T

RESEARCH AT KODAK

C by Eo)tman Kodak Company, 1962

RESEARCH ORGANIZATION

Dr. Cyril J. Staud (left) Vice-President in Charge of Research, Eastman Kodak Company,and Director of the Research laboratories, Rochester, N. Y. Dr. John A. leermakers,Associate Director of the Research laboratories.

A STRONG RESEARCH and development pro-gram has been a tradition with the EastmanKodak Company since its very early years.The research program was formally estab-lished with the founding of the ResearchLaboratories in Rochester, New York, in1912. It has continually expanded as theCompany has grown and diversified underthe stimulation of research.

Associated with the major manufacturingunits of the Kodak international organiza-tion, there are now research laboratorieswhich conduct their own programs of funda-mental and exploratory research, and of de-velopment of new and improved products.These groups are located in Rochester, NewYork; Kingsport, Tennessee; Longview,Texas; Panama City, Republic of Panama;Harrow, England; Vincennes, France; andAbbotsford, Australia. In addition, the pro-duction divisions of each of the associatedcompanies also maintain technical staffs forlate-stage product development, and controlof products and processes.

The Research Laboratories in Rochester,the major center of research for the Companyand the subject of this brochure, were estab-lished by Dr. C. E. Kenneth Mees. Dr. CyrilJ. Staud succeeded Dr. Mees as Director ofthe Laboratories in 1947 and also as VicePresident in Charge of Research for the Com-pany in 1955. Since their founding, the Re-search Laboratories have grown from a staffof 20 to a staff of more than 1,000 persons.The original organization reflected an interestin three general areas of investigation: chem-istry, physics, and photographic science andtechnology. Today, the Research Laborato-ries consist of six technical divisions: Chem-istry, Physics, Synthetic Chemicals, EmulsionResearch, Color Photography, and AppliedPhotography; and a department of Photo-graphic Theory. The Photographic ServicesDepartment, the Patent Department, the In-formation Services Department, and theAdministration Division provide the support-ing services required by the technical staff.

The Kodak research program has threeimportant features: (1) fundamental research,in which the objective is new knowledge; (2)exploratory research, in which basic infor-mation is utilized in the search for new ma-terials, processes and techniques; and (3)early-stage development, in which work isdirected towards new materials and processesfor general sale and for scientific and mili-tary applications. Major contributions tochemistry, physics, and the science of pho-tography have come from fundamental stud-ies in the Research Laboratories. The explor-atory work has led to the evolution of com-pletely new materials and new systems ofphotography. Amateur motion pictures andcolor photography are notable examples. Thestaff of the Research Laboratories, in addi-tion to conducting its own extensive scientificand technical programs, works with the pro-duction divisions on problems related to newproducts and processes.

Members of the research staff are encour-aged to present papers at scientific meetingsand to publish their work in scientific jour-nals. Since the Laboratories were established,more than 2,300 scientific papers, designated"Communications from the Research Labo-ratories," have been published. These papersare shortened and issued annually asA bridged Scientific Publications. Numerousbooks have been written by the staff on thescience and technology of photography andon various specialized branches of physicsand chemistry. One, The Theory of the Pho-tographic Process, is the most authoritativebook on the science of photography.

The wide range of research activities pro-vides a stimulating atmosphere and manyopportunities for scientific careers. A chem-ist or physicist may advance in whatever di-rection his interests develop - in science, inresearch administration, or into the manu-facturing, sales or business operations. Theextensive research programs guarantee di-versification and growth of the Company andnumerous opportunities for the future.

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CHEMISTRY

The improvement of existing products, and the development of newproducts and of new areas of commercial interest depend on an ad-vance in understanding of the nature of materials and systems, on theapplication of existing knowledge, and on the discovery of new ma-terials and processes. Since Kodak is primarily a chemical manufac-turing company, it conducts extensive programs of fundamental andexploratory research in chemistry which have continually increasedthe utility, quality, and diversity of Company products.

Organic Chemistry The variety and nature of Kodak products requirethe application of an unusually broad range of chemistry in the searchfor new chemical reactions to create compounds with specific charac-teristics to meet changing needs. The skills of the organic chemist, themost advanced instrumentation, and a large stock of organic intermedi-ates are applied to such varied areas of investigation as: the effects ofradiation on organic com ofrids; sensitizers and antifoggants for c~-trolling the characteristics of photographic em Isions; pOlymeric latices .--for coatings; mordants for various dye systems; photo resists for the Helectronics industry; surfactants for coating operations; polymers foruse as supports and as vehicles in which other materials are suspended;substances for antistatic coatings; developing agent and dyes, includ-ing unusual dyes such as Pova 4>r the treatment of pinworm diseaseand Cardio-green for tracing th circulation of the blood. The synthesisof new compounds with unique properties through systematic molecu-lar architecture has led to many important technological advances. Thesynthesis of couplers, the dye-forming constituents of color films, rep-resents a major triumph in the applicati n of organic chemistry to theevolution of color photography. Outstanding contributions are beingmade in the field of photosensitive po]ywers. Such techniques as nu-clear magnetic resonance, electron-spin spectroscopy Itraviolet andinfrared spectroscopy, and gas chromatography are employed by theorganic chemists of the Research Laboratories 0 follow chemicalchanges and to correlate molecular structure with physical properties.

Physical Chemistry Much of the work in physical chemistry is under-taken to provide a basic understanding of the behavior of materials and

(left) Countercurrent Distribution Apparatus uG Dye Studies. This type ofapparatus has proven very useful in the isolation and separation of dyes farmed in colorfilms and for other analytical problems.

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of reaction mechanisms. The diffusivity of reactants through variousmaterials, the reactivity of molecules in solution or of oriented mole-cules in the adsorbed state, phenomena involving monomolecular andthin films, catalysis, free-radical mechanisms, and the factors influenc-ing the quantum efficiency of photolytic reactions are typical of theproblems under investigation by physical chemists at the Kodak Re-search Laboratories. Areas of extensive study are the behavior of sur-factants as coating aids or dispersing agents and the determination ofthe structure and properties of macromolecular materials. A particu-larly important investigation is the work on clarification of the mecha-nism by which certain photosensitive polymers are insolubilized whenexposed to light. The physical chemistry of the solid state is also receiv-ing emphasis.Analytical Chemistry Because of the diversity of scientific and tech-nical activities in the Laboratories, the resources and staff in the fieldof analytical chemistry have been developed to cover a broad range ofsubjects. The analytical chemist is primarily concerned with the de-velopment of new techniques and procedures, since aUroutine analysesare performed by technicians. Close working relationships are main-tained with other scientists in such fields as solid-state physics, organicchemistry, physical chemistry, and photographic theory. Techniqueshave been devised for determining parts per billion of elements andmicrotechniques developed in the Laboratories have been adopted byanalytical chemists throughout the world.Chemical Technology Facilities are provided in the Research Labo-ratories to study the effects of enlarging bench-top processes to thefull production scale. Many of the details in connection with produc-tion procedures are worked out before turning a new process over tothe production departments. Examples of work in chemical technologyinclude: fabrication and production studies of new film-forming poly-mers for use as film supports; design of special apparatus for separat-ing complex chemical mixtures; and the development of new coatingformulations for the production of magnetic recording tape and non-silver photographic materials. A special facility is also operated forthe study of reactions and catalysts at high pressures.Synthetic Chemicals Since it was founded in 1918, more than 9,000compounds have been synthesized, purified from available compounds,or isolated from natural products by the Synthetic Chemicals Division.Although many of these compounds are produced to satisfy the de-mands of scientists in the Research Laboratories and of Kodak manu-facturing plants throughout the world, they are also made commer-cially available, through Distillation Products Industries, to scientistsin industrial and university laboratories. Quantities produced varyfrom a few grams to several hundred kilograms and the variety isillustrated by the more than 4,000 compounds listed in the EastmanOrganic Chemicals Catalog.

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Measuremetlt of the Ten.llePropertle. of a Polymeric'11m. Evoluotion of the phys.ical properties of macromolec·ular material, is an importantpho.e in the development ofnew polymer compo.ition,.

Purification of Ethyl lodo-phenylundecanoote (Pan-topaque). Thi. radiopoquematerial i. u.ed in the makingof x·ray photograph. of the.pinol column.

Analytical Procedure In-volving the U.. of a Radlo-I.otope. Radiotracer ",ch-niques are used in fundomen.tal .tudie. o. well 0. practicalanalytical problems.

Chromatographic Purifica-tion of an Organic Com-pound. Thi. technique is usedto .eporate the components ofa reaction mixture.

PHYSICS

The Research Laboratories were established to apply science to pho-tography and to advance the technology of the Company. At theirfounding, it was recognized that physicists would play an importantrole in the study and elucidation of photographic phenomena. Origi-naily, the physicists were concerned primarily with the sensitivity ofphotographic plates and the eye, as well as with optical and instrumen-tation problems. As the scope of photography and the activities ofthe Research Laboratories have expanded, so have the interests andcontributions of physicists in the Laboratories. To meet the needs oftoday, many branches of physics and the related fields of psychophysicsand mathematics are utilized.

Sensitometry Photographic sensitometry is the measurement of thequantitative relation of the exposure and development of a photo-graphic material to the image density produced, and of the fidelity withwhich the brightness scale of the original subject is reproduced by thephotographic process. Many of the basic concepts in sensitometry haveoriginated in the Research Laboratories and the methods of psycho-physics have been successfully applied to this field. By making use ofthe tools of photometry, spectrophotometry, radiometry, colorimetry,and mathematical analysis, physicists at the Research Laboratoriesdevelop techniques for controlling the manufacture of photographicgoods and provide data by which the performance of photographicsystems can be analyzed. Fundamental work is also done in geometri-cal and physical optics and on the effects of turbid media and atmos-pheric conditions on the attenuation and scattering of light.

Image Structure Important attributes of a photographic image arethe sharpness and clarity of its edges and fine detail. In the physicalevaluation of these characteristics, techniques have been developedfor measuring images at the microscopic level. Mathematical methodshave been devised to describe the effects of lenses and emulsions onthe distribution of light and density in the image, as well as to describethe influence of the structure of the developed image on the fidelity oftone reproduction, graininess, and the information capacity of photo-graphic systems.

(Right) Camera for Making Sinusoidal Exposures on Film. The test pattern seen inthe background is imaged on the film as 0 sinusoidal modulation of light intensity. Usingthis technique, data are obtained on the image-forming capobilities of 0 complete photo-graphic system or a single element.

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Solid State The silver halide crystal, which is the basic element ofconventional photography, is the solid-state device of primary impor-tance to Kodak. The interests of physicists in the Research Labora-tories, however, include all photosensitive systems and research pro-grams in solid-state physics involve extensive studies of many com-pounds - both organic and inorganic. Much attention is focused onthe electronic properties of ideal crystals, as well as on the photoelectricand photochemicaJ behavior caused by impurities and crystal imperfec-tions. The effects of sensitizers and doping elements on the photoelec-tric properties of crystaJs are being studied in great detail. Importantcontributions are being made in the clarification of the electronic andionic processes in silver halide crystals and of the trapping mechanisminvolved in latent-image formation.

Radiography To improve x-ray films for medical, dental, and indus-trial radiography and to create entirely new films to meet the demandsof new applications, physicists conduct extensive programs. Specificprojects include: the development of special techniques to determinethe sensitivity, image sharpness, and granularity of experimental x-rayemulsions; the study of the properties of phosphor intensifying screens;the investigation of methods for reducing scattered radiation; the ex-ploration of new radiographic techniques; and the search for bettermethods of photographically monitoring radiation.Television and Sound Recording The widespread use of photo-graphic materials in commercial television systems has created the needfor research in this field. Modem equipment for monochrome andcolor television is maintained to evaluate motion-picture films andtelevision apparatus. Materials, processes, and techniques for produc-ing optical and magnetic sound records are also investigated.

Electrostatics Because pbotographic paper base and polymeric sup-ports for film manufacture are good dielectrics, the generation of staticelectricity can become a serious problem in handling these materials.The objective of fundamental research on the nature of the electrifica-tion process, therefore, is to find means of correcting the conditionswhich favor the formation of electrostatic discharge.

Instrumentation For many of the fields of advanced research thereis no adequate instrumentation. Hence, physicists in the ResearchLaboratories design precision instruments containing electronic, opti-cal, and mechanical elements. Specialized versions of microdensitome-ters, granularity analyzers, resolving-power test equipment, camerasfor sinusoidal exposures, image-transfer scanners, electronic and film-handling equipment for television chains, equipment for measuringelectrostatic charges, and high-speed film-perforating equipment, ac-curate to a few ten-thousandths of an inch, all represent major contri-butions to the solution of research and production problems just asthey represent major advances in instrument design.

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PHOTOGRAPHIC SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY

The high level of technical competence of the research, engineering,and manufacturing staffs in the Eastman Kodak Company is reflectedin the reputation for quality and reliability of Kodak products. Theprograms in photographic science and technology in the ResearchLaboratories contribute to this reputation in many ways.

To the chemists and physicists associated with this work, severalcritical responsibilities have been assigned. One responsibility is toincrease the fundamental knowledge of the science of photography. Asecond responsibility is to apply this knowledge and the knowledgefrom other scientific fields to the exploration for new products, newtechniques, and new applications of photography. A third responsi-bility is to cooperate with the production divisions in putting the resultsof research to work and to assist these divisions in solving their techni-cal problems.

Photographic Theory The study of the theory of photographic proc-esses involves investigation of the nature of light-sensitive materials ofall types, the factors that control their sensitivity to light, the changesinduced in them by the action of light, and the mechanism of the for-mation and development of the latent image.

Because of the importance of silver halides in photography, theaction of light on silver halide crystals is studied in great detail, bothwith simplified model systems and with simple photographic emulsions.One model consists of large crystals grown from melts of silver halidesalts which are either highly purified or have known amounts of impuri-ti~. Techniques have been worked out for measuring the distributionof printout silver and of latent-image centers in exposed crystals. Thestructure of silver halide crystals is investigated by x-ray diffractionand information is acquired on the imperfections that occur in silverhalide crystals. Highly specialized techniques for applying microsecondpulses of light and electrical force to crystals have been developed tostudy the motion and trapping of electronic charge carriers and themotion and concentration of ionic defects. This work has led to furtherunderstanding of the process of latent-image formation.

Extensive studies have been made on the mechanism of developmentof the exposed crystals, on the effects of various developers on the

(left) An Experiment on One of the Factors Influencing the Precipitation of SilverHalide Crystals.

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microscopic structure of the silver image, and on the reactions involvedin the formation of image dye when oxidized developer reacts withcoupling compounds. Scientists in the Research Laboratories havecontributed significantly to the elucidation of the mechanism by whichcertain dyes alter the sensitivity of silver halide crystals. Theories havebeen advanced which correlate dye structure with function.

Emulsion Technology The preparation of the light-sensitive layers,known technically as emulsion layers, is a highly complicated opera-tion. A large number of chemists are assigned to the study of theemulsion-making techniques and to the development of new silverhalide emulsions for a wide range of applications. These investigationshave such objectives as increasing the absolute sensitivity of emulsionsto light, improving the keeping properties of these emulsions, decreas-ing the graininess, and reducing the tendency to fog, i.e., the tendencyto produce density in unexposed areas. Extending and carefully con-trolling the spectral sensitivity of emulsions arc equally important.

Effects of sensitizing dyes, dye-forming couplers, and many othertypes of compounds prepared by the organic chemists are determinedby incorporati.ng them into emulsions and measuring the photographicresult. The influence of the methods used to prepare silver halide crys-tals on their sensitivity, grain size, and general photographic propertiesare also important. Modified natural and synthesized polymers areevaluated as peptizers and as vehicles for the silver halide grains. Bothphysical properties of polymers and their compatibility with photo-graphic systems are investigated.

The general technology of coating photosensitive layers, subbinglayers for adhesion control, antistatic and antihalation layers is in-tensively studied. In the case of the preparation of multilayer colormaterials, very precise coating techniques have been developed. Sur-factants are screened as aids in the preparation of extremely uniformand extremely thin emulsion layers.Processing Research Research on the processing of exposed photo-graphic emulsions is closely related to emulsion technology. The chem-ical components for developing, stabilizing, bleach baths, etc., areworked out in conjunction with the design of new emulsions. The largenumber of emulsion and processing variables must be manipulated

(Upper) Dye Models Showing Allopolar Isomerism. In the investigation of color sen-sitizers for photogrophic emulsions, more than ten thousand dyes hove been synthesizedand new phenomena, such as ollopolor isomerism, hove been discovered. In solution, thetrinucleor dye shown ossumes one or other 0'- two configurotions, one deeply colored ondthe other olmost colorless, depending on the polarity of the solvent.

(Lower) A Study of Dye-Fading Reactions. This modified Worburg apparatus is usedfor the study of the photo-oxidation of dyes.

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with great skill. Many compounds are screened for their potentialusefulness as developing agents, fixing agents, etc., for monochromeand for color materials.

In the course of processing research, processing systems are formu-lated for special applications; new emulsion-developer combinationsare evolved; and simplified and convenient rapid developing systemsare designed. Methods of supplying processing materials in the mostconvenient form are also worked out.

The design of processing equipment for laboratory, military, andcommercial applications is another important aspect of this work.Prototype equipment is constructed and emulsion-processing chemistryis adjusted to the system requirements. An example is the X-OmatProcessor which reduced processing times for x-ray film to approxi-mately one-tenth that previously required.

Color Since the introduction of Kodachrome films in 1935, more than60 new color products having their origin in the Research Laboratorieshave been marketed by the Eastman Kodak Company. The researchprograms that have made possible this progress represent a broadspectrum of the scientific and technical work of the Research Labora-tories. The constant improvement in quality of Kodak color productshas been fostered to a significant extent by theoretical studies.

The results of much of the fundamental work in the Research Labo-ratories are brought together during the development of new colormaterials and processing solutions. For example, the examination ofthe color-reproduction characteristics of a new film utilizes such funda-mental concepts as the interrelations of the spectral sensitivity of thereceptors in the film and the absorption characteristics of the imagedyes, and the influence of color temperature and brightness of theviewing illumination on the appearance of image dyes. These andother factors lead to very complex relationships which require thedevelopment of computer programs for their analysis. At present, amathematical model is being developed which will predict the effectthat a change in any constituent in the system will have on the color-reproduction characteristics of a film. As a result of this activity,important innovations have been made in methods of building color-

(Upper) Quality Evaluation of Color Prints. The appraisal of color photographs is thefinal step in evaluating the emulsion and processing technology involved in the develop-ment of a new color process.

(Center) A Conference on Equipment Design. The mechanisms of the reaction of devel-oping agents with silver halides and reactions involving the evolution and absorption ofgases are studied in this unusual reaction vessel.

(lower) Additive Color Studies with Interference Filters. Exploratory research is con-ducted on many phases of color science. .

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improve many aspects of printing. The investigation of color fidelity inhalftone reproduction has lead to new techniques for color correctionand new materials which are expanding the use of color in printing.

Photosensitive resins developed in the Research Laboratories havebeen applied to such fields as microminiaturization of electronic cir-cuits, production of transistors, and chemical miIJing of intricate parts.The evaluation of new photosensitive polymers and the development oftechniques for their commercial exploitation are important programs.

The use of photography in document reproduction necessitates re-search on the image-forming characteristics of lenses and emulsions,the development of special photosensitive materials, and the develop-ment of electronic, optical, and processing equipment. In the field ofmicroreproduction, the information-handling capacity of imaging sys-tems and of film and paper emulsions is a subject of great interest.

Studies are made to improve the technology of photomicrographyand to explore special problems related to phase-contrast microscopy,dark-field illumination, metallography, ultraviolet and infrared photo-micrography, and color cine photomicrography.

Special problems related to military photography are investigated,including high-resolution aerial photography, methods of missile-track-ing, simplified processing systems for airborne and ground use, aerialcolor photography, and cathode-ray-tube photography.

A tropical research laboratory at Panama City, R. P., maintained bythe Research Laboratories, is concerned with the special environ-mental problems of heat, humidity, and fungus attack as they relate tophotographic materials and equipment.

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In addition to these rather well-defined areas of photographic research,scientists are given freedom to conduct far-ranging exploratory researchfor new methods of obtaining monochrome or color images and for newapplications of photography. This type of research has produced suchproducts as simplified photomechanical printing plates, a colloidaltransfer system for copying printed matter, an emulsion-coated elasticbase for use in the detection of stomach, breast, and intestinal cancer,lind a unique photographic paper which can be processed in less thanone second.

In the vigorous conduct of the programs listed, the Research Labo-ratories generate much new knowledge and technology which are im-mediately made available to the manufacturing organizations. Thetechnical staffs of Kodak Park Works and the Apparatus and OpticalDivision in Rochester consult with the Research Laboratories' staff onmany problems and thus assure that new knowledge, new ideas, anddesign and engineering data resulting from work in the Laboratoriesare quickly reflected in the Company products.

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with great skill. Many compounds are screened for their potentialusefulness as developing agents, fixing agents, etc., for monochromeand for color materials.

In the course of processing research, processing systems are Iormu-lated for special applications; new emulsion -developer combinationsare evolved; and simplified and convenient rapid developing systemsare designed. Methods of supplying processing materials in the mostconvenient form are also worked out.

The design of processing equipment for laboratory, military, andcommercial applications is another important aspect of this work.Prototype equipment is constructed and emulsion-processing chemistryis adjusted to the system requirements. An example is the X-Om~tProcessor which reduced processing times for x-ray film to approxi-mately one-tenth that previously required.

Color Since the introduction of Kodachrome films in 1935, more than60 new color products having their origin in the Research Laboratorieshave been marketed by the Eastman Kodak Company. The researchprograms that have made possible this progress represent a broadspectrum of the scientific and technical work of the Research Labora-tories. The constant improvement in quality of Kodak color productshas been fostered to a signi ficant extent by theoretical studies.

The results of much of the fundamental work in the Research Labo-ratories are brought together during the development of new colormaterials and processing solutions. For example, the examination ofthe color-reproduction characteristics of a new film utilizes such funda-mental concepts as the interrelations of the spectral sensitivity of thereceptors in the film and the absorption characteristics of the imagedyes, and the influence of color temperature and brightness of theviewing illumination on the appearance of image dyes. These andother factors lead to very complex relationships which require thedevelopment of computer programs for their analysis. At present, amathematical model is being developed which will predict the effectthat a change in any constituent in the system will have on the color-reproduction characteristics of a film. As a result of this activity,important innovations have been made in methods of building color-

correcting mechanisms into films.Studies of the mechanisms of color development and dye coupling

reveal a situation which involves several competing reactions. Thesensitometric evaluation of experimental emulsions leads color special-ists to a consideration of the stoichiometry and the rates of reactionsinvolved in dye formation. Experimental results are also related tothe structural features of sensitizers, couplers, solvents, etc., which areused in the emulsion layers to confer desired properties. The color andemulsion specialists work closely with synthetic chemists so that thesynthetic work is directed along the most fruitful paths. A large storeof knowledge correlating molecular structure with photographic activ-ity and physical properties has been built up which is used to selectchemicals for specific purposes and to guide future research.

Applications of Photography Photography has played an importantpart in the scientific and technical progress of this century and has donemuch to improve the efficiency of business and industry. The scientificstaff of the Eastman Kodak Company has contributed in many ways:by developing new products and equipment for specific scientific andindustrial purposes; by giving technical assistance to astronomers, engi-neers, printers, physicists, and research workers in general; by theinvention of new image-forming systems; and by discovery and devel-opment of photographic methods for studying and improving indus-trial operations.

Scientists in the Research Laboratories have made many contribu-tions in the application of photography to the graphic arts. Films andprocesses have been created that are in use in gravure, lithographic andletterpress printing. New techniques and films are being studied to

An Experimental 3Smm Film Processor. Chemists, engineers, and technologists com-bine their knowledge of emulsions, processing chemistry, and machine design to providebasic chemical data and experimental equipment for production engineering.

2Studio for the Practical Evaluation of Films. Research and development of new photo-graphic materials involve extensive testing in a well·equipped studio under controlled

. conditions which duplicate those existing in the trade.

(Upper) Quality Evaluation of Color Prints. The appraisal of color photographs is theI1nal step in evaluating the emulsion and processing technology involved in the develop-ment of a new color process.

3Experimental Machine for Etching Printing Plates. Basic knowledge of photographicemulsions, plastics, and solvents; and highly specialized technology are combined in thedevelopment 01 new graphic arts processes.(Center, A Conference on Equipment Design. The mechanisms of the reaction of devel-

oping agents with silver halides and reactions involving the evolution and absorption ofgases are studied in this unusual reaction vessel. 4

Prototype Roller-Transport Processor. Chemical and mechanical engineering skillsare utilized in the design and early-stage development of equipment for processing photo-graphic materials.

(Lower) Addltire Color Studies with Interference Filters. Exploratory research is con-ducted on many phases of color science.

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improve many aspects of printing. The investigation of color fidelity inhalftone reproduction has lead to new techniques for color correctionand new materials which are expanding the use of color in printing.

Photosensitive resins developed in the Research Laboratories havebeen applied to such fields as microminiaturization of electronic cir-cuits, production of transistors, and chemical milling of intricate parts.The evaluation of new photosensitive polymers and the development oftechniques for their commercial exploitation are important programs.

The use of photography in document reproduction necessitates re-search on the image-forming characteristics of lenses and emulsions,the development of special photosensitive materials, and the develop-ment of electronic, optical, and processing equipment. In the field ofmicroreproduction, the information-handling capacity of imaging sys-tems and of film and paper emulsions is a subject of great interest.

Studies are made to improve the technology of photomicrographyand to explore special problems related to phase-contrast microscopy,dark-field illumination, metallography, ultraviolet and infrared photo-micrography, and color cine photomicrography.

Special problems related to military photography are investigated,including high-resolution aerial photography, methods of missile-track-ing, simplified processing systems for airborne and ground use, aerialcolor photography, and cathode-ray-tube photography.

A tropical research laboratory at Panama City, R. P., maintained bythe Research Laboratories, is concerned with the special environ-mental problems of heat, humidity, and fungus attack as they relate tophotographic materials and equipment.

10 addition to these rather well-defined areas of photographic research,scientists are given freedom to conduct far-ranging exploratory researchfor new methods of obtaining monochrome or color images and for newapplications of photography. This type of research has produced suchproducts as simplified photomechanical printing plates, a colloidaltransfer system for copying printed matter, an emulsion-coated elasticbase for use in the detection of stomach, breast, and intestinal cancer,and a unique photographic paper which can be processed in less thanone second.

In the vigorous conduct of the programs listed, the Research Labo-ratories generate much new knowledge and technology which are im-mediately made available to the manufacturing organizations. Thetechnical staffs of Kodak Park Works and the Apparatus and OpticalDivision in Rochester consult with the Research Laboratories' staff onmany problems and thus assure that new knowLedge, new ideas, anddesign and engineering data resulting from work in the Laboratoriesare quickly reflected in the Company products.

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SERVICES

To create an atmosphere which sustains productive research, and toaid the scientist in achieving the maximum effectiveness in his work, anumber of essential services are provided in the Research Laboratories.

Information Services Two modern libraries provide convenient andprompt access to published information. Some 40,000 volumes provideextensive coverage of scientific literature from all parts of the world.As a result of the close cooperation between the libraries at theResearch Laboratories and other libraries throughout the Company,including the libraries at Harrow, England, and Vincennes, France,material from these collections is readily available to scientists in Roch-ester. The book collection includes works on almost every branch ofthe physical sciences and technology, with great emphasis on chemistry,physics, and photographic science. An excelJent colJection of the stand-ard reference works and indexes to these fields is maintained. Sub-scriptions to about ] ,000 journals and periodicals are maintained toinsure that information on the most recent work is available to the staff;many of these are bound for convenient reference. Many other ma-terials are available on microfilm. Attractive areas are provided in thelibraries for general reading and for more serious study. Easy to usereader-printers and copying facilities are on hand so that the scientistmay quickly make copies of significant material.

To keep Kodak scientists informed of recent acquisitions, a ResearchLibrary Bulletin is published every two weeks and sent to members ofthe staff. Literature specialists are available to aid research workersin all phases of literature searching, to compile bibliographies, and toprovide translations of foreign articles. As another information service,the world's photographic literature and the scientific and technicalliterature related to the research programs are surveyed continually and

(Upper Left) Reading Area in the library of the Physics Laboratory. The periodicolcollections of the research libraries include all important journals an chemistry, physics,and photography published throughout the world.

(lower left) Reference and Study Area in the Library of the Research Laboratories.Abstract journals and many standard scientific reference publications are arranged in thestudy area for convenient use by the staff.

(Upper Right) A Patent Conference. Inventions by staff members are written up andfiled as Invention Reports. Counsel is provided for the scientist by a member of the PatentServices Department of the Research Laboratories and an attorney from the central PatentDepartment of the Company. .

(lower Right) Machine Retrieval of Chemical Information. In a central file, structuraland physical data an organic chemical compounds are indexed on punched cards andmagnetic tape. Company technical reports and published lilerature are abstracted andindexed.

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action required, data needed, infringement problems, and the like.Inventions believed to be patentable are described in formal Inven-

tion Reports drafted by the inventor. A detailed subject index of thesereports is maintained for easy reference. To aid in keeping abreast ofnew developments outside the Company, new United States and for-eign patents are scanned for items of interest to the Company.Photographic Services Complete facilities are provided for generalphotographic services for all departments of the Research Laboratories.The services include the preparation of still photographs and motionpictures of new equipment, new products, and new processes and thepreparation of illustrations for reports, lectures, and articles.

Whenever a scientist plans to make a technical presentation eitherwithin or outside the Company, audio-visual counseling service is pro-vided and a competent staff of artists and technicians prepare illustra-tive material that will have maximum effectiveness. The staff is skilledin the preparation of animated cartoons, charts, color slides, black-and-white drawings, and line material. A supply of modem audio-visualequipment is maintained for use by staff members.

Other photographic services include: photomicrography; micro-filming; photoduplication; and the printing of research reports, con-ference notes, bulletins, and literature-review abstracts.Administration The Director of the Research Laboratories, his as-sistants, and the Division Heads deal primarily with policies and mat-ters directly related to the scientific and technological work while themany necessary functions of non-scientific administration are delegatedto a business manager and his staff.

The Administration Division assists the management of the Labo-ratories and the scientific and technical staff by providing: a budgetingand cost-accounting section; a wage and salary administration func-tion; a personnel procurement office; a counseling service; a purchas-ing office; stockrooms for essential items such as chemicals, glassware,hardware, electronics, and office supplies.Engineering Well-equipped shop facilities are provided in the Labo-ratories. Here design engineers, technicians, machinists, cabinet-makers, welders, sheetmetal workers, and electricians assist the re-search scientists with their projects. Shop supervisory personnel pro-vide counsel on research projects requiring the design and building ofexperimental equipment. If the scientist wishes to build a model him-self, there is a "do-it-yourself" area where he or his laboratory assistantcan work. Machinists are on hand to advise or assist him. The staff ofthe electronics section assist the scientists in the design and construc-tion of sophisticated equipment such as data-recording devices, andmodify or adapt standard pieces of equipment to perform special func-tions. The engineering and shop services are designed to be able tofurnish promptly the specialized equipment needed by the scientistsand technicians for their research problems.

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useful information is abstracted and published biweekly for wide dis-tribution within the Company. An abstract bulletin of Company scien-tific reports is also published each month.

A machine-based report index and an index to all organic and poly-meric compounds synthesized or used within the Kodak organizationput the extensive fund of Company research and development experi-ence at the immediate disposal of scientists in the Research Labora-tories. Reports and information on chemical compounds are fed intothis index from all parts of the Company and the index facilities aremade available to all Company scientists and engineers. In conjunctionwith the chemical index, a list of new organic and polymeric com-pounds is distributed weekly. The information abstracted from the liter-ature is also indexed.

Editorial services include: assisting the scientific staff in the prepa-ration of manuscripts for external publication and placing them in theappropriate journals; guiding the preparation of text and audio-visualaids for lectures; publishing special reports; and compiling, reviewing,and circulating technical data for approval which will eventually beused in data books, package inserts or other Kodak publications.

Patent Services All Kodak chemists, physicists, engineers and tech-nicians have a responsibility to submit promptly information on worth-while developments to the Kodak Patent Department for a determina-tion of the action necessary to protect the Company's interests. In theResearch Laboratories, a Patent Services Department provides liaisonbetween the Laboratories' staff and the Company's Patent Department,to assure appropriate patent action and consideration of possible in-fringement on developments of commercial interest. In addition, cer-tain summary sources of information such as conference minutes andResearch Laboratories' Reports are examined to uncover material thatmight require patent action or that should be brought to the attention ofthe patent attorneys in connection with invention reports already on file.

While the invention report is being processed by the attorneys, it isreviewed several times in the Research Laboratories so that changes inits commercial significance, new data, and related work can be broughtto the attorneys' attention promptly. In the subsequent prosecution ofthe application, it may also be necessary to arrange for further experi-mentation to support affidavits, or to help in marshalling arguments toreply to the objections raised by the Patent Examiner. Meetings areorganized as needed between inventors from the Laboratories and theKodak attorneys to discuss the details of new developments, the patent

(Upper Right) Planning the Visual Aids far a Technical Presentation. Editorial css ist-ance and artwork are provided to insure effective presentotion of scientific papers at con-ferences, seminars. and meetings of professional societies.

(Lower Right) A Section of the Engineering Shops. Shop supervisory personnel offertheir counsel to staff members on equipment design for research projects.

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action required, data needed, infringement problems, and the like.Inventions believed to be patentable are described in formal Inven-

tion Reports drafted by the inventor. A detailed subject index of thesereports is maintained for easy reference. To aid in keeping abreast ofnew developments outside the Company, new United States and for-eign patents are scanned for items of interest to the Company.Photographic Services Complete facilities are provided for generalphotographic services for aUdepartments of the Research Laboratories.The services include the preparation of still photographs and motionpictures of new equipment, new products, and new processes and thepreparation of illustrations for reports, lectures, and articles.

Whenever a scientist plans to make a technical presentation eitherwithin or outside the Company, audio-visual counseling service is pro-vided and a competent staff of artists and technicians prepare illustra-tive material that will have maximum effectiveness. The staff is skilledin the preparation of animated cartoons, charts, color slides, black-and-white drawings, and line material. A supply of modern audio-visualequipment is maintained for use by staff members.

Other photographic services include: photomicrography; micro-filming; photoduplication; and the printing of research reports, con-ference notes, bulletins, and literature-review abstracts.Administration The Director of the Research Laboratories, his as-sistants, and the Division Heads deal primarily with policies and mat-ters directly related to the scientific and technological work while themany necessary functions of non-scientific administration are delegatedto a business manager and his staff.

The Administration Division assists the management of the Labo-ratories and the scientific and technical staff by providing: a budgetingand cost-accounting section; a wage and salary administration func-tion; a personnel procurement office; a counseling service; a purchas-ing office; stockrooms for essential items such as chemicals, glassware,hardware, electronics, and office supplies.Engineering Well-equipped shop facilities are provided in the Labo-ratories. Here design engineers, technicians, machinists, cabinet-makers, welders, sheetmetal workers, and electricians assist the re-search scientists with their projects. Shop supervisory personnel pro-vide counsel on research projects requiring the design and building ofexperimental equipment. If the scientist wishes to build a model him-self, there is a "do-it-yourself" area where he or his laboratory assistantcan work. Machinists are on hand to advise or assist him. The staff ofthe electronics section assist the scientists in the design and construc-tion of sophisticated equipment such as data-recording devices, andmodify or adapt standard pieces of equipment to perform special func-tions. The engineering and shop services are designed to be able tofurnish promptly the specialized equipment needed by the scientistsand technicians for their research problems.

19

20

(Upper) The Orion Nebula. a huge cloudof glowing ga.e.. photographed onKodak High Speed Ektachrame Film.Official U. S. Nary Photograph.(lower) Photographic tracks (magnifl.dabout 150XI of a nuclear .xplo.ion ini.tI.... d by a high.energy cosmic ray par·tiel., r.cord.d at 93.000 f•• t. Court.syB. Pet.r4 and H. Bradt.

Tit. 'ervice. of pltototlfaphy to man-Icind ranse from dudl .. of the Infinitedllfance. of .,xrce to iny",igation. of'he infin/fer/mal dllfanee. of atomicIfnIcfure. Tlte need 'M baH.. xl.n,ifietoo" Ita. &.. n CI Ifimulu. to pho'o-graphic re.eorclt and to ,lte cleyelop-ment of ltiglt·perfMmanee mater,aI. fMimptNfanf "ientiRe applico,'on,.

Original ResearchLaboratory - 1912.Rochester. N. Y.

KODAK RESEARCH AROUND THE WORLD

Tropical Research laboratory,Panama, R. P.

Distillation Praducts Industries laboratory,Rochester, N. Y.

Texas Eastman laboratory,longview, Texas

Kodak Path'; laboratory,Vincennes, France

R[ -;rARCH l ABORATORIEc

EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY

ROCHESTER 4, NEW YORK

(Upper) Aerial view of Rochester, N. Y.showing location of main plants of

Eastman Kodak Company.A - Main Offices; B - Camero Works

of the Apparatus and OpticalDivision; C - Hawk-Eye Works of the

Apparatus and Optical Division;0- Kodak Pork Plant.

(lower) Aerial view of East Side ofKodak Pork Plant,

EodmonKodokCompon~Rochester, N.Y. A - Kodak Researchlaboratories; B - Physics laboratory.

"Scientific research is the yeast of business.II leavens the mass, transforming it into a systemwhich results in the continuous production ofnew and valuable inventions. A t the same lime,like yeast, science grows as it is nourishedby the industry which it is transforming.Thus the association of science and industrystrengthens both, and this is reflected in materialprosperity and intellectual progress."

Dr. C. E. Kenneth Mees,Director of the Research Laboratories,1912-194 7.