11

Chapter II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND CONCEPTS USED IN THE STUDY

This chapter provides review of literature and concepts used in

the study. In the first section, review of recent studies on domestic

water, mostly conducted in India, is done. In the subsequent section,

some of the key concepts used in the study are defined for providing

clarity in reading of the report.

I. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Many authors made different attempts on the study of water

issues all over the world. In this section such recent attempts

exercised mostly in India are reviewed, categorized and presented for

the readers. The review of the recent studies are presented under

different captions as, status of water supply in general, status of water

supply in urban and rural India, water quality problems, water pricing,

household’s investment, role of women in water, policy formation, etc.

Status of Water Supply

Gupta (2002) examined supply-demand status of water for

Gujarat state, which is agrarian but also with a high industrial growth

rate. Due to inequitable distribution of surface water, frequent

droughts and an ever-increasing demand trend, groundwater has been

over-exploited in many parts, leading to water mining with worsening

water quality. With more than 40 per cent of the energy consumed for

extracting groundwater, this has had a serious impact on the energy

balance. The work also examines the water-energy nexus in the state

and its impact on water supply.

12

Putaswamaiah (2005) observed that despite of many government

efforts, supply and demand side factors of both surface and

groundwater determine the level of drinking water available for the

people. The supply and demand factors increase along with the natural

and human factors like pollution. This limits drinking water supply

provision and raises the delivery cost. Decline in groundwater table and

availability of surface water, particularly in summer months, has put

large number of people in risk for drinking water. Poor water quality

problem has also been observed in many of habitations. Inadequate

resource management and institutional system seems to be the major

cause for the present problems.

Status of Rural Water Supply

Nearly two-third of the people lives in rural India. Status of

water supply and collection widely differ across the country. A good

number of studies observed the status of rural water supply. A study

conducted in rural Kerala by Santhanakumar (1998) discussed the

issues of inefficiency in the provision of public water supply. The

analysis identifies two sources of inefficiency in the provision of

drinking water, the merit good. First, it is due to the fact that the state

and its agencies autonomously decide the nature and characteristics of

the merit good. If the nature of good provided is not preferred by the

people, or its consumption requires effort on the part of citizens, these

may lead to the non-consumption of the merit good by a large number

of people. The second source is inefficiency in the provision of merit

good is in the selection of the institutional framework. The acquisition

and free distribution of water by the state agency, is the prevailing

institutional framework in Kerala, and this is inappropriate in

13

efficiently solving the drinking water problem of different localities,

taking their specific characteristics into account.

Hoek, et al. (1999) made two case studies from Sri Lanka and

Pakistan. They observe that the people make use of irrigation water for

a range of domestic activities. The study stresses that water resource

policies have to take these uses into account to avoid negative health

implications for poor disadvantaged segments of the population.

Barriers to optimizing benefits of linking the irrigation water supply to

domestic needs seem to be institutional and psychological rather than

medical, technical or economical.

Prokopy (2005) analysed the status of rural water supply in

households belonging to 45 villages of two different drinking water

project areas in Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh states. By using

regression models, the study found that capital cost contribution and

household involvement in decision making are significant predictors of

village level measures of household satisfaction, equal access, and time

savings. The study suggests that projects should continue to encourage

both contributions and household involvement in decision making from

as many households as possible within a village.

A study conducted in Rajasthan assessed whether the Rural

Drinking Water Supply Program (RDWSP) and the Universal

Immunization Program (UIP) have achieved equitable coverage in the

state and explored characteristics that affect equitable coverage of

preventive health interventions. On the basis of total observation of

2460 children and their households, the study found that a higher

access to piped water by wealthier families is compensated by higher

access to hand pumps by poorer families, resulting in equal access to a

14

safe source. Immunization coverage was inequitable, favoring the

wealthier children. It concludes that the RDWSP has achieved

equitable coverage, while UIP coverage remains highly inequitable

(Mohan, 2005).

Balasubramaniyam et al. (2009) examined whether different

social divisions help to explain the variation in tap water access across

India. Using data for 436 rural districts from the 2001 Census of India,

it finds that communities that are heterogeneous in terms of Hindu

castes have less access to tap water than correspondingly

homogeneous communities. By contrast, religiously fragmented

communities have more access to tap water than correspondingly

homogeneous communities. Therefore, heterogeneity within and across

religions may work in opposite directions for access to public goods.

So, this study suggests that the social fragmentation should be

considered in framing policies and argues in favour of differential

policies for better water management

Mokgobe and Butterworth (2001) analysed the status of rural

water supply in Sand River Catchment of South Africa. The study

found that water from the domestic supply services is not only used for

basic needs such as drinking, health and hygiene, but for a wide range

of productive uses. These uses form essential components of the

livelihood strategies of poor people in the Sand River Catchment. There

are complex water supply systems in all villages. People depend upon

different sources and there are often multiple uses associated with each

source. Payment for water does take place in all villages. It occurs in

various forms, including buying water from water vendors and

individuals to fetch water, and monthly contributions towards

15

operation and maintenance of water supply system infrastructure.

Women mostly are involved in fetching water for almost all productive

activities. Women are engaged in productive activities that are related

to traditional women’s work, such as beer brewing and making ice

blocks. Management of water supplies at the village level is mainly

focused on piped water supply systems, and not on traditional sources

of water such as wells, or springs. Water committees exist in all but one

of the eleven study villages.

Status of Urban Water Supply

A number of attempts have been made on status of urban water

supply. Some of the recent efforts are reviewed and presented here.

Dutta et al. (2005) examined water supply status in unplanned

settlements of the Delhi city, the capital of India. It has an enormous

backlog in the provision of reliable water supply to its population,

which is further worsened by the growing number of informal urban

settlements. The study has applied contingent valuation method which

is applied to evaluate a policy of providing better water supply with

improved quality and reliability in unplanned settlements of Delhi.

Willingness to pay (WTP) questions are used to value a specific outcome

of a policy intended to assure a reliable water supply that has no health

risk of contamination. The estimation from linear utility models assert

that the proposed changes would provide positive net benefits to

customers who are otherwise incurring considerable amounts of coping

cost in the absence of a reliable water supply. The findings have

important policy implications for gauging public support for water

supply improvements in infrastructurally disadvantaged households.

16

Whiteman (2006) observed that the provision of clean drinking

water, sanitation and storm water disposal has become a major

challenge for the urban centers of the developing world. The number of

cities with a population of more than 10 million has increased from one

in 1950, to 16 in 2000, and is expected to increase to 21 by 2015. In

2000, 47.2 per cent of the global population was urban, and this

percentage is increasing steadily. The rapid rate of urbanization has far

exceeded the management and financial capacities of all the levels of

governments of all developing countries from about 1960. While more

and more people have received access to water and sanitation in recent

years, much more remains to be done. At the present rate, it is unlikely

that the Millennium Development Goal of reducing by half the

proportion of people without sustainable access to drinking water by

2015, can be achieved universally.

Janakarajan, et al. (2007) made an attempt on drinking water

issues in peri-urban areas of Chennai city. According to them for a

long time, social-science or hydrology-related research has focused

mainly on either urban or rural issues. However, peri-urban problems

have surfaced as a major issue, which policymakers no longer can

ignore during the last couple of decades, as is clear from the way that

many urban expansion plans have stalled due to stiff resistance shown

by peri-urban farmers. Most approaches towards solving urban

problems and water stress have so far failed because rural, peri-urban

and urban issues were treated in isolation. There is now an urgent

need to view urban, peri-urban and rural segments of a region as a part

of a single but integrated livelihood and ecosystem. In other words, all

three segments are very much a part of an integrated socio-economic

17

developmental process of an economy. A fragmented approach would

only bring about rural/urban and peri-urban/urban divide, besides

contributing to the destruction of ecology, environment and livelihood

options in the rural and peri-urban areas.

Shaban (2007) exhaustively observed the status of urban water

supply in major cities of India. He observed that water consumption in

Indian cities is far lower than the norms laid down by Bureau of Indian

Standards. In comparison to other major cities in the world, the

consumption in Indian cities is also far deficient. The lower

consumption results mainly because the water supply is not keeping

pace with population growth and increasing needs of users; It is

observed that though a majority of households consume water below

the specified norms, they, by and large, show satisfaction with the

available supply. This is mainly because they have delimited their

aspiration and requirements of water in relation to available supply

from the concerned municipalities or water authorities; some

household activities, like washing clothes, bathing, use in toilets, and

washing dishes and utensils are the most water consuming activities in

the cities under focus.

It has also found that in these cities, a majority of the households

perceive the above activities as most water wasting activities. City-wise

variations in the supply and quality of water are very much visible.

Water supply in cities like Kolkata and Hyderabad is far better, while

Kanpur and Delhi perform the worst. Though it is also true that water

supply in Hyderabad is a mix of adequacies and inadequacies, where

multiple agencies pitch in to meet the needs. The municipal corporation

supplies water to majority of households once in two days. Water

18

tankers and bore-wells compensate the deficiency of municipal water in

this city; twenty four hour water supply on municipal taps is a dream

for a majority of households in the large cities in the country. The study

reveals that only about 18 per cent of the total households in these

cities get 24 hours municipal water supply. The erratic and limited

duration of supply of water has become a common phenomenon in

these cities. This has forced the households, in majority of the cities, to

depend on groundwater and other sources of water, like the private

vendors who supply water through tankers and drums. These, in turn,

are leading to depletion of groundwater due to over withdrawal by the

growing population and emerging water markets.

Spencer (2008) made an attempt on water supply conditions in

Can Tho, a peri-urban area of Vietnam. In this study he assessed the

comparative advantages regarding costs, uses, and perceived

advantages and challenges of each source of domestic water supply.

The author found that the household demand for piped water exists,

but not on a sufficient scale to prevent more traditional sources, even

though it is surprisingly affordable when compared to what residents

pay for natural sources; further the main perceived advantage of the

piped system is not for its hygienic quality, but for aesthetic

characteristics such as taste, smell, and colour.

Aijaz (2010) made some general observations on the status of

urban water supply. This case study states that the demand for basic

infrastructure and services in Indian cities has increased phenomenally

due to rapidly growing populations. Such unmet demands often

adversely affect the quality of urban life, the economic productivity, as

well as the process of sustainable development.

19

Rural-Urban Comparative Study

Jigar and Lalani (2011) observed the status of urban water

supply and compared it with rural supply. The water supply in most

Indian cities is only available for a few hours per day, pressure is

irregular, and the water is of questionable quality. No major Indian city

has a 24 hour supply of water, with 4 to 5 hours of supply per day

being the norm. This is very low when compared to the Asian-Pacific

average of 19 hours per day supply. These averages conceal a great

deal of heterogeneity within cities. Eighty-eight percent households

have access to an improved source of drinking water, with greater

access in urban areas. The most common improved source of drinking

water for urban dwellers is piped water; 71 percent either have water

piped into their living area or use a public tap. By contrast, only 28

percent of households in rural areas have access to piped water. Most

people (53 percent) in rural areas obtain their drinking water from a

tube well or bore well.

High rates of mortality and morbidity due to water-borne

diseases are well known in India. Serious degradation of water quality

in urban India has often been attributed to indiscriminate disposal of

sewage and industrial effluents into surface water bodies. Although

some degree of intervention in terms of chlorination and monitoring of

water quality exists in major cities and towns, rural India, which

constitutes the bulk of the population, is usually deprived of such

interventions. The population in rural India is mainly dependent on the

groundwater as a source of drinking water. As a quality concern the

groundwater is often found to be contaminated with fluoride, arsenic,

iron and salts. In recent years, fluorosis has emerged as major public

20

health issue in rural India. At the technical level, some progress has

been made in the development and use of field-level diagnostic kits.

Decentralization of health-related monitoring at the villages needs to be

institutionalized and this requires capacity development at all levels.

This study suggested that redesigning of data management programme

at village, district and at national level, upgradation of district-level

laboratories and addressing technical, legal and institutional

components should become the first steps in achieving effective water-

quality management and providing better health to millions of people

living in rural India (Srikanth, 2009).

Planning Commission (2007) has also observed the status of

India’s water supply during the recent period on the basis of Census

data. The status of provision of water and sanitation has improved

slowly. In 1991 Census, 55.54 per cent of the rural population had

access to an improved water source. As on April 1st 2007, a total of

15,07,349 rural habitations in the country, 74.39 per cent (11,21,366

habitations) are fully covered, and 14.64 per cent (2,20,165

habitations) are partially covered. Further, present estimates shows

that out of the 2.17 lakh water quality affected habitation as on April

1st 2005, about 70,000 habitations have since been addressed for

providing safe drinking water. Also, from the reported coverage, there

are slippages in the prescribed supply level, reducing the per capita

availability due to a variety of reasons. Water supply in urban areas is

also far from satisfactory. As on March 31st 2004, about 91 per cent of

the urban population has got access to water supply facilities. However,

this access does not ensure adequacy, equitable distribution and the

per capita availability is not as per norms in many areas. Average

21

access to drinking water is highest in class I towns (73 per cent),

followed by class II towns (63 per cent), class III towns (61 per cent) and

other towns (58 per cent). Poor people in slums and squatter

settlements are generally deprived of these basic amenities. The

quantity of urban water supply is also poor. Water is supplied only for

few hours of the day which leads to lot of waste as taps are kept open

and water is stored not all of which is used. This is so, despite the fact

that per capita availability of water in cities like New Delhi exceeds that

in Paris, where water is supplied round the clock.

Water Quality Problems

Water quality is a major and challenging problem in developing

countries. Population pressure, unregulated water consumption and

urbanization along with other factors make stress on fresh water

quality. Impacts are very severe. Gadgil (1998) analyses the status of

water quality of developing countries and constraints in make it to

better state. Safe drinking water remains inaccessible for about 1.1

billion people in the world, and the hourly toll from biological

contamination of drinking water is 400 deaths of children, who are in

under-5 age group. He finds that financing problems that deter

extending access to safe drinking water to the unserved population.

The study stresses the urgency of identifying the feasible policy for

enhancing availability of drinking water in these countries.

Sobsey (2002) stated that improving the microbiological quality of

household water by on-site or point-of-use treatment and safe storage

in improved vessels reduces diarrheal and other waterborne diseases in

communities and households of developing as well as developed

countries. The extent to which improving drinking water quality at the

22

household level reduces diarrheal disease probably depends on a

variety of technology-related as well as site-specific environmental and

demographic factors. Reductions in household diarrheal diseases of 6

to 90 per cent have been observed, depending on the technology and

the exposed population and local conditions.

Another study examined the inter connection between water

resources management and quality of it in the developing countries,

particularly in India. Serious problem areas in India are identified,

such as water logging, urban sewage disposal, and recurrence of

malaria and silting‐up of reservoirs. Many of these problems occur due

to lack of administrative coordination and fragmentation of large

interactive systems into functional areas. By using systems theory a

number of action imperatives are identified. Improvement in linkages,

better coordination of interactive functions, stimulation of multiple

uses of water, improved water management practices and education

aimed at water conservation are the important actions to be initiated

(Bowonder, 2012).

Suthar et al. (2009) examined the bacterial contaminations of

drinking water in rural habitations of northern Rajasthan. The study

found a total number of ten bacterial species: escherichia coli,

pseudomonas aeruginosa, enterobacter aerogenes, klebsiella sp,

proteus vulgaris, alcaligenes faecalis, bacillus cereus, staphylococcus

aureus, streptococcus lactis and Micrococcus luteum were identified

form drinking water samples. The bacteria belonging to the family

enterobacteriaceae (coliforms) showed the maximum occurrences in

water samples. The total coliforms count, i.e. TTCm in drinking water

samples was in the range of 25 TTCm to 41 TTCm in different

23

locations. The study further found that the drinking water quality

deterioration in rural habitations of this region was due to poor

sanitation and unawareness on personal hygienic practices. The

occurrences of some pathogenic bacteria in drinking water may

increase the risks of water-related diseases and health problems among

local residents.

Ayoob and Gupta (2008) observed the fluoride presence in the

drinking water. According to them, India and China, the two most

populous countries of the world, are the worst affected by fluoride

contamination. India is plagued with numerous water quality problems

due to prolific contaminants mainly of geogenic origin and fluoride

stands first among them. The weathering of primary rocks and leaching

of fluoride-containing minerals in soils yield fluoride rich groundwater

in India which is generally associated with low calcium content and

high bicarbonate ions. The unregulated ground water tapping aggravate

the failure of drinking water sources and accelerates the entry of

fluoride into groundwater. Most of the scientific literature substantiates

the benefits of low fluoride concentrations in preventing dental decay.

However, as a surprising paradox, incidence of dental, skeletal and

crippling skeletal fluorosis was reported in India with average fluoride

concentrations as low as 0.5, 0.7 and 2.8 ppm respectively. Fluorosis,

turns out to be the most widespread geochemical disease in India,

affecting more than 66 million people including 6 million children

under 14 years age. Though fluoride has spread its tentacles in 36,988

habitations and the number of people falling prey to fluoride poisoning

have been steadily increasing.

24

Vedhachalam (2012) examined the possibility and problems in

desalination projects in order to provide adequate water supply for

Chennai city. Desalination can be an additional source of supply, but

it is also the most expensive one. Reliance on such expensive

technology does not augur well for a city that already does not collect

revenues that match its expenses.

The International Benchmarking Network for Water and

Sanitation Utilities (IBNET) report for Chennai in 2005 claimed that

only 21 per cent of the water supplied was metered. The report also

mentioned that the operating cost for both water and wastewater

services was $0.41 per meter cubed (Rs 20.5/kl), while the average

revenue from the services was only $0.30 per meter cubed (or Rs

15/kl), a shortfall of 27 per cent. The high cost of desalination

highlights another problem. New or alternative sources of water are

likely to be more expensive than existing sources of water, a theme

highlighted throughout the book. Increasing supply only gets at one

part of the problem. Demand management through infrastructure

upgrades, full-cost pricing and effective metering is equally important

to ensure reliable supply to the city’s residents. Finally, let us not forget

the water that leaves our homes. Treating wastewater and returning it

to the environment in its natural state will not only protect the

ecosystem but can also serve as an additional source of water.

Household Investment on Domestic Water

In many urban centers domestic water is supplied for the limited

hours in a day. In rural areas, this supply is not certain. Generally

water supplied in alternative days in these areas. In some places water

is supplied once in two days or after that. At the same, quality of the

25

water supplied is generally not good and it requires further treatment.

Thus, households make additional investment on the domestic water

supplied in order to use water regularly and make the quality of water

better.

Sobsey (2002) stated that some of the key factors influencing the

impact of storage vessels and conditions on household water quality

are portability and ease of use, based on capacity, size, shape, weight,

presence of handles; durability, weight and other properties related to

resistance and longevity; presence of a coverable opening for filling and

cleaning access but small enough to reduce the potential for

introducing contaminants by contaminated hands, dipping utensils

and other vehicles, vectors, or other sources; ability to withdraw water

in a sanitary manner, such as via a tap, spigot, spout or other narrow

orifice, and; presence and accessibility of documentation describing

how to properly use the container for water treatment and sanitary

storage.

A study by Pushpangadan (2003) analysed the efficiency of water

use among the different states of India. It examined the Data

Envelopment Analysis (DEA) for the estimation of the well being from

drinking water using commodities and capabilities approach. DEA uses

the general purpose linear programme version of the input oriented

multi-input multi-output model for the estimation taking state as the

decision-making unit. The transformation efficiency of the water

characteristics into achieved capabilities (free from morbidity rates of

water borne diseases) shows that Punjab has the least efficiency while

Kerala and Orissa are Pareto-efficient states. The major reason for the

input use efficiency in Kerala may be due to the cultural practice of

26

boiling drinking water before consumption. In the case of Orissa, it can

be attributed to better hygienic water handling practices. One such

indicator, taking water from the storage containers using vessels with

handles, is very high among the households in Orissa.

World Health Organization (2007) observed the purification

techniques at household level and their health impacts. Water

treatment also needs to be accompanied by safe storage. This can be

accomplished by using containers with narrow openings and a

dispensing device such as a tap or spigot to protect collected water

against recontamination. These measures are particularly important

because the microbial quality of drinking water frequently declines after

collection. Reaching the vulnerable, however, implies much more than

developing affordable household water treatment and safe storage

(HWTS) products. These interventions are most effective in preventing

disease only if they are used correctly and consistently. Identifying and

implementing successful approaches to increase uptake HWTS

products on a sustainable basis is essential for this intervention to

achieve widespread and long-term success. Important considerations in

home treatment are taste and other aesthetic properties of the water,

convenience of use, price and cultural attitudes. Further the study

observed that educational and promotional messages should target

positive ideas, such as clarity, taste, good health, affordability, and

ease of use. Many households would be willing to pay for home

treatment at an acceptable price (e.g. less than US$ 10 for water filters

in Southern Africa). Payment by instalments may be one method of

enabling the poor to deal with the relatively high up-front costs of

certain technologies.

27

According to the U.S. Centre for Disease Control and Prevention

(CDC), 10-25 US cents worth can last a family an entire month to treat.

Simple ceramic pot filters moulded by local artisans can be used to

filter household drinking water in the house for approximately US$3

per year, making them sustainable and economical (quoted in WHO,

2007).

Boiling is by far the most commonly used approach to disinfect

water at household level. At the global level, a recent World Health

Organization report suggests that household water interventions can

lead to a benefit of up to US$60 for every US$1 invested (quoted in

WHO, 2007).

Self-reported household water quality opinions and avoidance

measures used by households in Kampala, Uganda, to manage health

risks are analyzed by Bukenya (2006). The study is based on survey

data collected from four divisions in Kampala district and analyzed

using binary logit model. Survey results indicate that the majority of

the respondents boil water to manage potential health risks. On the

other hand, logit results confirmed the existence of strong relationship

between household characteristics, opinions on water quality, and the

use of avoidance measures.

Consumers without 24-hour supply tend to use more water than

those with continuous supply because consumers store water, put it

away to replace with fresh supplies each day. Intermittent water

supply, insufficient pressure and unpredictable service impose both

financial and health costs on Indian households. Many households

with house-service connections were found to have undertaken long-

term investments in the form of water tanks, hand pumps or tube

28

wells. Households with water tanks install booster pumps on the main

water line itself and pump water directly to water tanks. This increases

the risks of contamination of the general water supply and reduces the

pressure in the network for other users, leading them also to install

motors on the main line. (Jigar and Lalani, 2011).

Domestic Water Pricing

Saleth and Dinar (1998) argued that although local level supply

augmentation options cannot solve urban water deficit altogether, their

exhaustion is admittedly a necessary condition for market-based inter-

sectoral water transfers to be free of any damage to the incentive

environment facing urban water sector. To ensure this supply-side

precondition for water transfers, urban water pricing has to be revised

to allow higher water rates and more progressive rate structure.

Majumdar and Gupta (2007) argue in favour of rational water

pricing for prompt supply to the households. In their study they

pointed out that step to rationalize the municipal water pricing system

have raised various debates in Kolkata of India. The primary point of

debate is whether the age-old direct subsidy to a water system

benefiting all users should continue or a volumetric charge on water

usage should be imposed. Apart from this, issues such as a transitional

phase pricing strategy, specific tariff structure, support for the poor

and management options are widely debated by those that favour

rationalization. The authors examine the behaviour of 500 households

of Kolkata, and use the information to resolve the issues of contention.

It is estimated that a uniform volumetric charge of Rs. 4 per kilolitre

can be imposed in the phase of transition.

29

Women’s Participation in Household Water Management

Katsha and White (2009) made an attempt to understand the

behavioral patterns of women in rural households regarding water and

sanitation. For the study an interdisciplinary team surveyed 312

households in two Egyptian delta villages, examining 46 of them in

depth, through participant observation method. Main observations of

the study are: their patterns of storing water, and its use for drinking,

cooking, washing, animal rearing and waste disposal are rooted in the

woman's beliefs regarding cleanliness and what enhances the health

and well-being of her family. The local environment of surface and

groundwater availability, quality and available drainage affect her

choices. Other factors include local government institutions, available

technology, information and educational facilities, time and energy

expended on various practices, and social values held by women and

the community. The women suggest practical solutions for their water

and sanitation problems such as carts for collecting waste water, but

feel powerless to influence local governments, or even their husbands,

to institute new practices.

Sijbesma et al. (2009) conducted a study in drought-prone area

of Gujarat emphasised role of women in domestic water supply and

collection. The study accentuated that to realize their potential water

supply projects should be designed and managed not only for welfare

and public health, but also for economic development and gender

sensitivity within households. Economic gains can be realized by

linking water supplies with micro-enterprises, especially in water

scarce and poor areas. Micro-enterprise development should focus

especially on women as they use water and time domestically and

30

economically and can gain time and energy from improved water

supplies. Enterprise projects must go beyond credit supply to cover the

whole chain of production, management and sales. For a more reliable

and equitable water distribution, women entrepreneurs must be able to

influence the planning, design and management of traditional and

improved water supplies as a group. Within the groups, more attention

is needed on gender relations among the women themselves. Policy that

is sensitive to these aspects of economic development and gender

relations in villages targeted for improved water supply will have a

greater impact on both poverty alleviation and women-empowerment.

Policy Reforms

Many studies offer policy suggestions in some important domains

of domestic water supply and management. Such important policy

options of few recent studies are reviewed and given below:

Prakash and Thakur (2004) highlighted the need for policy reform

for prompt supply of domestic water. Most water supply entities like

water supply departments, state or city-level water boards, or

municipal governments, run at a loss, and cover the loss – defined as

the gap between revenues from the sale of water and cost of water

provision – from government subsidies and accelerated depreciation of

capital. The result is a low-level equilibrium - low tariff, poor services,

and constraints on access, especially of poor households. Thus the

study emphasised the water pricing, particularly with respect to the

size of the consumer base, multiple instruments of charging, price

discrimination between different water user groups, and price-cost

linkages.

31

Nisha (2005) stressed the alternative arrangement for increasing

the efficiency of state sponsored water supply system. Her study on

rural water supply system makes the following observations and

suggestions: among the various institutions to manage water supply,

the government led water authority was the prominent player. The

economic inefficiency of Kerala Water Authority along with

environmental and resource constraints of the state, such as, the

declining water table, loss of forest cover and high rain water run-off

has lead to the failure of state regulated public sector water services.

The state led water supply schemes mainly concentrated on the urban

areas alone and was not able to meet the water demand among the

rural. Relative high implementation cost in rural areas made the

scheme town centered. One of the major deficiencies of the piped rural

water supply systems in Kerala is its inability to meet the full water

requirement and total non-availability of water in the elevated areas.

Along with diminishing water availability, poor financial performance

with high revenue loss played an important role in the emergence of

alternative institutional set up in the drinking water supply system in

Kerala. A new approach entitled to address the general failures of state

lead water supply programmes, in the context of decentralized

planning, has experimented focusing on community based approach to

take up drinking water supply schemes in different parts of the state.

Janakarajan, et al. (2007) stated that the horizontal urban

expansion encroaches upon natural resources, in particular land and

water, enjoyed hitherto by rural and peri-urban communities. As a

consequence, severe competition and conflicts flare up between urban

and peri-urban areas. While Municipal Corporations, Housing Boards

32

and State Metro Water Agencies collectively negotiate claims over land

and water rights on behalf of urban areas, the peri-urban areas are

represented individually and often are subject to threats. These kinds

of negotiations are often one-sided because of the unequal bargaining

power enjoyed by these Agencies. This is precisely the context in which

collective multi-stakeholder dialogues approach and a participatory

planning process would be useful for a better negotiated democratic

settlement.

On the basis of case studies for three large cities of India, namely

Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata, Aijaz (2010) argued that there exists an

immediate need to build up the water infrastructure and institutions,

and he pointed out that the challenge for stakeholders lies in speeding

up the reform process and in the replication/implementation of efficient

water governance practices.

The study by World Commission on Dams (1999) illustrated from

the case of Chennai, where efforts are made to augment water supply

through rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge and wastewater

recycling. Successful case of rainwater harvesting in north Chennai,

supported with Groundwater Regulation Act have enabled overall

improvement of water resources in the city and through roof-top

rainwater harvesting at household level. It also discussed some of the

comprehensive report by development agencies in Delhi to augment

water through rainwater harvesting.

Gleick (2002) observed the global drinking water conditions and

insisted the need for policy reforms. He argued that yet efforts to

provide universal coverage for water and sanitation continue to be

largely rhetorical and piecemeal. The price for this failure will be paid

33

by the poorest populations of the world in sickness, loss of educational

and employment opportunities, and early death. Even if the official

United Nations Millennium Goals set for water are met – which is

unlikely given the current level of commitments by national

governments and international aid agencies – as many as 76 million

people will die by 2020 because of preventable water-related diseases.

This is morally unacceptable in a world that values equity and decency,

but at the present time, it appears to be unavoidable unless we rethink

our approach to provide water and sanitation services and intensify

international efforts to aid those lacking these most basic human

needs.

So far we have reviewed some of the recent studies conducted

mostly in India, and some other countries, on various aspects of

domestic water. In the next section, the study presents key concepts

used in the report.

II. CONCEPTS USED IN THE ANALYSIS

Urban Areas

All municipalities, corporations, cantonment boards or notified

town areas by committee or a place which satisfies the following three

criteria simultaneously: a minimum population of 5,000; at least 75

per cent of male working population engaged in non-agricultural

pursuits; and, a density of population of at least 400 per sq. km.

Rural Areas

All villages which do not satisfy the conditions laid down for

urban areas as mentioned above.

34

Urban Local Bodies

Urban local bodies are the constitutionally provided

administrative units that provide basic infrastructure and services in

cities and towns. According to Census of India 1991, there are 3255

ULBs in the country. They are classified as, large urban areas

governed by Corporations; smaller urban areas governed by

Municipalities; semi-urban areas governed by Town Panchayats; and

villages are governed by Village Panchayats.

Municipality

A municipality is an urban administrative division having

corporate status and usually powers of self-government.

Village Panchayat

It refers to the local self-government at the village level. This is

the foundation of the panchayat system. The main source of income is

the property tax and other sources include professional tax, taxes on

pilgrimage, animal trade, grant received from the State Government in

proportion of land revenue and grants received from the district

administration. To establish a Village Panchayat in a village, the

population of the village should be at least 500 people of voting age.

Town Panchayat

Town Panchayats are new urban local bodies. They were first

introduced by State government of Tamilnadu to facilitate governance

at local level. Town Panchayats are “future municipalities”.

35

Wet Land

A wetland is a land area having a water table with the support of

surface water and that stands at or near the land surface for a long

enough period each year to support aquatic plants.

Dry Land

Dry land is unirrigated land and the cultivation of the land is

uniquely dependent on natural rainfall.

Padugai Land

Land situated near river delta regions consisting of loamy young

brown soils that are very deep and fine. This type of land is highly

suitable for plantain cultivation.

Coverage of Habitations

A habitation has been defined as a place where people have

settled permanently. Temporary settlements like that of quarry

workers, construction workers, farm workers, nomads etc. are not

classified as habitation. According to the availability of drinking water,

habitations are classified in the Rural Water Supply Programme as, not

covered habitations; partially covered habitations; and fully covered

habitations.

Not Covered Habitation

It means the safe drinking water source/point does not exist

within 1.60 km. of the habitation in the plains or 100 m. elevation in

the hilly areas. The source/point may either be public or private in

nature. Habitations having a source affected with quality problems

such as excess salinity, iron, fluoride, arsenic or other toxic elements or

biologically contaminated and habitations where quantum of

36

availability of safe water from any source is not enough to meet

drinking and cooking needs (i.e. below 10 lpcd) are also included in this

group.

Partially Covered Habitation

It means the habitation which has a safe drinking water

source/point (either public or private) within 1.60 km. in plains and

100 m. in hilly areas but the capacity of the system ranges between 10

lpcd to 40 lpcd.

Fully Covered Habitation

It means the entire population of the habitation is provided with

safe drinking water.

Normal Months

Normal months - January, February, July and August -

represent the months in which quantum of drinking water supply is

comfortably available to the households and at the same time demand

is also normal.

Winter Months

Winter months - September to December – are rainy months in

which the quantum of water supply is good enough to meet the

household needs, but the demand is relatively lesser because of lesser

need for consumptive and non-consumptive components of household

water.

Summer Months

Summer months – March to June - represent the period in which

water supply is highly scanty and people face hardship in water access.

37

But the demands for both consumptive and non-consumptive

components are high.

Surface Water

Surface water refers to water found on the surface of the earth

like rivers, canals, tanks, and ponds.

Ground Water

Groundwater is water located beneath the earth's surface in soil

pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. It is the liquid

water flowing through shallow aquifers. It may be fresh or saline.

Drinking Water

Drinking water or potable water is water safe enough to be

consumed by humans or used with low risk of immediate or long term

harm.

Rain-fed Tank

Rain-fed tanks are those tanks that are either natural or

manmade, which stores rain water that can be used for drinking and

agricultural purposes during non-rainy seasons.

Fluoride

Both organic and inorganic fluorine compounds are called

fluorides which are present in the water.

Salinity

Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of

water. It is a general term used to describe the levels of different salts

such as sodium chloride, magnesium and calcium sulfates, and

bicarbonates.

38

Water Purification

Water purification is the process of removing undesirable

chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids and gases from

contaminated water.

RO System

Reverse Osmosis is a membrane-technology filtration method

that removes many types of large molecules and ions from solutions by

applying pressure to the solution when it is on one side of the selective

membrane.

UV Water Purifier

Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection uses a UV light source, which is

enclosed in a transparent protective sleeve. It is mounted so that water

can pass through a flow chamber, and UV rays are admitted and

absorbed into the stream. When ultraviolet energy is absorbed by the

reproductive mechanisms of bacteria and viruses, the genetic material

(DNA/RNA) is rearranged and they can no longer reproduce. They are

therefore considered dead and the risk of disease has been eliminated.

Candle Filter

The Candle Filters operate on a batch cycle and may be seen in

process lines handling titanium dioxide, flue gas, brine clarification, red

mud, china clay, fine chemicals and many other applications that

require efficient low moisture cake filtration or high degree of polishing.

Plastic Pots

Plastic pots are widely used to collect water from the delivery

point to point of consumption. Generally the capacity of a plastic pot is

16 liters. Because of the convenience in use and maintenance and

39

cheaper price, the plastic pots are widely used in many of the

households.

House-Service Connections

Arrangement made by the municipal authorities to supply of

water directly to the houses through pipe lines. For this, households

pay initial deposit, and water charges as either lump sum basis or

metered rates (monthly, half-yearly or annually).

Street Stand-Posts

Provision of drinking water for the public through pipe lines for

every street. Provision made by the municipal bodies to provide

drinking water to the households.

Annual Income

Annual income of the households is the total wage and salary

earned by the members of the household per year. Salary earned

during the financial period April 1st to March 31st is considered as one

year.

Per Capita Income

Per capita income used in the study is the total annual income

earned by the households divided by the number of household

members.

Income Groups

Annual Average Per capita Income for rural households has been

classified on the basis of quartiles. On the basis of rural classification

urban households have also been divided into different income groups.

Households earning annual per capita income less than Rs. 15000 is

classified as Lower income group, households earning Rs.15,000 to

40

Rs.25,000 is classified as Middle–Lower income group, households

earning Rs.25,000 to Rs. 50,000 is classified as Middle–Upper income

group, households earning Rs.50,000 to Rs. 75,000 is classified as

Higher–Income group - First Category, households earning Rs.75,000

to Rs. 1,00,000 is classified as Higher–Income group - Second Category

and households earning above Rs.1,00,000 - is classified as Higher–

Income group - Third Category.