the project of IUCN to assess “Freshwater Aquatic Biodiversity of the

WGHats).

It needs to be understood that rocky parts of the plateaus and most of the specific

microhabitats described amount to only a few hundred square kilometers (see map of

distribution) within the entire landscape. Hence, species that are specific to these

microhabitats – habitat specialist, or those having narrow ecological amplitude have a very

small AOO (Area of Occurrence for definitions see: IUCN red list categories 2003), although

EOO may be comparatively large. However, species that are not having such narrow

ecological amplitude, and those which can grow in similar secondary habitats such as

secondary rock exposures, flooded rice fields, ponds, ditches etc. have large EOO as well as

AOO. Many of the endemics on the rocky plateaus are able to colonize secondary habitats

which are similar in physical characters and hence cannot be put into the threatened

categories. Ex. Utricularia reticulata, Indopoa paupercula. In case of rocky plateau species,

most show naturally disjunct distribution on the terrestrial islands that are rocky plateaus and

the criteria Severely Fragmented does not apply to most species. The rocky plateaus are under

tremendous pressure and undergoing large or small-scale habitat degradation owing to various

reasons through its entire range. The size of the intact near natural habitat is already reduced,

and this should be kept in mind while assessing the threats for these species. No specific

conservation action has been taken so far for the rocky plateau species. Although some ex-situ

conservation has been tried for some species, the efforts have not progressed beyond

maintenance of few individuals of some species in one or two gardens like Shivaji University,

Kolhapur and Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune.

New species

Many plant species have been first described from the rocky plateaus of the Western Ghats

and Konkan. A list is given here. In last 10 years, the interest in the rocky plateau specific

taxa has increased leading to more taxonomic attention to flora as well as fauna.



27

The list of species described from the rocky plateaus is given below. This list is not complete,

but indicative of the potential the rocky plateaus have of contributing to regional species

richness.

Indicative list of new species descriptions from rocky plateau habitats over the years in

Western Ghats and Konkan-Malabar region. More can be added after further floristic search.

Species

Year of

description

1. Impatiens lawii Hook. F. & Thoms. 1860

2. Dipcadi concanense Baker 1871

3. Wiesneria triandra (Dalz.) Micheli 1881

4. Dimeria woodrowii Stapf 1894

5. Flemingia nilgheriensis (Baker) Wight ex Cooke 1902

6. Eriocaulon sedgwickii Fyson 1921

7. Euphorbia khandalensis Blatt. & Hallb. 1921

8. Dipcadi ursulae Blatt. 1928

9. Euphorbia panchganiensis Blatt. & McCann 1930

10. Isoetes sahyadri Mahabale (=I. sahyadrensis) 1938

11. Bhidea burnsiana Bor 1948

12. Schizachyrium paranjpyeanum (Bhide) Raiz. & Jain 1953

13. Habenaria panchganiensis Sant. & Kap. 1957

14. Coelachne minuta Bor 1961

15. Flemingia gracilis (Mukerjee) M.Sanjappa 1966

16. Smithia agharkarii Hem. 1971

17. Eriocaulon tuberiferum Kulkarni & Desai 1974

18. Dipcadi maharashtrense Deb & S.Dasgupta 1975

19. Isachne bicolor Naik & Patunkar 1976

20. Rotala malampuzhensis R. Vasudevan Nair ex Cook 1979

21. Ceropegia jainii Ansari & Kulkarni 1980

22. Glyphochloa goaensis (Rao & Hemadri) Clayton 1981

23. Glyphochloa ratnagirica (Kulk. & Hemadri) Clayton 1981

24. Aponogeton satarensis Sundararaghavan et al. 1982

25. Camptorriza indica Yadav, N. P. Singh & B. Mathew 1993

26. Isoetes panchganiensis Srivastava, Pant, & Shukla 1993

27. Trithuria konkanensis S.R.Yadav & Janarth. 1994



28

28. Euphorbia concanensis Janarth. & S. R. Yadav 1995

29. Fimbristylis ratnagirica V.P.Prasad & N.P.Singh 1997

30. Eriocaulon ratnagiricum Yadav, Gaikwad & Sardesai 1998

31. Fimbristylis ambavanensis V.P.Prasad & N.P.Singh 1999

32. Eriocaulon kanarense Punekar, Watve & Lakshmin. 2004

33. Eulalia shrirangii Salunke & Potdar 2005

34. Isoetes divyadarshanii P.K. Shukla et al. 2005

35. Eriocaulon epedunculatum Potdar, Anil Kumar bis,Otaghvari & Sonkar 2008

36. Chlorophytum gothanense Malpure & S. R. Yadav 2009

37. Eriocaulon belgaumensis Shimpale & S. R. Yadav 2010

38. Rotala belgaumensis S. R. Yadav, Malpure & Chandore 2010

Phytogeographic affinities:

The vegetation of the rock outcrops in the northern Western Ghats comprises floristically and

ecologically well defined herbaceous communities. The dominant species have affinities to

palaeotropical region. They are widely distributed in Sudanian, Zambezian and West African

flora.



29

Faunal diversity

The fauna of rocky plateaus is as varied and species and endemic rich as the flora and of same

biological value. Great diversity of taxa is seen on the rocky plateaus. Ants, beetles esp. dung

beetles, bees and wasps, spiders, grasshoppers, moths, butterflies, birds, fish, frogs, caecilians

earthworms, reptiles (snakes, lizards), mammals (rodents use the area for foraging). Large

mammals like Gaur and leopard are frequent visitors.

Jagdale & Kanwar (undated) recorded 15 vertebrates from rocky areas. Dr. Hemant Ghate has

recorded three species of shrimps viz.Tadpole shrimp (Triops granarius Lucas), Fairy shrimp

(Streptocephalus dichotomus Baird) and Clam shrimps (Leptesteria maduraensis Nayar and

Nair ) and one species of Eulimnada (Eulimnada michaeli Nayar and Nair ) from vernal pools

on plateaus like Panchgani and Kas. Quite like the ephemeral flora. A scorpion species

Hottentotta rugiscutis is common on the rocky lateritic plateaus in the Western Ghats and

Konkan (Amod Zambre, personal communication). Other species reported are a gecko

Hemidactylus albofasciatus (Grandison and Soman, 1963) from Dorle village in Ratnagiri dt.,

caecilian of Gegeneophis seshachari Ravichandran, Gower & Wilkinson, 2003 (Gowar et al.

2007), Indotyphlus maharashtraensis Giri, Gower &Wilkinson, 2004 is known from not too

dissimilar (though higher altitude) open plateau habitats elsewhere in Maharashtra (Giri et al.

2004). Giri and Bauer (2008) comment that the herpotofaunal species observed on these

(=NWGhats rocky- plateaus are mostly representatives of drier regions (Ophisops sp.,

Lygosoma sp., Echis carinata), but they also hae unique and uncommon species including

Bufo koynayensis, Indotyphlus maharashtraensis belonging to Amphibia.

Thakur and Watve (2004) reported Falco naumani (Lesser Kestrel) from rocky plateau areas,

which fall in the migratory routes of these species. It is not uncommon to see 10-15 birds

resting on one or two lone trees along the rocky areas and hunting on the open plateaus

around winter times.

Nina Hobbhahn (University of Rostoc, Germany) conducted a detailed study of pollination of

Utricularia spp. on the rocky plateaus of Kas, Satara dt. and Aare, Deogad, Talebazar in

Sindhudurg dt. And Mollem in Goa state. This has been the first experimental study of plant –

animal interaction on rocky plateau habitat in India.

Hobbhahn et al. (2006) studied pollination biology of three mass flowering Utricularia (U.

albocaerulea, U. purpurascens, and U. reticulata), for the first time by extensive observation

of flower visitors, pollination experiments, and nectar analyses. They showed that -

“The ephemerality of the Utricularia habitats on lateritic plateaus, weather conditions adverse

to insects, lack of observations of flower visitors to other Utricularia spp., and the

predominance of at least facultative autogamy in the few Utricularia species studied so far

suggested that an autogamous breeding system is the common case in the genus. In contrast, it



30

was seen that the studied populations are incapable of autonomous selfing, or that it is an

event of negligible rarity. In all three species the spatial arrangement of the reproductive

organs makes an insect vector necessary for pollen transfer between and within flowers.

However, U. purpurascens and U. reticulata are highly self-compatible, which allows for

visitor-mediated auto-selfing and geitonogamy on inflorescence and clone level. Floral nectar

is present in extremely small volumes in all three species, but sugar concentrations are high.

More than 50 species of bees, butterflies, moths, hawk moths, and dipterans were observed to

visit the flowers, and flower morphology facilitated pollination by all observed visitors”.

During this course of work Vikram Hoshing (pers. comm. 2005) documented 154 sp. of fauna

including butterflies, moths, bees and vertebrates (reptiles, birds, mammals) from just two

sites (Kas and Aare). He also recorded and photodocumented rich insect diversity. This

indicats the need for a thorough taxonomic study of the plateau fauna and plant animal

interactions.

Detailed research for all faunal taxa has not been undertaken on any of the rocky plateaus and

hence data is only scanty and mainly observational and taxonomic. It is very important to

undertake multi-taxa assessments of the rocky plateaus to record the complete faunal diversity

and try to understand microhabitat use and interactions with the floral components.

The ants occupy crevices in the rock, but anthills are never seen. Grasshoppers are abundant

on the rocky plateaus and often with camoflaguing dark brown black colours matching the

rock surface. Crested larks are very common on the plateau, foraging, displaying on boulders,

and building nests in shadow of small boulders. Frogs are very common around ephemeral

pools especially in peak monsoon. Nyctibatrachus spp. have been noted. Amongst snakes,

Checkered keelback are frequent and so is Saw-scaled viper. Lizards, geckos and skinks

(Hemidactylus spp,. Sitana ponticeriana, Cnemaspis spp.) are frequently observed feeding

and or displaying and new species have been reported from rocky plateaus. However, most of

the plateau fauna is not highly visible and often takes shelter of the boulders especially during

the day, either because of harsh sun or because of vulnerability to predators like raptors

(eagles are frequently noted) in such an open area. According to local people these are

dwellings of mouse deer which can move easily between the fissures around plateau edges.

Laterite plateaus have deep caves beneath which are roosting sites for bats (Panchgani,

Robber’s Cave of Mahabaleshwar)

These observations only indicate the rich and complex relationships between fauna and

different microhabitats on the rocky plateaus and need to be studied in detail.

Threatened species



31

Lack of rock outcrop species assessments prevents from making any comments on the

threatened species of these habitats. However, many species, especially those described

recently need to be put in the “Data Deficient” category and more population and distribution

studies need to be undertaken.

New species

New species of Caesilians and geckos have been reported from Chalkewadi, Kolhapur and

Ratnagiri, Sindhudrug plateaus in Maharashtra by Varad Giri (BNHS).



32

Chapter 4

People and plateaus

People form an integral part of most rock outcrop landscapes across the world. In any

landscape, rock outcrops either inselbergs, cliffs or rocky plateaus form a very distinct

landscape element separate from the surrounding mesic areas. There distinctness is identified

by local people who have specific names for the landform in local languages (ex. Sada in

Maharashtra). Local people esp. Dhangars use the plateau habitats for grazing which is the

most common activity seen on the plateaus in monsoon. The ponds on the plateau are used by

cattle for drinking and wallowing. The boulders on plateaus have been used for building

houses and shelters for grazers. On Jagmin plateau in Satara dt. local community has a

practice of leaving boulders in mound at one place in memory of dead people. The large

mound is well known to all and every year on certain date ritual is performed there and

prasad offered.

Owing to the hard impermeable rock surface, rocky plateaus (and indeed all outcrops of all

types) serve as water catchments. The water trickles down into pools and ponds which retain

it till winter- offering continued water supply in an otherwise arid area. The lithomarge below

laterite allows water drainage from underground channel. Hence it is very common to see

perennial springs along the lower edges of the lateritic plateaus ex. Zenda plateau in Kolhapur

dt. on which surrounding local people are dependent to some extent.

Many large plateaus have a temple of local deity, Masai, Mhavashi, Patan, Durgawadi are

some examples. Some of them are locally well known and attract large number of people at

festival times. However this happens hardly once or twice in a year and most often they are

deserted.

More research is needed from anthropogenic point of view to understand people’s

relationship with the rocky plateaus.

However, most of the plateaus especially those outside the protected areas are negatively

impacted by people at various scales.

Impact of anthropogenic activities

The entire Western Ghats is heavily impacted by biotic pressures.

The main impacts are discussed below:

1. Grazing and trampling

Grazing and trampling by people and cattle is common on all the rocky plateaus, especially

during the monsoon. The scale may change according to the proximity of villages and in

Protected Areas, cattle may not visit the plateaus very often. However in case of Chandoli,

Radhanagari plateaus, although they are in sanctuary, there are villages nearby and the cattle

often walk up the slopes to graze on the plateaus. There is some amount of compacting of soil



33

especially along the footpaths on the outcrops.The effect of grazing intensity can be gauged

only after long term study. Burning of vegetation is a regular feature on Kas and Zenda

plateaus. It is not a natural phenomenon on plateaus and needs to be stopped. It destroys the

seed banks in the shallow soil which are necessary for future growth of vegetation.

2.Agriculture, ponds and plantation

Agriculture on large scale is not possible on the rock outcrops, owing to the hard surface.

However, in recent years, government has floated some schemes about reclamation of

wastelands- which have been enforced on the outcrops. In the Pune district, financial

assistance has been given to villages in Ahupe and Durgawadi area for putting soil on rocky

areas and converting them in to rice fields. In the same area, “Shivakalin tale”(- ponds from

Shivaji’s era) scheme for construction of rainwater storage tanks on rocky areas has been

promoted. The rock outcrops are highly suitable for such tanks as they have low percolation

and already have some deep holes which are expanded to contain rainwater. Such schemes are

harmful for the basalt outcrops which are already small in extent. Some plantations of

bamboo and Acacia auriculiformis are observed on Satara plateaus. However, these species

either do not survive or remain stunted owing to the harsh climate here.

3. Quarrying

This has had the largest impact on the entire low level laterite areas. The deep layers of

Konkan –malabar layers are extensively quarried and the bricks used for local construction of

houses etc. In recent times, the aesthetic appeal of the red laterite has increased its use even in

many areas even far away from the konkan. The bricks (Jambha) are imported from konkan

quarries and used for beautification façade, walls, internal decorative walls. Quarrying is

rampant and a major source of destruction of laterite in Konkan,

3. Windmill farming:

The rocky plateaus near Chalkewadi, Boposhi, Jagmin, Patan (all in the Satara district ) are

entirely taken up by windmill farms of high intensity (Photo 13). The farms are present on the

private lands but are adjacent to the forest lands under Koyna sanctuary. The presence of

windmills has led to construction of roads and buildings, which now divide the large plateau

into many sectors. The rubble of the construction is thrown on the plateau. The digging and

construction have disturbed the drainage pattern on the outcrops leading to disturbance of

natural microhabitats. Most of the species are able to survive this disturbance by adapting to

newly formed habitats, e.g. Aponogeton satarensis grows widely in the ditches formed next to

the road. However, the sustained disturbance can be a cause of concern later as it will lead to

increased trampling and garbage. The disturbance encourages entry of invasive species, exotic

as well as indigenous from surrounding scrub areas, which can colonize the new habitats. E.g.



34

Senecio bombayensis, and Blumea oxyodonta , species not-native to the ourcrop habitats,

which belogn to the scrub areas now are seen growing on rubble heaps between the

windmills.

3. Tourism:

Influx of tourists to observe the scenic beauty of the area and especially of the mass flowering

on the outcrops is growing in last decade. Panchgani and Kas are two well known places of

tourism in the region. These are presented separately as boxes.

4. Mining

Mining is the most harmful of the anthropogenic activities on the rocky plateaus. The

lateritic plateaus have deposits of bauxite (aluminium ore) underneath the hard surface. The

Kolhapur plateaus are well known for high quality bauxite and many have been mined for

more than 20 years now. Only those outcrops in the wildlife sanctuary areas of Radhanagari,

Dajipur, Chandoli and Koyna are protected at the moment. The large mining areas are around

Udgir, Durgmanwad, Waki, Dhopeshwar in Kolhapur dt. which are outside Protected Areas.

The mining companies have also made demands on the bauxite reserves inside the

sanctuaries, initially claiming that these are barren areas.

In Goa, iron and manganese mines have destroyed most of the intact plateaus areas. This

continues upto Kerala. Proposed iron mining in Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri areas has been

widely opposed on environmental grounds.

5. Nuclear Power Plants

Around seven rocky plateau areas in Konkan have been identified as sites for proposed

nuclear power plants. The Madban-Jaitapur plateau is already being destroyed as the

construction activities have started. The early surveys identified these sites as barren lands

based on remote sensing images which do not identify the special vegetation. Neither these

preliminary surveys nor the following EIA conduted by NEERI took cognizance of the

special nature of the rocky habitat and paid no attention to the immense floristic and faunal

literature available for the region. The environment management plan has suggested creation

of green belt as measure to protect biodiversity. The EIA report does not include even the

common species so typical of rocky plateaus of Ratnagiri. All this clearly indicates the lack of

knowledge about this important habitat type amongst scientific institutions.

In general conversion of land to more intensive urbanization, industrialization has been the

bane of Konkan plateaus. In the absence of forest or woody vegetation, the lands are easily

mistaken for barren, are categorised as such in wasteland atlas of India, and hence many

permissions have been granted, without serious EIAs evaluating the biodiversity of the areas.



35

Some examples of such projects are

� Jaitapur nuclear power plant

� Ratnagiri airport

� Ratnagiri MIDC

� Devrukh township

� Mangalore airport

6. Mango orchards

Most rocky plateau in Sindhudurg district, especially near Devgad area are taken up by

mango orchards. The stone is blasted to dig a pit and filled with soil for planting the Alphanso

Mango sapling. The extreme climate of the plateau gives the Alphanso mango its

characteristic flavour (Sadyavaracha Amba) and it is a major export of the region.



36

Panchgani : Death of a plateau Photo 14

Panchgani town in Satara dt.of Maharashra has a group of 5 lateritic plateaus of which one

has been a site of tourism since British period and is well known as “Panchgani Tableland”. It

is claimed to be the second largest table lands of Asia. Being rich in floristic diversity, regions

of Pachgani and Mahabaleshwar have been studied by a number of botanists like Cooke

(1901-08); Blatter (1909); Deshpande, et al. (1993, 1995). New species have been described

from table land and named after location Pachgani. It is a type locality of endangered species

like Habenaria panchganiensis, Isoetes panchaganiensis. Mishra and Singh (2001) report

around 10 threatened species from Pachgani tableland area. Their abundance in the past has

not been documented. But personal communication with field botanists suggests a general

decline in the populations of most species. This is especially true for Iphegenia stellata, a

medicinally important species which has been collected extensively from Pachgani. Swertia

densifolia another medicinally important species reported abundant in the past is now

restricted to the far end of the Pachgani plateau. Other species showing a significant decline

in abundance at this locality are Isoetes spp., Dipcadi montanum and Habenaria

panchganiensis. Santapau had reported abundance of Euphorbia panchganiensis from the

Panchgani tableland area, which are now restricted to small patches in the far end of the

plateau. Dipcadi maharashtrensis has not been recollected from type location Pachgani in last

30 years (Mishra and Singh, 2001). Dipcadi ursulae which was reported from tableland in

1953 has also not been collected in recent years. Most of the species known from adjacent

Kas plateau (an almost undisturbed rocky plateau) are seen here also but are very infrequent

now in occurrence- and large barren patches can be seen where tourist movement is high. In

the past tourism was restricted to the dry period, but with improved road accessibility the

tourism continues even in the monsoon growing period leading to further disturbance. Mass

blooming, so characteristic of many species of rocky plateaus and resultant scenic display that

is so common to all the rocky plateaus cannot be seen on Panchgani any more.

Unplanned growth of tourism on this plateau has led to several negative impacts and

destruction of prime vegetation patches. Horse riding, balloon rides and driving were allowed

on the plateau in all seasons almost till 2004. More than a lakh of tourists visit this site in a

year and small hotels, carts and entertainment stalls have mushroomed on the plateau to cater

to the tourists. The below ground lateritic cave with bats has been turned into a teastall

causing further disturbance and littering.

It appears from the preliminary survey that effects of tourism on floristic richness vary

according to the zones of low and high pressure tourism. The areas near parking lot which are

extensively used by tourists are more or less bare even in peak monsoon. The main reason of

destruction is trampling by horses and tourists leading to compaction of soil and disturbing



37

the seed bank of the table land species. Only the hardiest species of Fimbristylis, Mollugo

grow sporadically. The effects are severe in heavy tourism areas while lesser as we move

away further from the tourism zone. Areas further from the parking lot still retain almost

natural vegetation in patches. Most species specific to the tableland are still seen in this low

pressure zone. Along the margin are seen Utricularia purpurascens, U. praeterita, Eriocaulon

achiton, E. stellulatum etc. Dipcadi montanum, Habenaria panchganiensis, H. heyneana are

seen in deeper soil at the farther end of the plateau. Drosera indica and Swertia densifolia is

also present in patches. Euphorbia panchganiensis for which tableland is the type locality is

seen only in the zones of low tourist activity.

The area is included in the Mahabaleshwar –Panchgani ecosensitive zone. Around 2003 back

Giristhan Parishad (corporation) had banned horse riding and driving on the table land plateau

for monsoon months for protecting the flora. The measure adopted for protection i.e. three

months’ protection cannot be called adequate as the destructive processes occur throughout

the year. In fact destruction is more during summer and winter when the tourism is at peak

and there is no control over trampling.

Comparison of the Panchgani tableland with other rocky plateau in the same area (Dandeghar

and Khingar) was made. These do not have any tourism and are only impacted by grazing of

cattle. There is no significant difference in the presence of species. Endemics like Flemingia

nilgheriensis, Euphorbia panchganiensis are seen on all three outcrops. Thus, the effects of

tourism are slow acting and at population level only. There is no major disturbance of the

rock surface and hence microhabitats necessary for plants do exist. Hence a proper protection

to existing population can help in restoration of the degraded parts and conservation of the

floral diversity. Eradication of any invasive species not naturally present on the outcrops such

as Cynodon dactylon, Tridax procumbens is necessary.



38

Kas: How will it end?

Kas plateau of Satara district had gained much fame in mediat as “Valley of Flowers of

Maharashtra” owing to the mass flowering of several ephemerals seen on the plateau. This

was one of the sites of detailed study for my project and hence it was observed regularly from

2001 to 2006. The high pressure tourism started sometime around 2007 and has grown

phenomenally by 2010. Many reasons can be sited, popularization by media, publication of

book, increased interest in flower watching, easy availability of digital cameras leading to

increased interest in flower photography are some of the most obvious reasons. Although no

figures have been available so far, data collected on vehicles visiting indicates that on a peak

day – like Sunday with clear sunny sky, more than 10000 tourists may have visited this area.

Some of the informal mailing groups on internet claim 37000 tourists on one day. The entire

plateau is about 10-12 sq. kms , but the most frequented and accessible area is hardly about 1

sq. kms along the roads- and hence the tourist density is a lot higher than can be considered

permissible for such an area of richness.

Two critically endangered species Aponogeton satarensis and Ceropegia jainii are easily seen

here. However, more than 50 narrow endemics are seen in this small area, two new species

have been recently described from here and the scenic beauty is unquestionable. Presence of

carnivrous species is another attraction. The fauna is also very rich and diverse and a new

Lizard has been described from this area. All these factors indicate the extreme conservation

significance of the area, and uncontrolled tourism of this extent cannot be allowed here

without critical study of carrying capacity.

Unfortunately the tourists visiting Kas are completely unaware of the sensitive nature of the

different habitats, flora and fauna found here. Even the nature watcher, flower photographers

do not realize the tremendous disturbance they cause while photographing some species,

leading to trampling of much of the grasses and smaller herbs. The unaware tourists pluck

flowers, try to collect plants to grow in homes, picnic on the flowering plants, throw garbage

without any sensitivity. Owing to the fragility of the interactions here, a small action can

cause much damage as can be seen from Photo 15. It shows a piece of chewing gum thrown

by someone on which three beetles attracted by the sweet smell have stuck and are dying.

This is just a small example of what can happen owing to even minor actions and how it can

affect the habitat of small fauna and flora. The road has already become an entry point to the

invasives, as the flora just next to the road is changing with introduction of generalist species

from scrub areas. The long term effects of this disturbance can be destructive unless

immediate protection is given to the area.



39

This year 2010, forest department has taken lead to control and manage the tourism here. The

land is a Reserved Forest area and hence the involvement and leadership of forest department

in any protection activity is a must. Several NGOs of the region have come forward to protect

Kas but are divided on their opinions about whether or not tourism should be allowed in Kas.

As a part of the “Sahydri Sub-cluster” it has been nominated for the World Natural Heritage

Site list of the UNESCO-IUCN. At this point of time, one can only observe the effects on the

plateau and see whether the plateau continues to live or suffers the fate of Panchgani

tableland.

Idarganj: Plateau lives on

Idarganj is a very famous plateau in the Radhanagari wildlife sanctuary. Mining was carried

out on one part of the plateau around 1990s but was stopped due to pressures by the

environmentalists. EIA carried out by a Pune based agency had given clearance for the

mining, but environmentalists aided by Dr. Madhukar Bachulkar’s scientific study fought and

won the case. This has protected Idargang plateau till now. At present the mining lobby is

claiming that they can restore the habitat to near natural state provided they are allowed to

mine the areas and there is growin pressure on the forest department to clear mining leases.

On visiting Idarganj plateau 2005 it was possible to compare vegetation on the mined and

unmined areas. Only one time sampling was made in late monsoon phase. Twenty-six

species including 13 endemics were recorded. Comparison of pooled data from undisturbed

vs. disturbed area shows slightly higher diversity, species richness and number of endemics in

the undisturbed area. A comparison of species occurrence showed that geophytes (with

perennating organs) including members of Orchidaceae, Liliaceae and microhabitat

specialists like Coelachne minuta, Eriocaulon tuberiferum and Flemingia nilgheriensis

occurred only in the undisturbed areas. But widely dispersing annuals such as Indopoa

paupercula, Neanotis foetida, Hedyotis stocksii which are able to grow on rocky areas

colonize the disturbed areas. Some general trends can be summarized as:

• Although diversity, species richness and endemism of individual microhabitats are low,

collectively they show higher diversity and endemism than the disturbed areas.

• Only a few generalist endemic annuals from the drier microhabitats can colonize the

disturbed zone. The entry of invasives is at present restricted , but if such species are

introduced they will colonize the disturbed sites with total exclusion of the tiny

ephemerals

• Habitat specific and endemic geophytes Eriocaulon tuberiferum, Flemingia

nilgheriensis, Habenaria heyneana have not colonized the disturbed zone as it lacks the



40

necessary soil depth and waterlogging. But endemic annuals especially from rocky areas

with better dispersal abilities have colonized disturbed zone.

General species richness of the plateau communities is directly related to the microhabitat

richness. Each microhabitat has its own specific plant community and endemic components.

Species distribution indicates that plateau species will not respond uniformly to the

disturbance of surface soil layer. Changes in microclimatic conditions will allow only

selected generalist annuals (endemic as well as non endemic) to colonize the disturbed zone.

The adverse effect will be more pronounced in case of geophytic endemics. These trends

should be considered while designing future study of effect of disturbance on plateau flora.

Presence and abundance of endemic geophytes especially habitat specialist or rare will be a

good indicator for evaluating the effects of disturbance.

At present many plateaus in Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri are marked for mining. Effects of

highly destructive iron mining in Goa are well known and hence local agencies have raised

several objections on the environmental grounds. This has led Ministry of Environment and

Forest to declare a moratorium on all projects till further assessments area made.

Konkan plateaus

The rocky plateaus of Konkan are the most extensive, continuous with the Goa, Karnataka,

Kerala plateaus and have some specific endemics (Dipcadi concanense, Camptorhiza indica

etc.) in large numbers. Mining, quarrying, land conversion for housing, industry, orchards,

agriculture have fragmented the already continuous habitat. The effect of this on populations

of of endemic, habitat specialist species needs to be studied. There are Protect Areas in this

region (not even Reserved Forest). The land generally belong to revenue department or

private owners and is easily available for large developmental projects as is seen in case of

Nuclear power plants. The species assessments for this type need to be beyond political

boundaries, up to Kerala and should take into consideration habitat loss and fragmentation.

Basalt plateaus

The basalt plateaus are so far are less disturbed as they occur mostly in inaccessible areas and

do not have any major activity like mininig, tourism etc. They are threatened by local land

conversion for agriculture, pond construction and would benefit from community based

conservation efforts. Excellent example for this is Durgawadi plateau near Junnar which is a

large and extensive scenic plateau with no major disturbance so far. Preventive measures need

to be started here so that in future it can be retained in prestine state.



41

Goa, Karnataka, North Kerala have extensive low altitude ferricretes with rich herbaceous

vegetation. (See Box) . The vegetation is similar in composition to the Maharashtra low

altitude ferricretes but each zone has its specific endemics. It is necessary to document each

and every natural rocky plateau in this zone and its specific endemic flora and fauna. At the

same time it is necessary to evaluate the ecological status of these sites to identify appropriate

conservation strategies.

Lateritic outcrops located in Bhagwan Mahaveer National Park, Goa.

Dr. Mandar Datar

Bhagwan Mahavir National Park has West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forests in high

altitude regions and West Coast Semi - Evergreen Forests. The low altitude regions

are covered with Moist Deciduous Forests. Interspersed amongst these moist

deciduous forests are open plateaus or lateritic outcrops, commonly known as Sadas

between altitude 80 m and 200 m. These outcrops are smaller fractions of exposed

laterite with a very limited layer of soil. Their size ranges between half an acre to

almost 10 acres, largest amongst these is a plateau known as Devsada located near

village Dogurli on the western borders of the National Park. Except Deosada all

outcrops are small in size ranging around 1-4 acres. Smaller outcrops are often

situated on slopes, where leaking of ground water uncovers lateritic layers.

Utricularia caerulea L., Utricularia lazulina P. Taylor, Utricularia reticulata Sm. are

the common insectivorous species on these outcrops. Most of the vegetation on

plateaus sustain until September.

There are many species of endemic plants documented from the National Park

restricted on these plateaus. Flemingia tuberosa Dalzell, Indigofera dailzellii T.

Cooke, to name a few. Other plants exclusively restricted to lateritic outcrops from

the national park are Teramnus labialis (L. f. ) Spreng., Rotala densiflora (Roth ex

Roem. & Schult.) Koehne, Tylophora fasciculata Buch.- Ham. ex Wight & Arn.,

Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke ex Engl. (growing parasite on Lepidagathis sp.) ,

Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew, Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell, Geissaspis tenella

Benth., Neanotis subtilis ( Miq.) Govaerts, Rhamphicarpa longiflora (Arn.) Benth.,

Lepidagathis lutea Dalzell, Lepidagathis prostrata Dalzell, Murdannia semiteres

(Dalzell) Santapau, Eriocaulon eurypeplon Koern., Eriocaulon robusto-brownianum

Ruhland, Jansenella griffithiana (C. Muell.) Bor, Impatiens minor (DC.) Bennet.

There are many such small lateritic outcrops located outside the National Park. But all

these are threatened due to mining activity. Negligence towards the ecological

importance of these plateaus has resulted in misusing these plateaus as dumping sites

for mining. In addition, the commercial plantations of cashew nuts and of exotic

species are responsible for depletion of the diversity of these outcrops.

Indirect threats

Invasive species

This is an indirect but very real danger to the rocky plateau habitat. The species that grow on

rocky plateaus are adapted to the extreme physico-chemical and climatic conditions of this

habitat. Here they have a competitive advantage over other species of more mesic



42

environments. The species of surrounding scrub area are not able to establish a foothold in

this habitat for several years, because they lack the necessary adaptive strategies. The lack of

or low degree of competition from these species allows the specialists to thrive and develop

large populations. However, activities that disturb the sensitive balance will lead to invasion

by generalists from surroundings -of either native or non-native species. This is already seen

on some rocky plateaus which have prolonged disturbance (ref.: Panchgani plateau box).

Building a road, digging pits for windmills, plantation will lead to soil upheaval, debris

dumping allows establishment of Senecio spp. Heteropogon contortus, Cynodon dactylon

from surrounding scrub grassland. On some plateaus, around ponds, hardy weeds such as

Argemone mexicana have established. Influx of tourists on large scale can lead to accidental

intrusion of invasives from faraway areas, garden weeds (Tridax procumbens, Synedrella

nodiflora etc.) which can compete with the specialist vegetation of similar herbaceous nature.

This is a serious threat against which preventive measures need to be taken. It has been

observed in other tourist areas across the world and is a well documented scientific fact. Also

serious threat is of purposeful introduction of some invasive in the general area by unaware

tourists.

This has happened in the outskirts of Pune city where nature lovers under misguided efforts

introduced seeds of Cosmos spp. a hardy extremely competitive annual for beautification of

scrub areas. This was a disastrous measure as the species established in natural grass scrub

area and spread at the cost of natural vegetation. There is a great danger that some unaware

nature lover might take up such an effort in his own way and lead to disastrous effort on some

of the plateau areas. A very large sensitization drive needs to be carried out and entry and

activity of tourists restricted to prevent such an ecological disaster.

Climate change

In addition to the more direct effects of humans, studies are also needed to see how the global

phenomenon like climate change will affect these habitats. As discssed earlier, the habitat

experiences extreme climates which are highly periodic in nature. Any changes in the climate

parameters and patterns will bring in subtle changes at species and communities level. Some

guesses can be made:

� Increase in temperatures might result in desiccation beyond tolerance level for some species

� Erratic rainfall, gaps in the prolonged monsoon will result in drying of certain

habitats leading to shock for some less resilient species. � Rainfall heavier than usual will lead to more waterlogging and conditions will change

in favour of hydrophytes while the plants of drier microhabitats will not tolerate such

waterlogging.

� Flowering peak will change However, these are simple guesses and an actual modelling exercise will be useful.



43

Chapter 5:

Conservation

The anthropogenic pressures described above vary from low impact with slow degeneration

of species population to high impact with total destruction of the habitat and its diversity.

Both the factors need to be addressed while assessing the conservation needs for the habitat.

Before considering the conservation efforts it needs to be stated that a lot more exploratory

and experimental scientific research is required to aid the conservation planning. The

recommendations made here are based on available knowledge and many more can be made

if more research is conducted.

Two approaches can be taken simulataneously.

A. Conservation of habitat:

It is required to review the current conservation status of rocky plateaus. A checklist of

plateau sites is given in annexure and some general remarks are made on the status of

disturbance. However, more detailed studies covering various aspects for each (species

richness, endemism, naturalness, potential stresses etc.) should be compiled. A map can be

prepared showing all the aspects.

The second step towards planning conservation would be find out the landownership and

check how many fall within existing PAs, RFs or government or private ownership. Once this

is completed and mapped, one can get an understanding of how representative are the

currently protected plateaus of the entire range of plateaus diversity. Preliminary survey

indicates that the high level laterite plateuas, especially in Kolhapur and Sangli are within the

WLS (although % not known) while Satara plateaus are mostly RFs or private lands or part of

Koyana WLS. In the basalt plateau area, Harishchandragad area is part of wildlife sanctuary.

The steps can be as follows:

1. Find out how many plateaus are already within existing PAs.

� if yes, is the protection enough? Extra against mining/windmills, grazing, limiting

tourism, and monitoring for indirect threats

� Also study if the protected plateaus are representative enough of the entier range of

diversity , identify more sites to make it representative.

� For RFs, increase the level of protection – monitor grazing, do not allow plantations

or any other efforts by forest department to modify habitat without study, controll

tourism, restrict access, involve local communities in conservation, monitoring,

benefit sharing from tourism revenue

� Identify possible CCAs

2. If not in PAs- either designate PAs-



44

� identify level of protection required, sanctuary making is very difficult as they are not

already forest lands, acquire if revenue, malki lands, create protection mechanism

appropriate for the area ex. CCAs/ RFs,

� discourge quarrying mining power plants by conducting throgh EIAs and declaring

the areas biodiversity rich and hence not cleared for such developments

� feasibility of cluster sanctuary esp for the konkan ones- which have residual patches

3. Create awareness at all levels- scientists (who can contribute towards scientific

understanding of the habitat), society (for monitoring the habitats, forming pressure

group for conservation, responsible tourism), local community (for local

management, conservation benefit sharing, reducing impacts by providing alternative

housing material, controlled grazing, controlled agriculture), policy makers- change

policy to better reflect the biodiversity importance of rocky plateaus and also of other

rock outcrops.

4. Enumerate and assess diversity of all sites and create database.

The last point needs to be specifically taken into account when defining conservation strategy.

More number of sites and from further apart need to be conserved if a significant percentage

of rock outcrop flora is to be protected.

B. Species conservation

� locality protection

� monitor populations

� habitat restoration

� Ex-situ for some of the declining and restoration

� Need for scientific study

� Legal protection

� Awareness generation



45



46

Identification of ecosensitive areas

In the absence of detailed ecological and biodiversity studies from all the sites, it is very

difficult to identify areas to be designated “ecosensitive”. The figures explains the possible

ways of identifying conservation and management areas.

An attempt is made here based on the study so far and the criteria used are :

1. Naturalness of habitat (High level of naturalness selected)

2. Contiguity between sites (considered and representatives covering entire area

selected)

3. Biodiversity richness (high numbers of plant and animals of this habitat)

4. Vegetation community diversity (diversity of microhabitats)

5. Endemism (High endemism)

6. Presence of large populations of habitat specialists (large numbers)

7. Threatened species (Areas of already identified threatened species)

8. New species description (Localities of narrow endemics)

9. Present level of protection (areas within or outside PAs)

The areas already within Wildlife Sanctuaries or Sahyadri proposed National Park, and

ecosensitive zones (ex. Radhanagari, Chandoli, Dajipur, Harishchandragad, Kalsubai,

Mahabaleshwar, Matheran) are not considered as they already have some protection and need

to be managed and monitored.

Areas outside NP and WLS are selected specifically as they urgently need protection from

proposed damaging activities including tourism, mining, nuclear power plant etc.

The following areas are considered ecologically sensitive, based on present information

� Naneghat, Durgawadi, Anjaneri (high level Basalt plateaus, Pune, Nashik districts)

� Kas, Chalkewadi, Patan, Amba, Zenda, Amboli, Chorla (High level Lateritic plateaus

Satara, Chandoli, Kolhapur district areas)

� Vengurla, Nerur, Achra, Malwan, Devgarh, Vijayadurg, Jaitapur, Vaghotan,

Devrukh, Jaigarh, Anjanvel, Jalgao, Dapoli (Low level lateritic plateau areas almost

continuous)

� Goa, Karnataka, Kerala plateaus are not considered here, although they are equally

important for conservation.

However, this listing does not imply that these are the ONLY ecosensitive areas. More

studies are necessary including sites not covered in the present review.



47

Chapter 6

Recommnedations

The present review was undertaken to record baseline information about the plant and animal

diversity of the rocky plateaus in the northern Western Ghats. Information regarding species

diversity together with spatial and temporal variation has been documented with special

emphasis on endemism, adaptive strategies and phytogeographic affinities of the vegetation.

Effect of anthropogenic factors are discussed and conservation needs are outlined.

Further detailed studies are a needed to understand the ecological, social and

economic aspects of rocky plateau conservation.

Following recommendations can be made based upong the previous discussion :

• Complete enumeration of the floral and faunal richness of the habitat including

those in the PAs as well as non PAs

• Assessment of ecological status of the rocky plateaus and biodiversity

• Establishment of experimental research projects to understand rocky plateau

ecology

• Enhanced protection of rock outcrops within existing protected areas and protection

of additional representative sites to complement currently protected outcrops

• Monitoring the rocky plateau ecology on long-term basis

• Limiting destructive activities such as mining, plantation, tourism, constructions

and burning on plateaus

• Awareness generation about the importance of preserving these habitats in

scientists, policy makers and society

• Designing community based conservation projects for conservation and

management

In addition to this, it is extremely necessary for researchers, environmental managers and

others to understand the special nature and uniqueness of rock outcrop habitats in the

Northern Western Ghats and Konkan and their global conservation significance.

It is hoped that this review paper will prove to be a step towards a much wider study on the

biodiversity of rock outcrops in entire India and will sensitize policy makers to design

conservation strategy for this unique habitat type.



48

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53

Acknowledgements

I owe many thanks to

- my husband, Sanjay Thakur, for being a constant companion in all the hard field work and

writing of this study

- Dr. Stefan Porembski, for taking a personal interest in guiding me about all the scientific

work on rock outcrop habitats and constant support and encouragement in the initial research

which was crucial for this study

And also to

- Dr. Madhav Gadgil, for initiating me to write this paper

- Department of Science and Technology, Bombay Environmental Action Group for support

to some study components

- Agharkar Research Institute, Dr. Rao, ex-director, Dr. Mujumdar, ex-Head, Department of

Botany, for laboratory facilities,

- Forest Department of Maharashtra, Mr. Thosre, ex-CCF Pune Division, Mr. SaiPrakash, ex-

CF Kolhapur, Mr. Limaye, ex-DCF, Satara and all field staff

-Mr. & Mrs. Shirgaonkar, Dr. Swapna Prabhu & Mr. Ashok Captain, Vinay Kolte, Vikram

Hoshing, Nina Hobbhahn, Gowri Mallapur

- Dr. A. Khadkikar, Dr. M. Sardesai, Mr. G. Potdar, Dr. Sachin Punekar, Dr. Mandar Datar

-Director and In-charge of BSI, Blatter Herbarium, Shivaji University herbarium.

-Dr. Erach Bharucha, Dr. Vinaya Ghate, Dr. Upadhye, Samir Mehta, Kedar bhide, Sushama

Durve

- local people from various villages in the study area and many others.

And most importantly, my parents Sujala and Vidyadhar Watve for great tolerance without

which this study was impossible.



54

Photo 9: EFV with flowering of Utricularia purpurascens

Photos by:

Aparna Watve, Sanjay Thakur, Ashok Captain, Mandar Datar

Rocky Plateaus Aparna Watve

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