Research Design

Meaning & Definition

A research design is defined as “a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing

a research study. It specifies the objectives of the study; the methodologies and

techniques to be adopted the achieving the objective.”

- Plilipas Bernad.

“Research design actually constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement

and the analysis of the data.”

- David & Nachmias.

“Research design is the plan, structure, strategy and means of investigation

conceived so as to obtain answers of research questions. It is a plan or an overall

scheme or a programme of research.”

- Jogn. W. Best.

Thus it is obligatory for a researcher to undertake research design. The research

design is the ground plan for conducting the research investigation. It provides

guidelines to researcher to help him to keep a track of his actions and to know that he

is moving in the right direction in collecting the data. Whatever may be the nature of

research problems, all research designs should contain answers to the following

questions:

What the study is about?

Why the study is undertaken?

What are the types of data required?

Where data can be found?

What techniques of gathering data will be adopted?

In which areas, the study will be undertaken?

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The research design must include the following aspects:

1. A clear statement of the research problem.

2. The purpose or objectives of the research.

3. The time period of research study.

4. The sources of collection data.

5. The procurers and techniques of collection data.

6. The universe of research design.

7. The sample size of respondents, if any.

8. The area where research to be conducted.

9. The methods or techniques of data processing.

10. The resources required to conduct the research.

What is research Design

How is the term `research design' to be used in this book? An analogy might help.

When constructing a building there is no point ordering materials or setting critical

dates for completion of project stages until we know what sort of building is being

constructed. The first decision is whether we need a high rise office building, a factory

for manufacturing machinery, a school, a residential home or an apartment block.

Until this is done we cannot sketch a plan, obtain permits, work out a work schedule

or order materials.

Similarly, social research needs a design or a structure before data collection

or analysis can commence. A research design is not just a work plan. A work plan

details what has to be done to complete the project but the work plan will flow from

the project's research design. The function of a research design is to ensure that the

evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial question as unambiguously as

possible. Obtaining relevant evidence entails specifying the type of evidence needed to

answer the research question, to test a theory, to evaluate a programme or to

accurately describe some phenomenon. In other words, when designing research we

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need to ask: given this research question (or theory), what type of evidence is needed

to answer the question (or test the theory) in a convincing way?

Research design `deals with a logical problem and not a logistical problem'

(Yin, 1989: 29). Before a builder or architect can develop a work plan or order

materials they must first establish the type of building required, its uses and the needs

of the occupants. The work plan flows from this. Similarly, in social research the

issues of sampling, method of data collection (e.g. questionnaire, observation, and

document analysis), and design of questions are all subsidiary to the matter of `What

evidence do I need to collect?'

Too often researchers design questionnaires or begin interviewing far too early

– before thinking through what information they require to answer their research

questions. Without attending to these research design matters at the beginning, the

conclusions drawn will normally be weak and unconvincing and fail to answer the

research question.

Literature Review

Once a researcher has chosen a specific topic, the next step in the planning phase of a

research study is reviewing the existing literature in that topic area. If you are not yet

familiar with the process of conducting a literature review, it simply means becoming

familiar with the existing literature (e.g., books, journal articles) on a particular

topic. Obviously, the amount of available literature can differ significantly depending

on the topic area being studied, and it can certainly be a time-consuming, arduous,

and difficult process if there has been a great deal of research conducted in a

particular area. Ask any researcher (or research assistant) about conducting

literature reviews and you will likely encounter similar comments about the length of

time that is spent looking for literature on a particular topic.

Fortunately, the development of comprehensive electronic databases has

facilitated the process of conducting literature reviews. In the past few years,

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individual electronic databases have been developed for several specific fields of

study. For example, medical researchers can access existing medical literature

through Medline; social scientists can use PsychINFO (see Rapid Reference 2.2) or

PsychLIT; and legal researchers can use Westlaw or Lexis. Access to most of these

electronic database services is restricted to individuals with subscriptions or to those

who are affiliated with university-based library systems. Although gaining access to

these services can be expensive, the advent of these electronic databases has made the

process of conducting thorough literature reviews much easier and more efficient. No

longer are researchers (or their student assistants!) forced to look through shelf after

shelf of dusty scientific journals.

The importance and value of a well-conducted and thorough literature review

cannot be overstated in the context of planning a research study (see Christensen,

2001). The primary purpose of a literature review is to help researchers become

familiar with the work that has already been conducted in their selected topic areas.

For example, if a researcher decides to investigate the onset of diabetes among the

elderly, it would be important for him or her to have an understanding of the current

state of the knowledge in that area.

Literature reviews are absolutely indispensable when planning a research

study because they can help guide the researcher in an appropriate direction by

answering several questions related to the topic area. Have other researchers done

any work in this topic area? What do the results of their studies suggest? Did previous

researchers encounter any unforeseen methodological difficulties of which future

researchers should be aware when planning or conducting studies? Does more

research need to be conducted on this topic, and if so, in what specific areas? A

thorough literature review should answer these and related questions, thereby helping

to set the stage for the research being planned.

Often, the results of a well-conducted literature review will reveal that the

study being planned has, in fact, already been conducted. This would obviously be

important to know during the planning phase of a study, and it would certainly be

beneficial to be aware of this fact sooner rather than later. Other times, researchers

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may change the focus or methodology of their studies based on the types of studies

that have already been conducted. Literature reviews can often be intimidating for

novice researchers, but like most other things relating to research, they become easier

as you gain experience.

Need & Importance

Research design is vital to researchers, as it enables to collect the right data to

achieve the research objectives. The importance of research design is stated as

follows:

1. Guidelines to the Researcher:

Research design provides guidelines to the researcher in respect of:

When to start and when to complete the research work?

What data to be collected?

From where the data to be collected?

How the data be collected? Etc.

The above questions provide necessary guidelines to the researcher. Therefore, the

researcher will be able to collect the right data from right sources at the right time.

2. Organizing Resources:

Research design facilitates organizing of resources for collecting the data. The

resources include:

Funds required for collecting the data.

The equipments/instruments and materials required to conduct the research

(especially in the case of physical sciences like physical, chemistry, etc)

The manpower to collect the data.

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The research design enables the researcher to make proper arrangement of the

resources which in turn will help the researcher to conduct the research effectively, so

as to achieve the research objective.

3. Directions to the Research Staff:

The research design provides necessary directions to the research staff. This is

because; the research design provides necessary guidelines in respect of:

Sources of data.

Techniques for collecting data.

Area/place where the research is to be conducted.

Resources to be utilized.

Time frame of research work.

Due to the above factors, the researcher can provide proper directions to the research

staff, so that they collect relevant data to achieve research objectives.

4. Selection of Techniques:

Research design helps to select appropriate techniques both for data collection and

data analysis. There are various methods of data collection such as:

Survey or interview.

Observation.

Experimentation.

For instance, observation method may be used for studying buyers’ behavior. To get

feedback from the customers, the firm may use survey or interview method.

There are also various methods of data analysis such as:

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode)

Time series (Simple Moving Average, Weighted Moving Average)

Correlation techniques, etc.

5. Collection of relevant data:

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Research design helps to collect the relevant data and that too within a certain time

frame. For instance, the research design indicates:

The area of research.

Universe of research.

Sample size, etc.

Therefore, the researcher or his staff will be able to collect relevant data from the

right area, from the proper universe and from the appropriate number of respondents.

6. Objectives of Research:

Research design helps to achieve research objectives. This is because; the researcher

will collect the right data at the right time and from the right source. Also, due to the

use of proper techniques of analysis the researcher will be able to analyze the data

properly, and then take appropriate measures or action, which in turn will help to

attain the research objectives.

7. Monitoring of Expenditure:

Research design helps to monitor research expenditure. Research design provides

guidelines regarding the amount of resources or funds to be utilized for research

activity. In the case of commercial research, the researcher would get the funds

approved from the sanctioning authority. Accordingly, the researcher will utilize the

funds as per the research budget. Therefore, there will be proper control over the

funds in respect of research activity.

8. Execution of research Work:

Research design helps in timely execution of the research work. This is because;

research design indicates the start time and the completion time research activity, if

research design does not indicate the time frame, there is every possibility of the

research work getting delayed and the researcher may not be able to archive the

objective.

9. Motivation to the Staff:

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A systematic research design motivates the staff to collect the right data from right

source. Also due to the timely completion of research activity, the research staff may

be rewarded with monetary and non-monetary incentives. For instance, research

design will enable proper conduct of research activity. Proper analysis of research

work enables the organization to take suitable action, which in turn would bring

higher returns. As a result of higher returns, the research staff may be adequately

rewarded.

10. Improvement in Decision-Making:

Systematic research design facilitates proper collection of data. Also, the selection of

suitable data analysis techniques facilitates proper analysis of data; therefore, the

researcher can arrive at proper decision-making, especially in the case of commercial

research.

Essentials of good Research Design

The make research design more effective, the researcher must consider certain

guidelines or essentials:

1. Focus on Objectives:

The research design must focus on the research objectives. The research objectives

must be very clear to the researcher as well as to the research staff. The research

objectives differ depending upon the type of research. For instance, the research

objective of commercial research will be based on commercial angle, and that of

social research will have the objective based on social welfare.

Example of Commercial research Objective: ‘To increase market share from current

10% to 20% within a period of 5 years.’

Example of Social research Objective: ‘To reduce poverty of the weaker sections.’

2. Flexibility:

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The research design should not be rigid. The research design must be flexible

depending upon the situation. For instance, a research design indicates a particular

time frame to complete the research work. But the research staff may not be in

position to collect the relevant data within the time frame. In such situation, the time

frame can be increases.

3. Pilot Study:

It is always advisable to conduct a pilot study for finalizing the research design. Pilot

study is a research activity undertaken on a small segment of the research universe.

The pilot study is conducted to find out whether or not the researcher would be in a

position to collect the relevant data from the sources or areas so selected, and

whether or not the collected data would be relevant to solve the problem, if the pilot

study indicates a favourable response, the researcher may go ahead with the research

design. Otherwise, he may make necessary changes in the research design with

respect to:

Sources of data.

Area of data collection.

Techniques of data collection, etc.

4. Acceptance:

The research design must be acceptable to the persons concerned. For instance:

In the case of commercial research, the research design must be acceptable to the

higher authorities. This is because; the higher authorities are required to approve

it and accordingly sanction the resources to conduct the research activity.

In the case of academies research, the research design must be acceptable to the

research guide, as he needs to approve the research design before the research

activity starts.

In case of social research, the research design must be acceptable to the social or

other organizations that are going to finance or sponsor the research activity.

5. Suitability:

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The research design must be suitable to achieve research objectives. Certain factors

to be considered while finalizing the research design as follows:

The availability of funds.

The availability of time.

The availability of manpower.

The methods of data collection and analysis, etc.

Depending upon the funds and other resources, the research may take suitable action.

For instance, a researcher may not plan for an exhaustive research work, if there are

constraints relating to money, manpower or time.

6. Simplicity:

The research design should be simple and easy to understand. The language used in

the research deign must be clear and simple. Wherever required, research design

must be supported by footnotes. Technical jargons must be avoided. The use of simple

language would enable the approving authorities to approve the research design and

accordingly sanction the funds, especially in the case of commercial research.

Simplicity of research design would also enable the research staff to collect the

relevant inform nation, and also to analyze the data properly.

7. Cost-Effective:

The research design should be cost-effective. In a commercial research, the research

work based on research design must bring benefits to the organization. The research

design should enable proper collection and analysis of data which in turn should

facilitate proper decision-making. The benefits on account of sound decision-making

must be more than the cost incurred on research activity.

8. Ease in Implementation:

The research design should facilitate proper implementation of the research activity.

As far as possible, the research design should avoid complicated procedures and

techniques which are difficult to adopt/follow. The research work should not

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overburden the research staff, as the quality of research work may get adversely

affected. Also sufficient time must be given to the staff for collecting and analyzing the

data.

9. Training to the research Staff:

To conduct effective research proper training must be given to the research staff.

Training helps to improve: knowledge, attitude, skill and social behavior. The

research staff not only required knowledge and skills to conduct proper research but

also the right attitude towards the research work, and good social behavior when they

interact with team mates and with the respondents.

10. Selection of Right Techniques/Methods:

There are various methods of collecting data such as:

Survey/interview.

Observation.

Experimentation.

There are also various methods of data analysis such as:

Measures of Central Tendency (mean, Median, Mode)

Time series, such as moving averages.

Correlation techniques, etc.

Depending upon the types of research, the researcher should select the appropriate

methods for data collecting and analysis.

Scope/Areas of research Design

The important areas of design making in research design are as follows:

1. Source of Data:

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The researcher needs to take a proper decision on sources of data. The sources of

data can be broadly divided in two groups:

Primary sources.

Secondary sources.

Normally, the researcher must consider the secondary source as it is less time

consuming and less expensive. However, of the problem cannot be solved by

secondary data, then the researcher can opt for primary sources of data, at times, the

researcher may use both the sources.

2. Methods of Data Collection:

The researcher has to decide on the methods of data collection. There are various

methods of data collection, especially in the case of primary data. Some of the

important methods of primary data include:

Interview/survey.

Observation.

Experimentation.

Simulation (creating artificial environment).

Projective techniques.

The researcher should select the right methods depending upon the type of research,

the time available, the funds required, etc.

3. Methods of Data Analysis:

One of the important decision-making areas of research design is in respect of the

methods of data analysis. It required a good deal of judgment and skill on the part of

the researcher to select appropriate methods of data analysis. There are various

methods of data analysis such as measures of central tendency, correlation

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techniques, time series etc. proper selection to analysis will enable the researcher to

analyze the data properly, which in turn will help to research to make proper

recommendations to solve the research problem.

4. Areas of Collect Data:

The researcher must decide in respect of the areas from which the data to be

collected. The decision on areas depends upon several factors such as: funds

available, the time factor, objectives of research etc. for instance, if the researcher

has lot of funds for conducting research, he may consider a wider area to collect data

from several respondents.

5. Decision on Physical Resources:

The researcher requires physical resources such as computers for data analysis. Also

in the case of physical sciences, like physical, chemistry, medicine, etc., the researcher

may require certain equipments or materials to conduct experiments or some other

aspect of research work. Therefore, the researcher must decide well in advance

regarding the availability of physical resources.

6. Decision on Manpower:

The researcher must take a decision in respect of manpower. The number and quality

of manpower depends upon the type of research. For instance, in the case of pilot

study, the manpower required would be very less. But in the case of descriptive

research over larger areas, the manpower requirement would be more. Decision may

also be taken in respect of training to be manpower so as to improve its quality.

7. Decision on funds:

The research must decide on the funds required to undertake research activity. The

availability of funds will affect the various aspects of research design such as the

research area size, period of research, number of field staff, etc.

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8. Time Frame:

The researcher must consider the time frame required to undertake research. Time

frame depends upon certain factors such as:

Availability of funds.

Availability of manpower.

Type of research, etc.

For instance, if the type of research is highly complicated, longer time frame may be

considered for completing the research work. However, if the research work is simple

in nature, shorter time frame may be considered. It is to noted that it larger amount of

funds are available for research work, then the manpower may be increase and

therefore, the time frame ban be reduced.

9. Universe of Research:

The researcher has to make an important decision in respect of the universe for the

research activity. The universe refers to the type of population that can be used for

collecting data. For example: if the researcher is undertaking the research work

relating to trends in fashion, he may select teenagers and young adults as the

universe. And if the researcher is undertaking the researcher work relating to

readership habits of college students, then the universe will be college students.

10. Sample Size:

The researcher must also consider the sample size for collecting data. The sample size

refers to the number of respondents that would be selected to conduct the research

activity. The sample size depends upon number of factors such as: type of research,

funds available, time frame, etc. for instance, if the research work has good amount of

funds and time available, the sample size can be large.

Steps in Research Design

The main steps in research design are as follows:

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1. Define the problem:

The repeater must clearly define the problem. Clearly of the problem will help the

researcher to decide on the research objectives. For instance, in the case of

commercial research, the research problem may be stated as ‘Decline in Sales’.

Therefore, the objective of the research will be ‘To increase the Sales’.

In case of academic research, proper definition of the problem will enable the

researcher to develop hypothesis, which needs to be tested with the help of research.

2. Sources of Data:

The researcher must decide about the sources of data. The sources of data depend

upon the research problem. The sources of data are broadly divided into two groups:

Primary sources.

Secondary sources.

Normally, the sources of data can be secondary as they are less time consuming and

less expensive. The researcher may consider primary sources, if the problem cannot

be solved with the help of secondary data.

3. Techniques of data Collection:

The researcher must decide about the techniques of data collection. The techniques

depend upon certain factors:

Nature of problem.

Resources available.

Time frame, etc.

There are various methods of data collection such as interview method. Observation

methods, etc.

4. Decision on Universe:

The researcher must state the universe for conducting the research work. Universe

refers to the type of population from which the research information can be collected.

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For example, if the research is conducted on baby foods, then the universe will be

mother with little kids.

5. Sample Size:

The researcher must state the sample size. The sample size depends upon certain

factors such as time frame, funds availability, nature of problem, etc. for instance, if

the Government conducts a census of population, all households in the country will be

covered under the sample size. But if it is an academic research, the sample size may

be very small, say about 500 respondents.

6. Ares of Data Collection:

The researcher must state the areas from which the data to be collected. The selection

of area depends upon:

Location of respondents.

Nature of problem,

Time factor, etc.

For instance, a company selling only in one local market will conduct research only

in that local area. But if the company sells its products throughout the country, then it

may select respondents from all over the country.

7. Methods of Data Analysis:

Depending upon the type of research, the researcher should select the most

appropriate methods for data analysis. There are various methods of data analysis

such as measures of central tendency, time series methods, etc.

8. Decision on resources:

The most important decision in research design is in respect of resources required to

conduct research work. Resources include:

Physical resources.

Manpower.

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Money or funds.

The researcher should make proper arrangement of recourses so that the research is

conducted effectively, which in turn will help to achieve the research objectives.

9. Period/ times frame of Research:

The researcher has to make an important decision regarding the time frame of the

research activity. Time frame depends upon certain factor such: availability of

manpower, type of research, etc.

For instance, in the case of highly complicated research, the researcher may require a

longer time frame to conduct the research activity, and vice versa.

10. Preparation of Research Design:

The researcher must prepare the research design after following the above steps. The

research design should clearly include the following aspects:

Statement of the research problem.

The objectives of research.

Sources of data.

Time frame of research activity.

Universe of research.

Same size of respondents.

Areas of data collection.

Resources required.

Techniques to collect and analyze data.

11. Approval of Research Design:

The researcher may get the research design approved from concerned authorities. For

instance:

In the case of commercial research, the research design may be approved by the

top management.

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In case of academic research, the research design would be approved by the

research guide.

For social research, the approved of research design may be required from the

sponsoring agency.

After approval, the researcher may make modifications in the research design, if so

required.

Types of Research Design

The types of research design can be broadly divided into two groups:

I. Exploratory Research

It is conducted to explore information about the nature or causes of research problem.

It is conducted when the causes of the research problem are not known to the

researcher. For instance, management may conduct exploratory research to find out

the causes of declining sales in the past few months. The sales may have declined due

to number of factors such as:

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TYPES OF RESEACH DESIGN

Exploratory Research Conclusive Research

Description Research Diagnostic research

Problem in quality of the product.

Increase in competition.

Ineffective promotion-mix.

Poor management of channels of distribution.

Incompetence of the sales farce, etc.

There may be a possibility of some cause of the problem and the exact cause is not

known to the researcher, then in such a situation an exploratory research may be

conducted to find out the most likely cause(s) that lead to reduction in sales.

Exploratory research can be conducted for the following purposes:

To define the problem more clearly.

To develop hypothesis.

To identify alternate courses of action.

To isolate key variables and to develop relationships among the variable for

further examination.

To establish priorities for further research.

Features of Exploratory Research:

1. Unstructured:

Generally, exploratory research does not have a formalized set of objective, sample

plan or questionnaire. It is conducted when a researcher dies not know much about

the problem and needs additional information. The researcher may collect the data

from any sources – primary or secondary sources.

2. Flexible:

Exploratory research is systematic but it is very flexible. It allows researcher to

investigate the problem from whatever sources he/she desired. The extent of

information also depends upon the researcher.

3. Informal:

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Often exploratory research conducted at the outset of a research project. Exploratory

research aimed at gaining additional information about a topic and generating

possible hypotheses. Therefore, it is described as informal.

Uses of Exploratory Research:

1. Background Information:

When title information known from the existing data, the researcher may conduct

research to gain background information. For instance, a doctor may obtain

background information about the patient before treatment. In the case of commercial

research, the researcher may obtain background information of the past performance

of the firm, the competitors, the practices of the firm, and so on. This will help the

research to probe the problem properly.

2. Development of Hypothesis:

Exploratory research may be required to develop suitable hypotheses relating to the

research problem. A hypothesis is a proposition, which can be put to test to determine

its validity.

3. Research Priorities:

Exploratory research may be conducted to establish priorities for research work. For

example an exploratory review of customer complaints may indicate the product(s)

that required urgent attention on the part of management to take appropriate action.

Methods of Exploratory Research:

1. Secondary Data Analysis:

The researcher may analyze the relevant secondary data for gaining information to

solve a particular problem.

2. Experience Surveys:

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The survey may be conducted to get responses from those experienced problems or

difficulties. For instance, experience surveys may be conducted on the students who

have faced difficulties or problems during the examination.

3. Case Analysis:

The researcher may analyze former situations similar to the present one, so as to

arrive at suitable solution to solve the present problem.

4. Focus Groups:

Small groups of people discuss a problem – its causes and its effects. The focus group

discussion is monitored by a moderator.

5. Projective Techniques:

The projective techniques help to gain insights into problems or situations. The

researcher may explore information from group of participants. They may be given

incomplete sentences to complete, which may help to gain insight into the problem.

For instance, the sentence may be: Mr. A does not attend the lectures because ………..

II. Descriptive research:

It is conducted to obtain descriptive information about certain aspects of a problem.

For instance, a researcher may like to know detailed information about students

appearing for M.com Part II of University of Mumbai in respect of age, income,

gender, occupation, etc.

A descriptive research may be undertaken for commercial purpose. A marketer may

try to find answers for questions like:

Who the customers are? (Firm’s/Competitors)

What they buy? (Quantity, Quality, size)

Where they buy? (Place – departmental stores, malls, etc)

When they buy? (Time/season)

How they buy? (Cash/credit/installments)

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How they use the product?

Through descriptive research, it would be difficult to answer the question “Why”. To

answer the question “Why” – people buy certain items – causal research in required.

Types of Deceptive research:

1. Cross-Sectional Studies:

Measure population aspects at only one point of time. For example – sample survey

by a magazine publisher of magazine readers.

2. Longitudinal Studies:

Measure repeatedly the same population over a period of time. For example, a

marketer may undertake panel surveys.

III. Causal (Diagnostic) Research

Causal Research investigates cause/effect relationship between two or more variables.

For instance, a research may be conducted to find out the relationship between

advertising and sales. For example, a marketer sold the product in two periods sat

Period 1 (January to March) and Period 2 (April to June). The sales in Period 2 have

increased. In Period 2, the marketer had also increased advertising. Therefore, the

manufacturer (through causal research) may like to know whether advertising had

caused the increased sales in Period 2.

Objectives of Causal Research:

1. To understand the cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.

2. To focus on those variables or elements having greater positive effect.

3. To eliminate certain variables or elements having negative effect.

4. To develop action plans.

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Summary of Research Design

This chapter has outlined the purpose of research design in both descriptive and

explanatory research. In explanatory research the purpose is to develop and evaluate

causal theories. The probabilistic nature of causation in social sciences, as opposed to

deterministic causation, was discussed. Research design is not related to any

particular method of collecting data or any particular type of data. Any research

design can, in principle, use any type of data collection method and can use either

quantitative or qualitative data. Research design refers to the structure of an enquiry:

it is a logical matter rather than a logistical one. It has been argued that the central

role of research design is to minimize the chance of drawing incorrect causal

inferences from data. Design is a logical task undertaken to ensure that the evidence

collected enables us to answer questions or to test theories as unambiguously as

possible. When designing research it is essential that we identify the type of evidence

required to answer the research question in a convincing way. This means that we

must not simply collect evidence that is consistent with a particular theory or

explanation. Research needs to be structured in such a way that the evidence also

bears on alternative rival explanations and enables us to identify which of the

competing explanations is most compelling empirically. It also means that we must

not simply look for evidence that supports our favourite theory: we should also look

for evidence that has the potential to disprove our preferred explanations.

Many rich descriptions of processes and phenomena in education are

accomplished best with qualitative approaches to research. Common qualitative

designs include case study, phenomenological, ethnographic, narrative, and mixed

methods designs. Many qualitatively oriented research questions (“How?” and

“Why?”) generate hypotheses or raise new questions with the goal of understanding a

socially constructed reality. Data collection and analysis are inseparable, and

common sources of data include interviews, observations, and documents. Text data

are analyzed in a manner described as creative, iterative, and nonlinear. When

cracked open, the meaning that emerges is often conveyed by metaphor. Qualitative

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inquiry favors field work and natural environments. Data analysis is often

accomplished by coding, category formation, and theme extraction using techniques

such as pattern matching (linking observations and theory). Analysis continues until

saturation (diminishing returns). The goal is insight, and discoveries are often

presented with visual heuristics such as hierarchies, typologies, networks, and cross

tabulations. Qualitative researchers frequently employ triangulation, a type of cross-

validation (corroboration) or data cross-checking procedure in which multiple data

sources or data collection procedures are expected to agree (converge). The process

is akin to a rigorous art, with the researcher functioning as the instrument and

analyzer, and the result is often powerful narrative in story form. One influential

model of making sense of qualitative data is grounded theory, which emphasizes the

emergence of meaning concealed in data. Credibility or trustworthiness, established

with compelling evidence, is enhanced by emergent methodology, or the continual

interplay between data and developing interpretation known as constant comparison.

Qualitative data analysis is facilitated by software programs that are valuable for

functions such as coding, retrieval, sorting, and other types of pattern seeking. Mixed

methods research integrates qualitative and quantitative data, the advantages of both

offsetting the weaknesses of both, and attempts to arrive at a more complete answer to

a research question.

Data Analysis

The procedures for the analysis of data collected through qualitative and quantitative

techniques are quite different.

1. Quantitative data

It will be analyzed with a statistical data analysis. This involves three major steps:

Data preparation: logging the data, checking the data for accuracy, developing a

database structure, entering the data into the computer, data transformations.

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Descriptive statistics: the basic features of the data (distribution, central tendency,

dispersion or variability, correlations).

Statistical analysis of the research design: here the hypotheses are tested.

2. Qualitative data

It will be analyzed with a content data analysis. This involves:

Data preparation: data-entry (transcripts)

Set up some type of classification scheme (codes)

Classification of data by different researchers in order to establish the reliability

of the classification scheme. The transcripts are cut and then sorted. Each segment

gets a code.

Conclusions made on basis of this classification or further analysis in which

relations are examined between different codes.

Conclusion

Design is a complex activity, involving artifacts, people, tools, processes,

organizations and the environment in which this takes place. Design research aims at

increasing our understanding of the phenomena of design in all its complexity and at

the development and validation of knowledge, methods and tools to improve the

observed situation in design. Design research can be considered to have passed

through three overlapping phases: Experiential, Intellectual, and Experimental, but in

all phases, a theoretical framework has been largely missing. This fact, together with

a fast growing number of researchers, has led to increasing concerns about the

efficiency of design research and the effectiveness of its outcome. No overview of

research results exists, most results never find their way into practice, either directly

or indirectly, and research is often lacking the required rigour. One of the main focus

points in the near future has to be the improvement of our research, for which an

established methodology is one of the main requirements. A methodology that covers

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both the study of the phenomenon of design as well as the development of design

support. Only then, we might enter the next phase in design research: the theoretical

phase.

Key Points

1. Research design defines the study type, research question, hypotheses, variables,

and data collection methods. Some examples of research designs include descriptive,

correlation, and experimental. Another distinction can be made between quantitative

and qualitative methods.

2. Sociological research can be conducted via quantitative or qualitative methods.

Quantitative are useful when a researcher seeks to study large-scale patterns of

behavior, while qualitative methods are more effective when dealing with interactions

and relationships in detail.

3. Quantitative methods include experiments, surveys, and statistical analysis, among

others. Qualitative methods include participant observation, interviews, and content.

4. An interpretive framework is one that seeks to understand the social world from the

perspective of participants.

5. Although sociologists often specialize in one approach, many sociologists use a

complementary combination of design types and research methods in their research.

Even in the same study a researcher may employ multiple methods.

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https://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/more/

https://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/qualitative-methods/

https://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/data-collection/

Bibliography

1. M.com part – 2 (Semester – 3) Manan Prakashan book.

2. http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/43144_12.pdf.

3. http://www.ctu.edu.vn/guidelines/scientific/thesis/part1/1.6%20design%20and

%20analysis.htm.

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http://www.ctu.edu.vn/guidelines/scientific/thesis/part1/1.6%20design%20and%20analysis.htm

http://www.ctu.edu.vn/guidelines/scientific/thesis/part1/1.6%20design%20and%20analysis.htm

http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/43144_12.pdf

Research Design

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