Research Research MethodologyMethodology

Topics of DiscussionTopics of Discussion

Theory construction for ResearchTheory construction for Research Research DesignResearch Design

Basic ConceptsBasic Concepts ConceptsConcepts ConstructsConstructs DefinitionsDefinitions VariablesVariables ProblemProblem HypothesesHypotheses LawsLaws FactFact TheoryTheory ModeMode

ConceptsConcepts Concepts are the basic building Concepts are the basic building

blocks of scientific investigation. blocks of scientific investigation. It is a creation of human mind It is a creation of human mind that are used in the classification that are used in the classification and communication of the essence and communication of the essence of some set of observation. Hence, of some set of observation. Hence, it can be defined as abstract ideas it can be defined as abstract ideas generalized from particular facts.generalized from particular facts.

Example: PurchaseExample: Purchase

ConstructsConstructs Constructs are specific types Constructs are specific types

of concepts that exist at of concepts that exist at higher levels of abstraction. higher levels of abstraction. Generally, constructs are not Generally, constructs are not directly tied to observations. directly tied to observations. They are inferred by some They are inferred by some indirect method.indirect method.

Example: SatisfactionExample: Satisfaction

DefinitionsDefinitions Constitutive Definitions: Define Constitutive Definitions: Define

concepts using other concepts and concepts using other concepts and constructs.constructs.

Operational Definitions: Specify the Operational Definitions: Specify the procedures by which the concept will procedures by which the concept will be measured or manipulated.be measured or manipulated.

Example: Example: Satisfaction:Satisfaction:

Constitutive Definition: The degree to which Constitutive Definition: The degree to which expectations are met in the performance of a expectations are met in the performance of a product.product.

Operational: The difference between prior and Operational: The difference between prior and post performance expectations.post performance expectations.

VariablesVariables A variable is simply a symbol or a A variable is simply a symbol or a

concept that can assume any one of a concept that can assume any one of a set of values. The concept of variable set of values. The concept of variable is extremely important in measurement is extremely important in measurement because it sets the limits on the range because it sets the limits on the range of values a measurement may takeof values a measurement may take

Example: Purchase : Can take 1 for Example: Purchase : Can take 1 for purchase, 0 for no purchase. purchase, 0 for no purchase. Satisfaction can take infinite number of Satisfaction can take infinite number of valuesvalues

ProblemsProblems Problems can be defined as Problems can be defined as

questions raised that are in questions raised that are in need of a solution in an need of a solution in an organization or society.organization or society.

HypothesesHypotheses Hypotheses are conjectural Hypotheses are conjectural

statements of the relationship statements of the relationship between two or more variables between two or more variables that carry clear implications for that carry clear implications for testing the stated relationstesting the stated relations

TheoryTheory A theory can be defined as an A theory can be defined as an

interrelated set of statements of interrelated set of statements of relationship whose purpose is to relationship whose purpose is to explain and predict. When a provisional explain and predict. When a provisional hypothesis is tested and verified and hypothesis is tested and verified and found to be true, it is designated as a found to be true, it is designated as a scientific theoryscientific theory..

Examples: Capital Asset Pricing Examples: Capital Asset Pricing Theories, Performance Satisfaction Theories, Performance Satisfaction Theories, Consumer behavior theories.Theories, Consumer behavior theories.

LawsLaws A law can be defined as a well-A law can be defined as a well-

verified statement of relations verified statement of relations about an invariable association about an invariable association among variables. Otherwise, among variables. Otherwise, when the theory is tested and when the theory is tested and accepted by scientists as accepted by scientists as correct under same conditions, correct under same conditions, it is regarded as a law.it is regarded as a law.

Theory and ResearchTheory and Research Relationship between theory and Relationship between theory and

research is interrelated. Theory helps research is interrelated. Theory helps for further research and research helps for further research and research helps to formulation of new theory.to formulation of new theory.

Use of theory in Research:Use of theory in Research: Suggesting a problem for a studySuggesting a problem for a study giving hypothesis to be testedgiving hypothesis to be tested providing a conceptual model for delimiting providing a conceptual model for delimiting

the scope of the studythe scope of the study helping selection of variableshelping selection of variables Making research finding intelligible.Making research finding intelligible.

Theoretical Framework Theoretical Framework

When one reviews body of When one reviews body of knowledge related to any subject knowledge related to any subject one may get lost in it, since the one may get lost in it, since the subject is vast. To overcome subject is vast. To overcome this, one should know what is this, one should know what is relevant and what is not relevant relevant and what is not relevant and how to determined it? and how to determined it? Hence, theoretical framework is Hence, theoretical framework is developed.developed.

Conceptual FrameworkConceptual Framework

The conceptual framework stems The conceptual framework stems from the theoretical framework and from the theoretical framework and concentrates, usually one section of concentrates, usually one section of that theoretical framework. The that theoretical framework. The theoretical framework is the basis theoretical framework is the basis of your study and the conceptual of your study and the conceptual framework consists of the theories framework consists of the theories or issues in which your study is or issues in which your study is embedded. The conceptual embedded. The conceptual framework to become the basis of framework to become the basis of your study.your study.

Conceptual framework vs. Conceptual framework vs. Model Model 

a conceptual framework (term often used interchangeably a conceptual framework (term often used interchangeably with model - but incorrectly) gives a global view of the with model - but incorrectly) gives a global view of the theory of the relations between the theoretical variables theory of the relations between the theoretical variables or group of variables. or group of variables.

Theoretical variables are characteristics of the research Theoretical variables are characteristics of the research units (e.g. tourists) of which the meaning and precision units (e.g. tourists) of which the meaning and precision are not yet knownare not yet known

Concept Visitor Satisfaction Concept Visitor Satisfaction  Theoretical variable(s)Theoretical variable(s)

facility satisfactionfacility satisfaction service satisfaction service satisfaction  experience satisfactionexperience satisfaction

Concept  Tourist ProfileConcept  Tourist Profile Theoretical variablesTheoretical variables

DemographicsDemographics Preferred activitiesPreferred activities  

Conceptual model Conceptual model 

A A conceptualconceptual model is more specific: the model is more specific: the researcher has both researcher has both theoreticaltheoretical and and empirical variables (how  variables - via empirical variables (how  variables - via indices and operationalisation - must be indices and operationalisation - must be measured) and set these in a model that measured) and set these in a model that must be tested (used in quantitative must be tested (used in quantitative research)research)

A A conceptualconceptual model shows: model shows: the empirical variables, the empirical variables, the underlying relationships between and the underlying relationships between and research elements upon where variables research elements upon where variables

influence each other influence each other

An example Conceptual or An example Conceptual or theoretical Frameworktheoretical Framework

Socioeconomic Status

Academic Ability

Academic Achievement

Conceptual or Theoretical ModelConceptual or Theoretical Model

Socioeconomic Status

Academic Ability

Academic Achievement

Math skillsLanguage

skills

IncomeJob

Prestige

GradesLevel of

Schooling attained

Characteristics of a ModelCharacteristics of a Model

Level of AnalysisLevel of Analysis BoundariesBoundaries SpecificitySpecificity Construct relationship statement Construct relationship statement

andand Assumptions.Assumptions.

LimitationsLimitations Calls for high level of skills and Calls for high level of skills and

mathematicsmathematics Indiscriminate use of modelsIndiscriminate use of models Too narrowToo narrow

Research DesignResearch Design

Research DesignResearch Design “ “ The research design constitutes The research design constitutes

the blueprint for the collection, the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. measurement and analysis of data. It is the plan and structure of It is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to investigation so conceived as to obtained answer to research obtained answer to research questions. It aids the researcher in questions. It aids the researcher in the allocation of his limited the allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial resources by posing crucial choices.”choices.”

Components of a Research Components of a Research DesignDesign

Methodology selection and justification for Methodology selection and justification for each hypothesis or research question.each hypothesis or research question.

The Data collection procedureThe Data collection procedure The importance questions should be askedThe importance questions should be asked Population and sampling proceduresPopulation and sampling procedures Instruments to be used in data collection, if Instruments to be used in data collection, if

experiment researchexperiment research Secondary data: Sources, strengths and Secondary data: Sources, strengths and

limitationslimitations Data Analysis: Detailed discussion of Data Analysis: Detailed discussion of

analysis tools and data supports and analysis tools and data supports and assumptions of the methods selectedassumptions of the methods selected..

Purpose of the StudyPurpose of the Study The nature and the purpose of the The nature and the purpose of the

study depends on the stage to which study depends on the stage to which the knowledge about the research the knowledge about the research area / topic has advanced. If a study area / topic has advanced. If a study attempt to explore new areas of attempt to explore new areas of organizational research, it is called as organizational research, it is called as exploratory study. If a study try to exploratory study. If a study try to describe certain characteristics of the describe certain characteristics of the phenomena, it is called as descriptive phenomena, it is called as descriptive study. If a study examine the study. If a study examine the relationship between variables, it is relationship between variables, it is called as hypotheses testing.called as hypotheses testing.

HypothesesHypotheses Hypotheses are conjectural Hypotheses are conjectural

statements of the relationship statements of the relationship between two or more variables between two or more variables that carry clear implications for that carry clear implications for testing the stated relations. The testing the stated relations. The assembled facts are transformed assembled facts are transformed by a researcher into constructs. by a researcher into constructs. The constructs are them The constructs are them assembled into a provisional assembled into a provisional hypothesis. hypothesis.

Formats of HypothesesFormats of Hypotheses

PropositionsPropositions If – Then StatementsIf – Then Statements Directional and Non-Directional and Non-

directionaldirectional Null and Alternative Null and Alternative

HypothesesHypotheses

FormatsFormats

To test the relationships or To test the relationships or difference existdifference exist

Propositions: Employees who are Propositions: Employees who are more healthy will take sick Leave more healthy will take sick Leave less Frequently.less Frequently.

If – ThenIf – Then If employees are more healthy, If employees are more healthy,

then they will take sick leave less then they will take sick leave less frequently. frequently.

Directional and Non-Directional and Non-DirectionalDirectional

The Direction of relationship is The Direction of relationship is indicatedindicated Positive relationship between price and Positive relationship between price and

supply of a goodsupply of a good

Non-Directional:Non-Directional:

Do postulate a relationships or difference, Do postulate a relationships or difference, but offer not direction of these but offer not direction of these relationships or differencerelationships or difference

There is a relationship between There is a relationship between experience and productivityexperience and productivity

Null HypothesisNull Hypothesis

These are hypothetical These are hypothetical statements denying what are statements denying what are explicitly found relationship. It explicitly found relationship. It makes prediction that in the makes prediction that in the general population no general population no relationships or no difference relationships or no difference exits between groups on a exits between groups on a variable. variable.

Alternative HypothesisAlternative Hypothesis

The investigator makes The investigator makes prediction about the expected prediction about the expected outcome for the population of outcome for the population of the study. The prediction often the study. The prediction often comes from prior research that comes from prior research that suggests a potential outcome suggests a potential outcome that the researcher may expect. that the researcher may expect. This alternative hypothesis may This alternative hypothesis may be directional or non-directional.be directional or non-directional.

Propositions and HypothesesPropositions and Hypotheses

Propositions link concepts together Propositions link concepts together with specific relationshipswith specific relationships

Hypotheses link variables together Hypotheses link variables together with specific relationshipswith specific relationships

Video Games Violence

Time spent playing Game X

Observed ‘violent acts’Over time Y

Research Questions & Research Questions & HypothesesHypotheses

Research questions are interrogative Research questions are interrogative statement or questions that the investigator statement or questions that the investigator seeks to answer. They are used frequently in seeks to answer. They are used frequently in social science research and especially in social science research and especially in survey studies. Hypotheses, on the other survey studies. Hypotheses, on the other hand, are predictions the researcher hold hand, are predictions the researcher hold about the relationship among variables. They about the relationship among variables. They are numeric estimates of population values are numeric estimates of population values based on data collected from samples. based on data collected from samples. Hypotheses typically are used in experiments Hypotheses typically are used in experiments in which investigators compare groups. in which investigators compare groups. However, hypotheses is often recommend in However, hypotheses is often recommend in formal research project, or thesis as a means formal research project, or thesis as a means of starting the direction a study will take. of starting the direction a study will take.

Types of InvestigationTypes of Investigation Depends on the research Depends on the research

questions the researcher can questions the researcher can determine a type of investigation. determine a type of investigation. The selection of the type of The selection of the type of investigation determine the extent investigation determine the extent of researcher interference with of researcher interference with the research study. The type of the research study. The type of investigation may be causal or investigation may be causal or correlation.correlation.

Causal InvestigationCausal Investigation When the research questions try When the research questions try

to establish a definite cause and to establish a definite cause and effect relationship, the causal effect relationship, the causal investigation is necessary. Under investigation is necessary. Under this type of investigation, few this type of investigation, few factors are identified to factors are identified to established the relationships.established the relationships.

Example: Does advertisement Example: Does advertisement cause sales?cause sales?

Correlation Correlation InvestigationInvestigation

In most of the business research In most of the business research there are multiple factors that there are multiple factors that influences one another and the influences one another and the researcher might be asked to researcher might be asked to identify the crucial factors identify the crucial factors associated with the problem. associated with the problem. This situation need correction This situation need correction study to answer this question.study to answer this question.

Example: Determinants of SalesExample: Determinants of Sales Factors determining share PriceFactors determining share Price

Researcher Interference with Researcher Interference with the Studythe Study

The extend of the researcher The extend of the researcher interference with the normal interference with the normal flow of work at the work place flow of work at the work place has directly related with the has directly related with the type of investigation type of investigation undertaken. A correlational undertaken. A correlational study is conducted in the natural study is conducted in the natural environment with minimum environment with minimum interference by the researcher. interference by the researcher.

Causal Study and Researcher Causal Study and Researcher InterferenceInterference

If the study aims to establish cause-If the study aims to establish cause-and-effect relationship, the researcher and-effect relationship, the researcher tries to manipulate certain variables. tries to manipulate certain variables. Hence, there is considerable researcher Hence, there is considerable researcher interference with the natural and interference with the natural and normal work setting. Some times normal work setting. Some times researcher may required to create an researcher may required to create an artificial setting where the cause-and-artificial setting where the cause-and-effect relationships can be studied by effect relationships can be studied by manipulating certain variables or manipulating certain variables or controlling some variables.controlling some variables.

Level of InterferenceLevel of Interference

MinimalMinimal Mere administering a Mere administering a

questionnairequestionnaire ModerateModerate

Manipulating variablesManipulating variables ExcessiveExcessive

Artificial settingArtificial setting

Study SettingStudy Setting Depends on the type of investigation Depends on the type of investigation

and the researcher interference, the and the researcher interference, the study setting will be determined. study setting will be determined. Correlational studies are invariably Correlational studies are invariably conducted in non-contrived settings, conducted in non-contrived settings, whereas most rigorous causal studies whereas most rigorous causal studies are done in contrived lab settings. The are done in contrived lab settings. The study settings may be classified into study settings may be classified into three categories namely; field study, three categories namely; field study, filed experiment and lab experiment.filed experiment and lab experiment.

Field StudyField Study

Correlational studies done in Correlational studies done in organizations are called field organizations are called field study.study.

Example: Relationship between Example: Relationship between interest rates and bank deposit interest rates and bank deposit patterns of clients.patterns of clients.

Field ExperimentField Experiment Manipulation of one or two Manipulation of one or two

variables and study the impact variables and study the impact on the dependent variables.on the dependent variables.

Example: Different rate of Example: Different rate of interest for Rural branch of the interest for Rural branch of the banks and urban branch of the banks and urban branch of the banks and then study the banks and then study the difference in client’s behavior.difference in client’s behavior.

Lab ExperimentLab Experiment New or artificial work or New or artificial work or

other environment will other environment will created and study the created and study the problem to get best results. problem to get best results.

Unit of AnalysisUnit of Analysis It is an element in a population of a It is an element in a population of a

study. The unit of analysis will vary study. The unit of analysis will vary from study to study depends on the from study to study depends on the purpose of the study or the research purpose of the study or the research questions. A unit is a source of questions. A unit is a source of information for the study. The number information for the study. The number of unit of study will also vary from of unit of study will also vary from study to study.study to study.

A unit may be an individual, an A unit may be an individual, an organisation, group of people, or a organisation, group of people, or a division or a country and etc.division or a country and etc.

Time Horizon of a Research Time Horizon of a Research StudyStudy

To answer the research question a To answer the research question a research may collect fact once in a research may collect fact once in a particular time and find out the answer particular time and find out the answer for the question or he may required to for the question or he may required to collect facts in different time period to collect facts in different time period to answer the questions. On the basis of answer the questions. On the basis of the time involved to answer the the time involved to answer the research questions, we can divided the research questions, we can divided the studies into two categories namely, studies into two categories namely, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies.cross-sectional or longitudinal studies.

Cross-Sectional StudiesCross-Sectional Studies

A study can be done in which A study can be done in which data are gathered once in order data are gathered once in order to answer a research question. to answer a research question. Such studies are called as cross-Such studies are called as cross-sectional studies.sectional studies.

Longitudinal StudiesLongitudinal Studies Some research questions may Some research questions may

required to study the people or required to study the people or phenomena at more than one phenomena at more than one point in time in order to answer point in time in order to answer the questions. Such kind of the questions. Such kind of studies are called as longitudinal studies are called as longitudinal studies.studies.