Research Methods How do you choose which method is best for your study?
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Transcript of Research Methods How do you choose which method is best for your study?
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Research MethodsHow do you choose which method
is best for your study?
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Experimental Methods• Laboratory experiment:
Increases reliability, but reduces external validity. It tends to be high in internal validity.
• Field experiment: Increases Ecological validity, but
Extraneous variables can be a problem.
• Natural experiment: No causal conclusions can be made.
Reduced validity = no controls
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Non-Experimental Methods Questionnaire and Interview: Open ended question = rich in detail,
however difficult to analyse. Problems with social desirability.
Observational: Rich in detail, high ecological validity however possible observer bias.
Correlation: Lots of extraneous variable = low internal and external validity. No cause and effect can be made.
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Sampling MethodsYou need to understand the implications of choosing the appropriate method for sampling
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Sampling MethodsTarget Population: The population is a large
sample of people or information from which you draw a proportion to study.
Population Validity: The people chosen for the study
are relevant to the hypothesis
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•Random sampling • has high population validity
•Opportunity sampling • There is a high chance the
sample will be biased, leading to low Population validity
•Volunteering: Only a certain type of people respond to adverts and therefore there is bias leading to low population validity
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• Stratified samples: A quota of individual is taken to represent the population dynamics. If there is 40% men and 60% women in the target population, then the sample must contain the same = more representative
• Snowball Sampling • Limited sample ask those you • do have to direct you to others • Limited selection of population, • therefore bias.
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•Reliability or consistency refers to whether the research can be repeated with similar findings.
• If the findings can be consistently replicated then the outcome is seen as reliable.
• There are three types of reliability• External• Internal• Observer
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Reliability• External: To assess external reliability, you use the
test-retest method.
• Internal: To assess internal reliability, you use the split-half method.
•Observer• To improve observer
reliability you train the observers, ensuring That they understand each category.
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Inside the experiment: Where changes in DV due
to IV, or something else?
Was the task representative (mundane realism)?
Are the findings meaningful?
Outside the experiment:
• Can you generalise the findings to other people?
• To other settings?
• Are the findings useful?
Validity
Internal External
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Validity
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Laboratory Vs Field• Laboratory: If the tasks in a lab
experiment are not true to life, like in memory; then it’s low in validity.
• Field: Sometime field experiments don’t represent real life; i.e. Hofling’s nurse study in obedience.
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Observational techniques: Internal validity is low due to observer bias. Ecological validity may be high.
Self Reporting techniques:Assessing internal validity
Face validity: does it measure what it claims to measure.
Concurrent validity: Compare with a previous questionnaire or test.
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Ethics
Research needs human participants, therefore it needs to maintain participants confidence in the research methods.
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Ethical Issues
• Deception: Only acceptableWhen the integrity of research would be compromised.
• Informed Consent: Participants need significant information about a study.
• Protection of participants from psychological harm: Humiliation, embarrassment and loss of dignity or self-esteem
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Ethical Guidelines• Only Guidelines: There are not hard and fast rules but
only guidelines.
• Implemented:
• The BPS impose penalties for not following ethical guidelines
It is sometimes difficult to monitor all research. Psychologists must monitor their colleague work.
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Non-Human animals• Animals are used to
increase control of an experiment and when unethical to use humans.
• Sentient beings: • Do animals have conscious to feel pain?
• Speciesism: Peter singer argued that animal are discriminated like sexism or racism.
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Ethical Guidelines• The BPS published guidelines
for animal research. The Animals Scientific Procedures Act (1986) requires an license beforeresearchers can use animals.
• Russell and Birch (1959). The three Rs Reduction–Replacement and Refinement
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What is Science
Research is more than just subjective ideas
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Major Features of ScienceObjective: Expectations
don’t affect results. Control and Replicability
Empiricism: Info from direct observation or experiments what do the images tell us about empirical evidence?
Theory construction: Record facts and construct theories.
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The Scientific Process• Induction: Conducting observation, devising hypothesis then
drawing conclusions and a theory
•Deduction: • Making a theory based on • observation. Testing it to • support the theory.
• The Hypothetico-• Deductive model: • Karl Popper (1935) Theories – Generalise – Falsified.
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Application of scientific methods
The presentation of verifiable knowledge as distinct from common
Sense
scientology - Google Videos
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• Pseudoscience: Miller ( 1983) argued psychology isn’t a true science.
• Pre-science: Kuhn (1962) Psychology has a number of approaches (Paradigms = a shared set of assumptions.)
• Objectivity: Heisenberg (1927) argues that even experiments in physics change the particles they are measuring.
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Is science appropriate for Psychchology?
• Idiographic approach: R.D.Laing (1965) people are individuals and not subject to generalisation.
• Nomothetic = study of groups which is more scientific.
• Reductionist: Behaviour is Reduced to the simplest explanation, this tell us little about real behaviour.
• Determinist: cause and effect = can oversimplify relationship.
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Constructing a Report
The role of peer review.
Conventions for reporting a
Psychological report
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Peer Review• Allocation of funding: Government needs to
decide who gets funding. Needs advice from public body reviews.
• Publication: Peer review helps monitor research before it is published.
• Assessing Universities: Research assessment exercise RAE rates each university.
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Template for Reports
• Research reports tend to have a fixed structure.
•Abstract: A short summary
• Introduction: A review of • previous research leading to the aim of the
project
•Method: A detailed description of procedures
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Template for Reports• Results: The statistical
data, including tables, measure of central tendency and graphs.
• Discussion: Of outcomes and suggestionsfor future work and conclusions.
• References: Full details of journal articles and books used.
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Evaluation of the use of Reports
• Unachievable ideal: Finding experts to do the peer review is difficult, under-qualified.
• Anonymity: Rival competition may do the review in secret = open reviews are best.
• Publication bias: Editors have preferences for more positive reviews to heighten sales.
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Paradigm shifts Responsibility: Psychologists shapesocial policy. Burt (1955) discredited on genetic resource. At the time he was promoting 11+ for brighter children
Preserving the status quo: We are afraid of change and resistant to large shifts.
Normal Science: One view is dominate through small change and it take a paradigmshift for the next
view to replace it. Kuhn Paradigm Shift
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Design your own study• There may be a 12 mark question in the exam asking you to
design your own study from a small scenario.
• Activity: Get into Groups of 4
• Take one of the Scenario from page 16 – 17, each group will take a different Study.
• Complete the activity
• Two from each group will move to the next group and describe how they designed their study. The two remaining members will then explain how their group designed the study
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Inferential Analysis
The probability that the results could have arisen by chance.
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Significant Difference• What we aim in an experiment is to demonstrate that there is
a sufficiently large (significant) difference between samples.
• We use a test to state that the probability of the results being due to chance is greater than 0.5%
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• Nominal: Data is placed in categories.• Hypothesis: Female students will get more A* grades than
male students.
• Ordinal: Data that is put in order. i.e. lining up the class members in accordance with their height.
• Interval:
Males Females Total
B grades 4 4 8
Below B 3 5 8
Total 7 9 16
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• Level of Significance for a one-tailed test• 0.1 0.05 0.024 0.01
• Level of significance for a two-tailed test• 0.20 0.1 0.05 0.02
• df: • 1 1.64 2.71 3.84 5.41• 2 2.6 4.6 5.99 7.3• 3 4.3 6.25 7.82 8.9• 4
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Rational for Choosing a Test• 1: What is the level of data: Nominal, Ordinal or Interval
• 2: Are you looking at a Correlation or a Difference
• 3: What design does the study use: Repeated Measures or Independent groups Design
• Nominal = Chi Squared Test• Correlation = Spearman’s Rho Test• Independent groups design = Mann-Whitney U Test• Repeated Measures/Matched Pairs = Wilcoxon T Test
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