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Reading Proficiency Download Report During the past decade (2003-2013), the gap between white and black students in average scale scores in reading among fourth- and eighth-graders has narrowed, while the white-black gap among twelfth-graders has grown. Importance The ability to read proficiently is a fundamental skill that affects the learning experiences and school performance of children and adolescents. Students who are competent readers, as measured by their performance on reading tests, are more likely to perform well in other subjects, such as math and science. [1] , [2] Children who struggle with reading and reading comprehension also often have deficits in spoken language. [3] Students with reading difficulties are much less likely to be academically engaged. [4] Reading achievement predicts the likelihood of graduating from high school [5] and attending college. [6] Reading skills also influence students’ well-being as adults. Adults with poor literacy skills find it difficult to function in society, because many basic decision-making skills require reading proficiency. [7] People who are not able to fill out an application because of limited reading or writing skills are likely to have difficulty finding a job or accessing social services. Strong reading skills protect against unemployment in early adulthood. [8] Research has confirmed that performance on adult literacy tests helps explain differences in wages. [9] Finally, adults with limited reading abilities are likely to have children with limited reading abilities. [10] Enjoyment of reading is associated with reading success. In an international study involving 15-year-olds from 14 developed countries, students reported they read daily for pleasure achieved reading scores higher, by the equivalent of one-and-a-half years of schooling, than their peers who did not. [11] Trends © Copyright 2014 Child Trends - All Rights Reserved 1
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Reading ProficiencyDownload Report
During the past decade (2003-2013), the gap between white and black students inaverage scale scores in reading among fourth- and eighth-graders has narrowed,while the white-black gap among twelfth-graders has grown.
Importance
The ability to read proficiently is a fundamental skill that affects the learning experiencesand school performance of children and adolescents. Students who are competentreaders, as measured by their performance on reading tests, are more likely to performwell in other subjects, such as math and science.[1],[2] Children who struggle withreading and reading comprehension also often have deficits in spoken language.[3]Students with reading difficulties are much less likely to be academically engaged.[4]Reading achievement predicts the likelihood of graduating from high school[5] andattending college.[6] Reading skills also influence students’ well-being as adults.Adults with poor literacy skills find it difficult to function in society, because many basicdecision-making skills require reading proficiency.[7] People who are not able to fill out anapplication because of limited reading or writing skills are likely to have difficulty finding ajob or accessing social services. Strong reading skills protect against unemployment inearly adulthood.[8] Research has confirmed that performance on adult literacy tests helpsexplain differences in wages.[9] Finally, adults with limited reading abilities are likely tohave children with limited reading abilities.[10] Enjoyment of reading is associated withreading success. In an international study involving 15-year-olds from 14 developedcountries, students reported they read daily for pleasure achieved reading scores higher,by the equivalent of one-and-a-half years of schooling, than their peers who did not.[11]
Trends
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After rising in the 1990s,average reading scores for eighth-graders remained relatively steady between1998 and2002. Average scores decreased from 264 to 262 between 2002 and 2005, but haveincreased since then, to 268 in 2013. Fourth-grade reading scores reached a high of 221in 2007 after rising steadily since the early 1990s, but have increased only slightly since,and were at 222 in 2013. Meanwhile, reading scores for twelfth-grade students had asmall, but statistically significant decline, from 290 in 1998 to 286 in 2005, but increasedslightly in 2009 (288). Since then, twelfth-grade scores have remained steady. (Figure 1)According to how achievement levels are scored, the latest data show students at eachgrade-level performing, on average, at the “basic†level—below “proficientâ€and “advanced.†(See Definition section for further information.)
Note: In 1996, NAEP began a transition to allowing testing accommodations for studentswith disabilities and students with limited English proficiency. Between 1996 and 2002two samples (one with, one without accommodations permitted) were used while a newbaseline was being established. Beginning in 2002, all NAEP assessments allowedaccommodations. Accommodations may include extra time, one-on-one administration,translation of assessments, or the use of bilingual dictionaries and are determined bystate and district policies.
Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin[12]
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In 2013, among fourth-grade students, Asian/Pacific Islanders scored significantly higher than whites (235compared with 232), who in turn had significantly higher scores than those for black,Hispanic, and American Indian students. Hispanic students also scored significantlyhigher than black students in 2013 (207 compared with 206). Among eighth-graders, 2013scale scores were highest for Asian/Pacific Islanders (280), followed by scores for whites(276), and Hispanics (256). Black and American Indian students had the lowest scores ineighth grade (250 and 251, respectively). In twelfth grade, Asian/Pacific Islander andwhite students had the highest average 2013 scores (296 and 297, respectively), followedby Hispanic students (276). Black students in twelfth grade had the lowest averagescores, at 268). (Figure 2) For fourth- and eighth-grade students, the gap between scoresfor whites and blacks diminished significantly between 2003 and 2013, as did the gapbetween scores for whites and Hispanics. For twelfth-grade students, the performancegap between whites and blacks increased between 2002 and 2013, while the gapbetween whites and Hispanics did not change significantly. (Appendix 1, Appendix 2, andAppendix 3)
Differences by Gender
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Girls have higher readingscores, on average, than boys. In 2013, the gap was six points in the fourth grade,increasing to ten points by the eighth grade. Among twelfth-graders, girls also hadsignificantly higher reading scores than boys (by nine points). (Figure 3) Between 2003and 2013, both boys’ and girls’ scores improved significantly at fourth and eighthgrades. However, twelfth-grade boys’ scores increased between 2002 and 2013,while girls’ scores remained unchanged. (Appendix 1, Appendix 2, and Appendix 3)
Differences by Free/Reduced-Price School LunchProgram Eligibility
At all three grade levels, lower-income students who were eligible for free and reduced-price lunches had lower NAEP reading scores, on average, than students who were noteligible. In 2013, differences were 29 points in the fourth grade, 24 points in the eighthgrade, and 22 points in twelfth grade. (Appendix 1, Appendix 2, and Appendix 3)
Differences by Region
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In 2013, fourth-graders fromthe Northeast, on average, had the highest reading scores (227), followed by students inthe Midwest (223), South (222), and West (217). Eighth-graders in the Northeast, onaverage, had the highest reading scores (273), followed by those in the Midwest (269),and the South and West (266 and 265, respectively). Among twelfth-graders, those in theNortheast and Midwest had higher average scores (292 and 291, respectively) than thosein the West and South (287 and 286, respectively). (Figure 4) None of these averagescores were above the “basic†level of achievement. (See Definition section forfurther information.)
State and Local Estimates
Note: NAEP differs from most state assessments in that it uses a sampling procedurewhere only some students are selected to participate, and no student is administered allquestions. State-level scores are derived using statistical methods that impute astudent’s range of likely scores on the whole test, given their performance on selecteditems.
2013 reading estimates for 4th- and 8th-graders for states participating in NAEP2011 estimates for 4th- and 8th-graders in 11 large urban districts participating inNAEPThe KIDS COUNT Data Center provides a variety of fourth- and eighth-gradereading proficiency indicators for 2013
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International Estimates
International estimates of reading literacy for 4th-grade students are available from the2011 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) assessment, whichcompares the scores of U.S fourth-graders to their peers in 44 different countries.International estimates of reading literacy for 15-year-olds are available from the Programfor International Student Assessment (PISA) are available in the Performance of U.S. 15-Year-Old Students in Reading, Mathematics, and Science Literacy in an InternationalContext report.
National Goals
The No Child Left Behind Act, signed into law in January 2002, requires states to setperformance standards for multiple subjects, including reading, and requires that eachstate measure students’ progress in reading and mathematics every year from gradesthree to eight, and at least once in grades 10 to 12. Each state is expected to makeadequate yearly progress toward meeting standards, and all children are expected tomeet or exceed minimum proficiency standards, as defined by the state, within twelveyears.
What Works to Make Progress on This Indicator
The U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Science’s What WorksClearinghouse provides reports that evaluate research on beginning reading (for studentsin grades K–3), and adolescent literacy (for students in grades 4-12), including curriculaand instructional strategies. As stated on the Clearinghouse web site, “Thesecurricula and strategies are intended to increase skills in alphabetics, reading fluency,comprehension, and general reading achievement.â€
In an international study involving 15-year-olds from 14 developed countries, studentswhose parents regularly discussed political or social with them scored an average of 16points higher on a comprehensive reading assessment, controlling for differences insocio-economic background.[13]
Also, see Child Trends’ LINKS database (“Lifecourse Interventions to NurtureKids Successfullyâ€), for reviews of many rigorously evaluated programs, including the
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following which have been shown to be effective:
Building Early Language and LiteracyBuilding Educated Leaders for Life Summer Learning ProgramDialogic ReadingHoward Street Tutoring ProgramInteractive Book ReadingLet’s Begin With the Letter PeopleSAFEChildrenSuccess for AllVoluntary Summer Reading Intervention
Related Indicators
Writing ProficiencyReading to Young ChildrenMathematics ProficiencyScience Proficiency
Definition
Reading proficiency refers to performance on the National Assessment of EducationalProgress (NAEP) Reading Assessments. Scale scores range from 0 to 500, with astandard deviation of 100. In 1996, NAEP started allowing testing accommodations forstudents with disabilities and for limited English proficient students. Accommodations mayinclude extra time, one-on-one administration, use of magnifying equipment, translation ofassessments, or the use of bilingual dictionaries and are determined by state and districtpolicies. Beginning in 2002, all NAEP assessments allow accommodations. Onlystudents currently enrolled in school are assessed.
NAEP also reports scores by achievement levels: Basic, Proficient, and Advanced. Cut-off scale scores for these levels, and descriptions of what students are expected to knowand do in reading at each level, at fourth, eighth, and twelfth grades, are available fromthe Nation's Report Card website.
Data Source
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U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center forEducation Statistics. National Assessment of Educational Progress Reading andMathematics Assessments (NAEP), 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005, 2003, 2000, 1996,1992, and 1990 Reading Assessments. Accessed through the NAEP Data Explorer athttp://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata/
Raw Data Source
National Assessment of Educational Progress
http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/
Appendix 1 - NAEP Reading Average Scale Scores,3 Grade 4:Selected Years, 1992-2013
1992 1994 1998 1998 2000 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013NoAccommodationsPermitted1
Accommodations Permitted1
Total 217 214 217 215 213 219 218 219 221 221 221 222Gender
Male 213 209 214 212 208 215 215 216 218 218 218 219Female 221 220 220 217 219 222 222 222 224 224 225 225
Race/HispanicOrigin2
White 224 224 226 225 224 229 229 229 231 230 231 232Black 192 185 193 193 190 199 198 200 203 205 205 206Hispanic 197 188 195 193 190 201 200 203 205 205 206 207Asian/PacificIslander 216 220 221 215 225 224 226 229 232 235 235 235
AmericanIndian - 211 - - 214 207 202 204 203 204 202 205
Other - - - - - 219 223 223 225 226 227 227
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Other - - - - - 219 223 223 225 226 227 227Free/Reduced-Price SchoolLunch ProgramEligibility
Eligible - - 198 196 193 203 201 203 205 206 207 207Not eligible - - 227 227 226 230 229 230 232 232 235 236Informationnot available - - 227 223 225 226 230 232 233 236 235 237
Type of SchoolPublic 215 212 215 213 211 217 216 217 220 220 220 221Nonpublic 232 231 233 232 231 234 235 - 234 235 234 235
1992 1994 1998 1998 2000 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013NoAccommodationsPermitted1
Accommodations Permitted1
RegionNortheast - - - - - - 224 225 228 228 228 227Midwest - - - - - - 222 222 224 223 222 223South - - - - - - 217 218 220 221 221 222West - - - - - - 212 213 214 215 216 217
Type ofLocation4
City - - - - - - - - 215 216 216 216Suburb - - - - - - - - 226 225 226 226Town - - - - - - - - 219 218 218 220Rural - - - - - - - - 222 222 223 223
Percentile Score10th 170 159 167 163 159 170 169 171 174 175 174 174
25th 194 189 193 191 189 196 195 196 199 199 200 200
50th 219 219 220 217 218 221 221 221 224 223 224 225
75th 242 243 244 242 243 244 244 244 246 245 246 247
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90th 261 263 263 262 262 263 264 263 264 264 264 265"-" Indicates no data available.
1In 1996, NAEP began transitioning toward allowing testing accommodations forstudents with disabilities and for limited English proficient students. Between 1996 and2002, scores were reported for samples with and without testing accommodations, whilea new baseline was being established. Beginning in 2002, all NAEP assessments allowaccommodations. Accommodations may include extra time, one-on-one administration,use of magnifying equipment, translation of assessments, or the use of bilingualdictionaries and are determined by state and district policies.
2None of the race groups include Hispanics of those races.
3Scale Scores range from 0 to 500, with a standard deviation of 100.
Source: Data for type of school and 'unknown' race 1992-2002 from: U.S. Department ofEducation. Office of Educational Research and Improvement. National Center forEducation Statistics. The Nation's Report Card: Reading 2002, NCES 2003-521, byWendy S. Grigg, Mary C. Duane, Ying Jin, and Jay R. Campbell. Washington, DC:2003.  http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2002/2003521.pdf. All other datafor 1992-2003 U.S. Department of Education. Institute of Education Sciences. TheNation’s Report Card: Reading Highlights 2003, NCES 2004-452. Washington, DC:2003. http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2003/2004452.pdf. Data for 2005-2013: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center forEducation Statistics. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), ReadingAssessments. Accessed through the NAEP Data Explorer, athttp://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata/
Appendix 2 - NAEP Reading Average Scale Scores,3 Grade 8:Selected Years, 1992-2013
1992 1994 1998 1998 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013NoAccommodationsPermitted1
Accommodations Permitted1
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Total 260 260 264 263 264 263 262 263 264 265 268Gender
Male 254 252 257 256 260 258 257 258 259 261 263Female 267 267 270 270 269 269 267 268 269 270 273
Race/HispanicOrigin2
White 267 267 271 270 272 272 271 272 273 274 276Black 237 236 243 244 245 244 243 245 246 249 250Hispanic 241 243 245 243 247 245 246 247 249 252 256Asian/PacificIslander 268 265 267 264 267 270 271 271 274 275 80
American Indian - - - - 250 246 249 247 251 252 251Other 256 - 269 - 265 266 266 265 267 269 271
Free/Reduced-PriceSchool LunchProgram Eligibility
Eligible - - 246 245 249 247 247 247 249 252 254Not eligible - - 270 269 272 271 270 271 273 275 278Information notavailable - - 272 272 271 272 275 277 280 283 286
Type of SchoolPublic 258 257 261 261 263 261 260 261 262 264 266Nonpublic 278 279 281 281 281 282 - 280 282 282 285
1992 1994 1998 1998 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013NoAccommodationsPermitted1
Accommodations Permitted1
Parent's EducationDid not finishhigh school 243 238 243 242 248 245 244 245 248 248 251
Graduated highschool 251 252 254 254 257 254 252 253 254 254 255
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Some educationafter high school 265 266 269 268 268 267 265 266 267 267 270
Graduatedcollege 271 270 274 273 274 273 272 273 274 275 278
Unknown 238 238 242 242 247 243 242 244 244 246 248Region
Northeast - - - - - 268 269 269 271 271 273Midwest - - - - - 269 266 266 268 268 269South - - - - - 261 260 261 262 264 266West - - - - - 258 257 258 258 261 265
Type of Location4
City - - - - - - - 257 259 260 263Suburb - - - - - - - 267 268 269 272Town - - - - - - - 262 261 264 264Rural - - - - - - - 264 265 267 268
Percentile Score10th 213 211 217 216 220 217 216 217 219 221 223
25th 237 236 242 241 244 242 240 242 243 244 246
50th 262 262 267 266 267 266 265 265 267 267 269
75th 285 286 288 288 288 288 286 287 288 289 291
90th 305 305 305 306 305 306 305 306 305 307 310"-" Indicates no data available.
1In 1996, NAEP began transitioning toward allowing testing accommodations forstudents with disabilities and for limited English proficient students. Between 1996 and2002, scores were reported for samples with and without testing accommodations, whilea new baseline was being established. Beginning in 2002, all NAEP assessments allowaccommodations. Accommodations may include extra time, one-on-one administration,use of magnifying equipment, translation of assessments, or the use of bilingualdictionaries and are determined by state and district policies.
2Note that none of the race groups include Hispanics of those races.
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3Scale Scores range from 0 to 500, with a standard deviation of 100.
Sources: Data for type of school and 'unknown' race 1992-2002 from: U.S. Department ofEducation. Office of Educational Research and Improvement. National Center forEducation Statistics. The Nation's Report Card: Reading 2002, NCES 2003-521, byWendy S. Grigg, Mary C. Duane, Ying Jin, and Jay R. Campbell. Washington, DC:2003.  http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2002/2003521.pdf. All other datafor 1992-2003: U.S. Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences. TheNation’s Report Card: Reading Highlights 2003, NCES 2004-452. Washington, DC:2003. http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2003/2004452.pdf. Data for 2005-2013: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center forEducation Statistics. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), ReadingAssessments. Accessed through the NAEP Data Explorer athttp://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata /
Appendix 3 - NAEP Reading Average Scale Scores,4 Grade 12:Selected Years, 1992-2013
1992 1994 1998 1998 2002 2005 2009 2013No AccommodationsPermitted1
AccommodationsPermitted1
Total 292 287 291 290 287 286 288 288Gender
Male 287 280 283 282 279 279 282 284Female 297 294 298 298 295 292 294 293
Race/Hispanic Origin2
White 297 293 297 297 292 293 296 297Black 273 265 271 269 267 267 269 268Hispanic 279 270 276 275 273 272 274 276Asian/Pacific Islander 290 278 288 287 285 287 298 296American Indian - 274 - - 294 279 283 277Other - - - - 287 283 298 291
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Free/Reduced-Price SchoolLunch Program Eligibility
Eligible - - 271 270 273 271 273 274Not eligible - - 293 293 289 290 294 296Information not available - - 296 295 294 295 296 302
Type of SchoolPublic 290 286 289 289 285 285 287 287Nonpublic 308 301 303 303 304 - - -
1992 1994 1998 1998 2002 2005 2009 2013No AccommodationsPermitted1
AccommodationsPermitted1
Parent's EducationDid not finish high school 275 266 268 268 268 268 269 270Graduated high school 283 277 280 279 278 274 276 276Some education after highschool 294 289 292 291 289 287 287 288
Graduated college 301 298 301 300 296 297 299 299Unknown 258 248 250 248 247 255 256 257
RegionNortheast - - - - - 288 291 292Midwest - - - - - 293 294 291South - - - - - 282 284 286West - - - - - 283 287 287
Type of Location4 - -City - - - - - - 286 285Suburb - - - - - - 292 291Town - - - - - - 287 288Rural - - - - - - 286 289
Percentile Score10th 249 239 242 240 237 235 238 239
25th 271 264 268 267 263 262 264 264
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50th 294 290 293 293 289 288 291 290
75th 315 313 317 317 312 313 315 315
90th 333 332 337 336 332 333 335 335"-" Indicates no data available.
1In 1996, NAEP began transitioning toward allowing testing accommodations forstudents with disabilities and for limited English proficient students. Between 1996 and2002, scores were reported for samples with and without testing accommodations, whilea new baseline was being established. Beginning in 2002, all NAEP assessments allowaccommodations. Accommodations may include extra time, one-on-one administration,use of magnifying equipment, translation of assessments, or the use of bilingualdictionaries and are determined by state and district policies.
2Note that none of the race groups include Hispanics of those races.
3Special analyses by the NCES of the 12th grade American Indian and Alaska Nativedata raised concerns about accuracy so these results should be interpreted with greatcaution.
4Scale Scores range from 0 to 500, with a standard deviation of 100.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Centerfor Education Statistics. National Assessment of Educational Progress ReadingAssessments (NAEP), 2013, 2009, 2005, 2003, 2000, 1996, and 1992, ReadingAssessments. Accessed through the NAEP Data Explorer athttp://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata/
Endnotes
[1] Hyde, A. (2007). Mathematics and cognition. Education Leadership. 65(3), 43-47.Jordan, W. J., and Nettles, S. M. (1999). How students invest their time out of school:Effects on school engagement, perceptions of life chances, and achievement (Report No.29). Washington, D.C.: Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk.Available at: http://www.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/techReports/Report29.pdf
© Copyright 2014 Child Trends - All Rights Reserved 15
[2] Carnine, L., and Carnine, D. (2004). The interaction of reading skills and sciencecontent knowledge when teaching struggling secondary students. Reading and WritingQuarterly, 20(2), 203-218.
[3] Myers, L., and Botting, N. (2008). Literacy in the mainstream inner-city school: Itsrelationship to spoken language. Child Language Teaching & Therapy, 24(1), 95-114.
[4] Guthrie, J. T. and Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M. L.Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, and Barr, R. (Eds.). Handbook of ReadingResearch, volume III. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
[5] Christie, K. (2007) Mission possible: States take on adolescent literacy. Phi DeltaKappan, 88( 6), 421-422.
[6] Zaff, J. F., Moore, K.A., Papillo, A. R., & Williams, S. (2003). Implications ofextracurricular activity participation during adolescence on positive outcomes. Journal ofAdolescent Research, 18(06). Ludwig, J. (1999). Information and inner city educationalattainment. Economics of Education Review, 18(1), 17-30
[7] Study: 11 Million U.S. Adults Are Not Literate in English. (2006). Diverse Issues inHigher Education, 22(1). Kirsch, I., Jungeblut, A., Jenkins, L. & Kolstad, A. (1993). AdultLiteracy in America: A First Look at the Findings of the National Adult Literacy Survey.Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. [On-line]. Availablehttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs93/93275.pdf Humboldt Literacy Project. N.D. Fast facts onliteracy. Eureka, CA. Author. [On-line]. Available:http://www.eurekawebs.com/humlit/fast_facts.htm
[8] Caspi, A., Wright, B.E., Moffit, T.E., & Silva, P.A. (1998). Childhood predictors ofunemployment in early adulthood. American Sociological Review, 63(3), 424-451.
[9] Blau, F. & Kahn, L. (2000). Do cognitive test scores explain US wage inequality?National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc (RePEc:nbr:nberwo:8210).
[10] Moore, K., Glei, D., Driscoll, A., Zaslow, M., and Redd, Z. (2002). Poverty and welfarepatterns: implications for children. Journal of Social Policy, 31(2), 207-227.
[11] Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Program for InternationalStudent Assessment (PISA). (2011). Do students today read for pleasure? PISA In Focus,No. 8. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisainfocus/48624701.pdf
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[12] Note that none of the race groups include Hispanics of those races. Special analysesby the NCES of the 12th grade American Indian and Alaska Native data raised concernsabout accuracy so these results are not discussed in this paper.
[13] Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Program for InternationalStudent Assessment (PISA). (2011). What can parents do to help their children succeedin school? PISA In Focus, No. 10. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/49012097.pdf
Suggested Citation:
Child Trends. (2014). Reading proficiency . Available at: http://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=reading-proficiency
Last updated: September 2014
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