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This volume collects selected topical entries from the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology
(ESST). ESST addresses the grand challenges for science and engineering today. It provides unprecedented,
peer-reviewed coverage of sustainability science and technology with contributions from nearly 1,000 of the
world’s leading scientists and engineers, who write on more than 600 separate topics in 38 sections.
ESST establishes a foundation for the research, engineering, and economics supporting the many
sustainability and policy evaluations being performed in institutions worldwide.
Editor-in-Chief
ROBERT A. MEYERS, RAMTECH LIMITED, Larkspur, CA, USA
Editorial Board
RITA R. COLWELL, Distinguished University Professor, Center for Bioinformatics and Computational
Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
ANDREAS FISCHLIN, Terrestrial Systems Ecology, ETH-Zentrum, Zurich, Switzerland
DONALD A. GLASER, Glaser Lab, University of California, Berkeley, Department of Molecular & Cell
Biology, Berkeley, CA, USA
TIMOTHY L. KILLEEN, National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA, USA
HAROLD W. KROTO, Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
The Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
AMORY B. LOVINS, Chairman & Chief Scientist, Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, USA
LORD ROBERT MAY, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3PS, UK
DANIEL L. MCFADDEN, Director of Econometrics Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
THOMAS C. SCHELLING, 3105 Tydings Hall, Department of Economics, University of Maryland, College
Park, MD, USA
CHARLES H. TOWNES, 557 Birge, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
EMILIO AMBASZ, Emilio Ambasz & Associates, Inc., New York, NY, USA
CLARE BRADSHAW, Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
TERRY COFFELT, Research Geneticist, Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ, USA
MEHRDAD EHSANI, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University, College
Station, TX, USA
ALI EMADI, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago,
IL, USA
CHARLES A. S. HALL, College of Environmental Science & Forestry, State University of New York,
Syracuse, NY, USA
RIK LEEMANS, Environmental Systems Analysis Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen,
The Netherlands
KEITH LOVEGROVE, Department of Engineering (Bldg 32), The Australian National University,
Canberra, Australia
TIMOTHY D. SEARCHINGER, Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
Martin Kaltschmitt, Nickolas J. Themelis, Lucien Y. Bronicki, Lennart Soder andLuis A. Vega (Eds.)
Renewable Energy Systems
With 1193 Figures and 290 Tables
EditorsMartin KaltschmittGerman Biomass Research CentreLeipzig, GermanyandInstitute of Environmental Technology and EnergyEconomicsHamburg University of TechnologyHamburg, Germany
Nickolas J. ThemelisEarth Engineering CenterColumbia UniversityNew York, NY, USA
Lucien Y. BronickiOrmat Technologies, Inc.Reno, NV, USA
Lennart SoderRoyal Institute of TechnologyElectric Power SystemsStockholm, Sweden
Luis A. VegaHawaii Natural Energy InstituteSchool of Ocean And Earth Science And TechnologyUniversity of Hawaii at ManoaHonolulu, HI, USA
ISBN 978-1-4614-5819-7 ISBN 978-1-4614-5820-3 (eBook)ISBN 978-1-4614-5862-3 (print and electronic bundle)DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-5820-3Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012953387
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically therights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, andtransmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilarmethodology now knownor hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or materialsupplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in itscurrent version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at theCopyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, servicemarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence ofa specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editorsnor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express orimplied, with respect to the material contained herein.
This book consists of selection from the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology edited by Robert A. Meyers, published bySpringer New York in 2012.
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Editors
Renewable Energy From Biomass
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
German Biomass Research Centre
Leipzig
Germany
and
Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy
Economics
Hamburg University of Technology
Hamburg
Germany
Waste to Energy
NICKOLAS J. THEMELIS
Earth Engineering Center
Columbia University
New York, NY
USA
vi Editors
Geothermal Power Stations
LUCIEN Y. BRONICKI
Ormat Technologies, Inc.
Reno, NV
USA
Wind Power
LENNART SODER
Royal Institute of Technology
Electric Power Systems
Stockholm
Sweden
Ocean Energy
LUIS A. VEGA
Hawaii Natural Energy Institute
School of Ocean And Earth Science And Technology
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, HI
USA
Sections
Geothermal Power Stations
Editor: Lucien Y. Bronicki
Engineered Geothermal Systems, Development and Sustainability of
Geothermal Energy Utilization
Geothermal Energy, Geology and Hydrology of
Geothermal Energy, Nature, Use, and Expectations
Geothermal Field and Reservoir Monitoring
Geothermal Power Capacity, Sustainability and Renewability of
Geothermal Power Conversion Technology
Geothermal Power Economics
Geothermal Power Stations, Introduction to
Geothermal Resources Worldwide, Direct Heat Utilization of
Geothermal Resources, Drilling for
Geothermal Resources, Environmental Aspects of
Hydrothermal Systems, Geochemistry of
Reservoir Engineering in Geothermal Fields
Ocean Energy
Editor: Luis A. Vega
Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Environmental Challenges
Ocean Energy, Introduction
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
Offshore Wind Energy Technology Trends, Challenges, and Risks
Tidal Energy
Renewable Energy From Biomass
Editor: Martin Kaltschmitt
Algae, a New Biomass Resource
Biodiesel
Bioethanol from Celluloses
Bioethanol from Starch
Bioethanol from Sugar: the Brazilian Experience
Biofuels: A Technical, Economic and Environmental Comparison
Biofuels: Upgraded New Solids
Biogas for Electricity Generation, Hi-tech Applications
Biogas Production and Energy crops
Biogas Production, Developing Countries
viii Sections
Biogas Substrates from Municipalities and Industries
Biomass as Renewable Source of Energy, Possible Conversion Routes
Biomass Combustion for Electricity Generation
Biomass Energy Heat Provision for Cooking and Heating in Developing Countries
Biomass Energy Heat Provision in Modern Large-Scale Systems
Biomass Energy Heat Provision in Modern Small-Scale Systems
Biomass Energy Small-Scale Combined Heat and Power Systems
Biomass Gasification for Electricity and Fuels, Large Scale
Biomass Gasification for Rural Electrification, Small Scale
Biomass Production
Biomass Provision and Use, Sustainability Aspects
Biomass Pyrolysis
Biomass Resources, Worldwide
Biomass to Liquid (BtL), Concepts and Their Assessment
Biomass Use on a Global Scale
Biomethane from Anaerobic Processes
Biosynthetic Natural Gas
Co-combustion of Wood in Coal-Fired Large-Scale Power Plants
Hydrogen from Biomass
Lignocellulosic Energy Crops, Production and Provision
Plant Oil Fuels Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
Renewable Energy from Biomass, Introduction
Solid Biofuels, Fuels and Their Characteristics
Waste to Energy
Editor: Nickolas J. Themelis
Gasification and Liquefaction Alternatives to Incineration in Japan
Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction by Waste-to-Energy
Hitachi Zosen Inova Technology
Incinerator Grate Combustion Phenomena
Life Cycle Comparison of Waste-to-Energy to Sanitary Landfill
Martin Waste-to-Energy Technology
Plasma-Assisted Waste-to-Energy Processes
Thermal Treatment of Waste: Key Element for Sustainable Waste Management
Waste Management for Sustainable Society
Waste-to-Energy Ash Management in Europe
Waste-to-Energy Ash Management in the United States
Waste-to-Energy Facilities as Power Plants
Waste-to-Energy for District Heating
Waste-to-Energy Using Refuse-Derived Fuel
Waste-to-Energy, Introduction
Waste-to-Energy: Decreasing the Entropy of Solid Wastes and Increasing Metal Recovery
Waste-to-Energy: Energy Resource in Solid Wastes
Waste-to-Energy: Fluidized Bed Technology
ixSections
Wind Power
Editor: Lennart Soder
Electricity Generation with Small Wind Turbines
Global Wind Power Installations
Meterology and Wind Power
Offshore Wind Power
Wind Power Balancing
Wind Power Generator Systems and Local Power System Interconnection
Wind Power Grid Integration: Transmission Planning
Wind Power, Aerodynamics and Blade Technology
Wind Power, Introduction
Wind Power: Basic Challenge Concerning Social Acceptance
Wind Power: Economy, Market, Subsidies, Payment Mechanisms, and Capacity Credit
Wind Turbine Noise Emissions
Table of Contents
Algae, a New Biomass Resource
Cinzia Formighieri, Roberto Bassi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Biodiesel
Martin Mittelbach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Bioethanol from Celluloses
Mats Galbe, Guido Zacchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Bioethanol from Starch
Anton Friedl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Bioethanol from Sugar: The Brazilian Experience
Suani Teixeira Coelho, Regiane Gorren, Patricia Guardabassi, Renata Grisoli, Jose Goldemberg . . . . . . . 86
Biofuels: A Technical, Economic and Environmental Comparison
Franziska Mueller-Langer, Stefan Majer, Anastasios Perimenis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Biofuels: Upgraded New Solids
Marco Klemm, Ralf Schmersahl, Claudia Kirsten, Nadja Weller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Biogas for Electricity Generation, Hi-tech Applications
Frank Scholwin, Michael Nelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Biogas Production and Energy Crops
Christoph Strauß, Armin Vetter, A. Von Felde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Biogas Production, Developing Countries
Heinz-Peter Mang, Zifu Li, Martina de Mantopi Porres Lebofa, Elisabeth-Maria Huba,
Dishna Schwarz, Roland Schnell, Nguyen Gia Luong, Christopher Kellner, Johannes Selke . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Biogas Substrates from Municipalities and Industries
Ulrike Seyfert, Daniela Thran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Biomass as Renewable Source of Energy, Possible Conversion Routes
Martin Kaltschmitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Biomass Combustion for Electricity Generation
Andreas Wiese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Biomass Energy Heat Provision for Cooking and Heating in Developing Countries
Ralph P. Overend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Biomass Energy Heat Provision in Modern Large-Scale Systems
Ingwald Obernberger, Friedrich Biedermann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Biomass Energy Heat Provision in Modern Small-Scale Systems
Hans Hartmann, Volker Lenz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Biomass Energy Small-Scale Combined Heat and Power Systems
Daniel Buchner, Volker Lenz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Biomass Gasification for Electricity and Fuels, Large Scale
Hermann Hofbauer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
xii Table of Contents
Biomass Gasification for Rural Electrification, Small Scale
Marco Klemm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Biomass Production
Michaela Ernst, Achim Walter, Ulrich Schurr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Biomass Provision and Use, Sustainability Aspects
Daniela Thran, Marek Gawor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Biomass Pyrolysis
Andreas Hornung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Biomass Resources, Worldwide
Andre Faaij . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Biomass to Liquid (BtL), Concepts and Their Assessment
Franziska Mueller-Langer, Niels Jungbluth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Biomass Use on a Global Scale
Ausilio Bauen, Raphael Slade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Biomethane from Anaerobic Processes
Frank Scholwin, Jorgen Held . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
Biosynthetic Natural Gas
Michael Seiffert, Stefan Ronsch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Co-combustion of Wood in Coal-Fired Large-Scale Power Plants
Egbert Broßmann, Martin Kaltschmitt, Marc Koch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
Electricity Generation with Small Wind Turbines
G. J. W. van Bussel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Engineered Geothermal Systems, Development and Sustainability of
Roy Baria, L. Mortimer, G. Beardsmore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
Gasification and Liquefaction Alternatives to Incineration in Japan
Kunio Yoshikawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
Geothermal Energy Utilization
John W. Lund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
Geothermal Energy, Geology and Hydrology of
William E. Glassley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
Geothermal Energy, Nature, Use, and Expectations
Barry Goldstein, Gerardo Hiriart, Jeff Tester, Luis Gutierrez-Negrin, Ruggero Bertani
Christopher Bromley, Ernst Huenges, Arni Ragnarsson, Mike Mongillo, John W. Lund,
Ladislaus Rybach, Vladimir Zui, Hirofumi Muraoka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
Geothermal Field and Reservoir Monitoring
Trevor M. Hunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
Geothermal Power Capacity, Sustainability and Renewability of
Subir K. Sanyal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
Geothermal Power Conversion Technology
Lucien Y. Bronicki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
Geothermal Power Economics
Subir K. Sanyal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
xiiiTable of Contents
Geothermal Power Stations, Introduction to
Lucien Y. Bronicki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
Geothermal Resources Worldwide, Direct Heat Utilization of
John W. Lund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939
Geothermal Resources, Drilling for
John T. Finger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
Geothermal Resources, Environmental Aspects of
Trevor M. Hunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
Global Wind Power Installations
Thomas Ackermann, Rena Kuwahata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction by Waste-to-Energy
Bernd Bilitewski, Christoph Wunsch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039
Hitachi Zosen Inova Technology10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3_398
Craig Kedrowski, Peter Chromec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
Hydrogen from Biomass
Ralf Schmersahl, Marco Klemm, Ruth Brunstermann, Renatus Widmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100
Hydrothermal Systems, Geochemistry of
David Nieva, Rosa Marıa Barragan, Vıctor Arellano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118
Incinerator Grate Combustion Phenomena
J. Swithenbank, Vida N. Sharifi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135
Life Cycle Comparison of Waste-to-Energy to Sanitary Landfill10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3_409
P. Ozge Kaplan, Joseph F. DeCarolis, Morton A. Barlaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
Lignocellulosic Energy Crops, Production and Provision
Iris Lewandowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1181
Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Environmental Challenges
Andrea E. Copping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
Martin Waste-to-Energy Technology
Johannes J. E. Martin, Ralf Koralewska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
Meterology and Wind Power
Erik Lundtang Petersen, Peter Hauge Madsen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
Ocean Energy, Introduction
Luis A. Vega . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1271
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
Luis A. Vega . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273
Offshore Wind Energy Technology Trends, Challenges, and Risks
James F. Manwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1306
Offshore Wind Power
Goran Dalen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1339
Plant Oil Fuels Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
Klaus Thuneke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1360
Plasma-Assisted Waste-to-Energy Processes
Nickolas J. Themelis, Armelle M. Vardelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377
xiv Table of Contents
Renewable Energy from Biomass, Introduction
Martin Kaltschmitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393
Reservoir Engineering in Geothermal Fields
Enrique Lima, Hiroyuki Tokita, Hideki Hatanaka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397
Solid Biofuels, Fuels and Their Characteristics
Hans Hartmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1422
Thermal Treatment of Waste: Key Element for Sustainable Waste Management
Paul H. Brunner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1453
Tidal Energy
Ian G. Bryden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1466
Waste Management for Sustainable Society
Brian Bahor, Michael Van Brunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1475
Waste-to-Energy Ash Management in Europe
Juergen Vehlow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
Waste-to-Energy Ash Management in the United States
Floyd Hasselriis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1510
Waste-to-Energy Facilities as Power Plants
M. A. J. (Marcel) van Berlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1532
Waste-to-Energy for District Heating
Lasse Tobiasen, Bettina Kamuk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1542
Waste-to-Energy using Refuse-Derived Fuel
Floyd Hasselriis, Patrick F. Mahoney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561
Waste-to-Energy, Introduction
Nickolas J. Themelis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1604
Waste-to-Energy: Decreasing the Entropy of Solid Wastes and Increasing Metal Recovery
Helmut Rechberger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1615
Waste-to-Energy: Energy Resource in Solid Wastes
Dieter O. Reimann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1627
Waste-to-Energy: Fluidized Bed Technology
Franz P. Neubacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1640
Wind Power Balancing
Lennart Soder, Hannele Holttinen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1663
Wind Power Generator Systems and Local Power System Interconnection
Torbjorn Thiringer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1700
Wind Power Grid Integration: Transmission Planning
Dale Osborn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1740
Wind Power, Aerodynamics and Blade Technology
Martin O. L. Hansen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769
Wind Power, Introduction
Lennart Soder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1780
xvTable of Contents
Wind Power: Basic Challenge Concerning Social Acceptance
Maarten Wolsink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1785
Wind Power: Economy, Market, Subsidies, Payment Mechanisms, and Capacity Credit10.1007/978-1-4419-
0851-3_89
Michael Milligan, Lori Bird, Suzanne Tegen, Kevin Porter, Sari Fink, Brendan Kirby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1822
Wind Turbine Noise Emissions
Karl Bolin, Mats Abom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1843
List of Contributors
MATS ABOM
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, KTH-The Marcus
Wallenberg Laboratory for Sound and Vibration
Research
Stockholm
Sweden
THOMAS ACKERMANN
Energynautics GmbH
Langen
Germany
VICTOR ARELLANO
Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas
Cuernavac, Morelos
Mexico
BRIAN BAHOR
Covanta Energy Corporation
Morristown, NJ
USA
ROY BARIA
EGS Energy Ltd
Penance Cornwall
UK
MORTON A. BARLAZ
Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC
USA
ROSA MARIA BARRAGAN
Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas
Cuernavac, Morelos
Mexico
ROBERTO BASSI
Dipartimento di Biotecnologie
Universita di Verona
Verona
Italy
AUSILIO BAUEN
Centre for Energy Policy and Technology
Imperial College
London
UK
G. BEARDSMORE
Hot Dry Rocks Pty Ltd
South Yarra, Victoria
Australia
RUGGERO BERTANI
Enel
Rome
Italy
FRIEDRICH BIEDERMANN
Bios Bioenergiesysteme GmbH
Graz
Austria
and
BIOENERGY 2020+ GmbH
Graz
Austria
BERND BILITEWSKI
Institute of Waste Management and Contaminated
Site Treatment
Technical University of Dresden
Pirna
Germany
xviii List of Contributors
LORI BIRD
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Golden, CO
USA
KARL BOLIN
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, KTH-The Marcus
Wallenberg Laboratory for Sound and Vibration
Research
Stockholm
Sweden
EGBERT BROßMANN
Vattenfall Europe Warme AG
Berlin
Germany
CHRISTOPHER BROMLEY
GNS Science
Wairakei Research Centre
Taupo
New Zealand
LUCIEN Y. BRONICKI
Ormat Technologies, Inc.
Reno, NV
USA
PAUL H. BRUNNER
Institute for Water Quality, Resource and Waste
Management
Vienna University of Technology
Vienna
Austria
RUTH BRUNSTERMANN
Department of UrbanWater andWasteManagement
University of Duisburg-Essen
Essen
Germany
IAN G. BRYDEN
Head of Institute for Energy Systems, School of
Engineering
The University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh
UK
DANIEL BUCHNER
German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
G. J. W. VAN BUSSEL
Aerospace Engineering Section Wind Energy
Delft University of Technology
Delft
The Netherlands
PETER CHROMEC
Hitachi Zosen Inova U.S.A. LLC
Norcross, GA
USA
SUANI TEIXEIRA COELHO
CENBIO – The Brazilian Reference Center o Biomass
University of Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo
Brazil
ANDREA E. COPPING
Marine Sciences Laboratory
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Seattle, WA
USA
GORAN DALEN
WPD Scandinavia AB
Stockholm
Sweden
JOSEPH F. DECAROLIS
Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC
USA
MICHAELA ERNST
IBG-2: Plant Science
Forschungszentrum Julich
Julich
Germany
xixList of Contributors
ANDRE FAAIJ
Copernicus Institute, Department of Science,
Technology and Society
Utrecht University
Utrecht
The Netherlands
JOHN T. FINGER
Sandia National Laboratories, retired
Albuquerque, NM
USA
SARI FINK
Exeter Associates
Columbia, Maryland
USA
CINZIA FORMIGHIERI
Dipartimento di Biotecnologie
Universita di Verona
Verona
Italy
ANTON FRIEDL
Vienna University of Technology
Vienna
Austria
MATS GALBE
Department of Chemical Engineering
Lund University
Lund
Sweden
MAREK GAWOR
German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
WILLIAM E. GLASSLEY
Energy Institute
University of California
Davis, CA
USA
and
Geologisk Institut
University of Aarhus
Aarhus
Denmark
JOSE GOLDEMBERG
CENBIO – The Brazilian Reference Center o Biomass
University of Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo
Brazil
BARRY GOLDSTEIN
Pirsa Petroleum Group
Adelaide, SA
Australia
REGIANE GORREN
CENBIO – The Brazilian Reference Center o Biomass
University of Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo
Brazil
RENATA GRISOLI
CENBIO – The Brazilian Reference Center o Biomass
University of Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo
Brazil
PATRICIA GUARDABASSI
CENBIO – The Brazilian Reference Center o Biomass
University of Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo
Brazil
LUIS GUTIERREZ-NEGRIN
Mexican Geothermal Association
Mexico
MARTIN O. L. HANSEN
DTU Mechanical Engineering
Technical University of Denmark
Lyngby
Denmark
xx List of Contributors
HANS HARTMANN
Technologie- und Forderzentrum im
Kompetenzzentrum fur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe
(TFZ)
Straubing, Bavaria
Germany
FLOYD HASSELRIIS
Hasselriis Associates
Forest Hills, NY
USA
HIDEKI HATANAKA
West Japan Engineering Consultants, Inc
Chuou-ku, Fukuoka
Japan
JORGEN HELD
Swedish Gas Centre
Malmo
Sweden
GERARDO HIRIART
Energıas Alternas
Estudios y Proyectos
Mexico
HERMANN HOFBAUER
Institute of Chemical Engineering
Vienna University of Technology
Vienna
Austria
HANNELE HOLTTINEN
Technical Research Centre of Finland VTT
VTT
Finland
ANDREAS HORNUNG
European Bioenergy Research Insitute – EBRI
Aston University
Aston Triangle, Birmingham
UK
ELISABETH-MARIA HUBA
Technologies for Economic Development
Maseru
Lesotho
ERNST HUENGES
GFZ-Potsdam
Germany
TREVOR M. HUNT
GNS Science
Wairakei Geothermal Research Centre
Taupo
New Zealand
NIELS JUNGBLUTH
ESU-services
Uster
Switzerland
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
German Biomass Research Centre
Leipzig
Germany
and
Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy
Economics
Hamburg University of Technology
Hamburg
Germany
BETTINA KAMUK
Ramboll Energy – Waste-to-Energy
København S
Denmark
P. OZGE KAPLAN
National Risk Management Research Laboratory,
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC
USA
CRAIG KEDROWSKI
Hitachi Zosen Inova U.S.A. LLC
Norcross, GA
USA
xxiList of Contributors
CHRISTOPHER KELLNER
Water and Sanitation Association of Zambia
Lusaka
Zambia
BRENDAN KIRBY
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Golden, CO
USA
CLAUDIA KIRSTEN
German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
MARCO KLEMM
German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
MARC KOCH
Vattenfall Europe Warme AG
Berlin
Germany
RALF KORALEWSKA
Martin GmbH fur Umwelt- und Energietechnik
Munich
Germany
RENA KUWAHATA
Energynautics GmbH
Langen
Germany
VOLKER LENZ
German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
IRIS LEWANDOWSKI
Department of Biobased Products and Energy Crops
Institute for Crop Science, Hohenheim University
Stuttgart
Germany
ZIFU LI
Centre for Sustainable Environmental Sanitation
University of Science and Technology
Beijing
China
ENRIQUE LIMA
West Japan Engineering Consultants, Inc
Chuou-ku, Fukuoka
Japan
JOHN W. LUND
Geo-Heat Center
Oregon Institute of Technology
Klamath Falls, OR
USA
NGUYEN GIA LUONG
Biogas Technology Centre (BTC) of the Vietnam
Union of Science and Technology Association
(VUSTA)
Hanoi
Vietnam
PETER HAUGE MADSEN
Wind Energy Division, Risø DTU National Laboratory
for Sustainable Energy
Technical University of Denmark
Roskilde
Denmark
PATRICK F. MAHONEY
Energy Answers International, Inc.
Albany, NY
USA
STEFAN MAJER
German Biomass Research Centre Non Profit
Research Company (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
HEINZ-PETER MANG
German Society for sustainable Biogas and
Bioenergy Utilization
Freudenberg-Boxtal, Baden-Wuerttemberg
Germany
xxii List of Contributors
JAMES F. MANWELL
Department of Mechanical and Industrial
Engineering
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, MA
USA
JOHANNES J. E. MARTIN
Martin GmbH fur Umwelt- und Energietechnik
Munich
Germany
MICHAEL MILLIGAN
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Golden, CO
USA
MARTIN MITTELBACH
Institute of Chemistry
Karl-Franzens-University of Graz
Graz
Austria
MIKE MONGILLO
GNS Science
Wairakei Research Centre
Taupo
New Zealand
L. MORTIMER
Hot Dry Rocks Pty Ltd
South Yarra, Victoria
Australia
FRANZISKA MUELLER-LANGER
German Biomass Research Centre gGmbH (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
HIROFUMI MURAOKA
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and
Technology
Institute for Geo-Resources and Environment
(GREEN)
Tsukuba, Ibaraki
Japan
MICHAEL NELLES
Department Waste Management
University of Rostock
Rostock
Germany
FRANZ P. NEUBACHER
UV&P Environmental Engineering M.S. Chemical
Engineering (T.U. Graz) M.S. Technology &
Policy (M.I.T)
Vienna
Austria
DAVID NIEVA
Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas
Cuernavac, Morelos
Mexico
INGWALD OBERNBERGER
Bios Bioenergiesysteme GmbH
Graz
Austria
and
BIOENERGY 2020+ GmbH
Graz
Austria
and
Institute for Process and Particle Engineering
Graz University of Technology
Graz
Austria
DALE OSBORN
Midwest ISO
Columbus, OH
USA
RALPH P. OVEREND
Golden, CO
USA
ANASTASIOS PERIMENIS
German Biomass Research Centre Non Profit
Research Company (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
xxiiiList of Contributors
ERIK LUNDTANG PETERSEN
Wind Energy Division, Risø DTU National Laboratory
for Sustainable Energy
Technical University of Denmark
Roskilde
Denmark
MARTINA DE MANTOPI PORRES LEBOFA
Technologies for Economic Development
Maseru
Lesotho
KEVIN PORTER
Exeter Associates
Columbia, Maryland
USA
ARNI RAGNARSSON
Iceland GeoSurvey
Reykjavık
Iceland
HELMUT RECHBERGER
Institute of Water Quality, Resource and Waste
Management
Vienna University of Technology
Vienna
Austria
DIETER O. REIMANN
Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants
(CEWEP)
Bamberg
Germany
STEFAN RONSCH
German Biomass Research Centre (Deutsches
BiomasseForschungsZentrum gemeinnutzige
GmbH)
Leipzig
Germany
LADISLAUS RYBACH
Geowatt AG
Switzerland
SUBIR K. SANYAL
GeothermEx, Inc
Richmond, CA
USA
RALF SCHMERSAHL
Deutsches BiomasseForschungsZentrum GmbH
German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
and
Institute of Agricultural Engineering Bornim e.V.
(ATB)
Potsdam
Germany
ROLAND SCHNELL
Graskraft Ltd
Berlin
Germany
FRANK SCHOLWIN
University Rostock
Germany
ULRICH SCHURR
IBG-2: Plant Science
Forschungszentrum Julich
Julich
Germany
DISHNA SCHWARZ
Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale
Zusammenarbeit GmbH
Eschborn
Germany
MICHAEL SEIFFERT
German Biomass Research Centre (Deutsches
BiomasseForschungsZentrum gemeinnutzige
GmbH)
Leipzig
Germany
xxiv List of Contributors
JOHANNES SELKE
International Biogas & Bioenergy Centre of Expertise
(IBBK GmbH)
Stuttgart
Germany
ULRIKE SEYFERT
German Biomass Research Centre
Leipzig
Germany
VIDA N. SHARIFI
Energy and Environment Engineering (EEE)
Sheffield University
Sheffield
UK
and
EEE Group, Chemical and Biological Engineering
Sheffield University
Sheffield
UK
RAPHAEL SLADE
Centre for Energy Policy and Technology
Imperial College
London
UK
LENNART SODER
Royal Institute of Technology, Electric Power Systems
Stockholm
Sweden
CHRISTOPH STRAUß
Plant Production and Agricultural Ecology
Thuringian State Institute for Agriculture
Dornburg
Germany
J. SWITHENBANK
Energy and Environment Engineering (EEE)
Sheffield University
Sheffield
UK
SUZANNE TEGEN
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Golden, CO
USA
JEFF TESTER
Energy Institute, Cornell University
Ithaca, NY
USA
NICKOLAS J. THEMELIS
Earth Engineering Center
Columbia University
New York, NY
USA
TORBJORN THIRINGER
Department of Energy and Environment, Division of
Electric Power Engineering
Chalmers University of Technology
Goteborg
Sweden
DANIELA THRAN
German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
and
Helmholtz–Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
KLAUS THUNEKE
Technologie- und Forderzentrum im
Kompetenzzentrum fur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe
(TFZ)
Straubing
Germany
LASSE TOBIASEN
Ramboll Energy – Waste-to-Energy
København S
Denmark
xxvList of Contributors
HIROYUKI TOKITA
West Japan Engineering Consultants, Inc
Chuou-ku, Fukuoka
Japan
M. A. J. (MARCEL) VAN BERLO
Free University of Amsterdam and AEB-Amsterdam
Amsterdam
The Netherlands
MICHAEL VAN BRUNT
Covanta Energy Corporation
Morristown, NJ
USA
ARMELLE M. VARDELLE
Laboratoire Sciences des Procedes Ceramiques et de
Traitements de Surface
University of Limoges
Limoges Cedex
France
LUIS A. VEGA
Hawaii Natural Energy Institute, School of Ocean And
Earth Science And Technology
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, HI
USA
JUERGEN VEHLOW
Karlsruhe Institute for Technology, Institute for
Technical Chemistry
Karlsruhe
Germany
ARMIN VETTER
Plant Production and Agricultural Ecology
Thuringian State Institute for Agriculture
Dornburg
Germany
A. VON FELDE
Energy Plants
KWS SAAT AG
Einbeck
Germany
ACHIM WALTER
IBG–2: Plant Science
Forschungszentrum Julich
Julich
Germany
and
ETH Zurich
Institute of Plant, Animal and Agroecosystem
Sciences, Professorship of Crop Science
Zurich
Switzerland
NADJA WELLER
German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ)
Leipzig
Germany
RENATUS WIDMANN
Department of UrbanWater andWasteManagement
University of Duisburg-Essen
Essen
Germany
ANDREAS WIESE
Energy Division
Lahmeyer International GmbH
Bad Vilbel
Germany
MAARTEN WOLSINK
Department of Geography, Planning and
International Development Studies
University of Amsterdam
Amsterdam
The Netherlands
CHRISTOPH WUNSCH
Institute of Waste Management and Contaminated
Site Treatment
Technical University of Dresden
Pirna
Germany