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Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) for
Contextualising Early Child Care InterventionsA User’s Guide
Contents
Introduction 1
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)
i. What is RRA 3
ii. Characteristics of RRA 3
iii Sequence of RRA Activities 4
Applying RRA Prior To Initiating A Home-based
Caregiver Education Programme
i Planning 8
ii RRA Tools 9
Transect Walk 10
Community Resource Mapping 14
Daily Routine Clock 20
Seasonal Calendar 24
Focus Group Discussion 27
Appendices 37
List of Abbreviations
ECCD : Early Childhood Care and Development
RRA : Rapid Rural Appraisal
FGD : Focus Group Discussion
AWC : Anganwadi Centre
PHC : Primary Health Centre
ANM : Auxiliary Nurse Midwife
AWW : Anganwadi Worker
SHG : Self Help Group
1
Background
This booklet is of use to organisations
interested in implementing interventions for
improving home-based early child care in
poor rural and urban communities, through
a caregiver education programme.
An education programme for traditional
families will be effective only when your
project personnel and field workers
understand before initiating the programme,
the prevalent knowledge, attitudes, and
practices related to child care within a
particular community. Besides the universal
care messages your intervention must
convey, it is necessary to attempt to change
detrimental care behaviours while endorsing
sound ones. But to change detrimental
behaviours, mere awareness of a harmful
practice is not enough. It is important to
explore and evaluate the reasons, values and
beliefs that govern these practices. Only
then can a generic curriculum for caregiver
About This Booklet
INTRODUCTION
communication materials in the package
have been designed for direct use by field
workers with caregivers of these young
children. A video series entitled ‘Care for
Development’ is a component of the
package and this booklet is now added to it.
The Centre For Learning Resources (CLR)
has been promoting the holistic
development of disadvantaged children in
the birth to five years age-group through its
various educational projects. Through action
research, we have designed a
comprehensive curriculum for parent /
caregiver education, incorporating prime
messages related to holistic, home-based
child care for the under-three age-group.
The content of the curriculum spans
pre-conception to age three, integrating
messages related to women’s reproductive
health, pre-natal and child health, nutrition,
and psychosocial stimulation in infancy.
The CLR has developed an educational
package to implement this curriculum which
uses an active learning approach for an
illiterate and semiliterate audience. The
educational package is presently available in
Hindi, Marathi, Telugu and Oriya. The
2
Content Of The Booklet
This booklet helps you to understand the
following :
What is RRA.
A selection of RRA ‘tools’ (techniques)
that can be applied to home-based
child development interventions and
caregiver education programmes.
How to conduct RRA using these
selected tools.
Wherever relevant, the CLR’s own
experience is featured, to illustrate a
particular process.
A companion VCD on the RRA process
carried out by the CLR is also available.
education be supplemented by locale-
specific messages that may be necessary for
modifying age-old behaviours, and thus
having an impact on child development.
In the CLR’s own ECCD projects, we found
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) to be an
appropriate appraisal technique to obtain
the insights we needed for the above
purposes. RRA is a technique generally used
to collect local information and establish
rapport with community members before
initiating rural development projects. We
adapted it to suit the needs of a caregiver
education programme.
This booklet is an attempt to share our
experience in applying RRA in this context,
and to provide guidelines for organisations
who are interested in using this process
towards increasing the impact of their child
development interventions.
3
RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL (RRA)
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) is one of the
appraisal techniques that is used to create a
dialogue, and collect information in an
informal manner from a community where
some development work needs to be
initiated.
RRA can be defined as a systematic semi-
structured activity conducted by a multi-
disciplinary team with the aim of quickly and
effectively acquiring new information about
rural life and resources. It usually involves
collecting information by talking directly to
people.
RRA uses a set of guidelines that enables
users to collect information with the
involvement of local people in its
interpretation and presentation.
It also uses a set of tools - these consist of
exercises and techniques for collecting
information, ways of organising that
information so that it is easily understood by
a wide range of people, techniques for
stimulating interaction with community
members, and methods for quickly analysing
and reporting findings and suggesting
appropriate action.
What is RRA Characteristics of RRA
Participatory, and learning from
local people
People participate as equals in the situation
analysis and in the interpretation of the
analysis. It must involve the people who are
the intended “beneficiaries” of any eventual
development activity. RRA should give them
the opportunity to describe their conditions,
and present their point of view. The people
carrying out RRA must be prepared to listen
to local people and learn from them.
Structured but flexible
The approach to collecting information is
structured and requires careful planning,
clear objectives, the right balance of people
involved, and a good choice of tools and
techniques for use in the field.
At the same time, it should be flexible
enough to respond to local conditions and
unexpected circumstances. Compared to
the traditional methods of information
collection like questionnaires, this approach
is flexible with a focus on probing.
Integrated and interdisciplinary
The RRA team consists of people from
different disciplines and with different skills.
4
Sequence of RRA Activities
The RRA exercise progresses from obtaining
a general understanding of local conditions
(through transect walks and mapping
exercises) towards identification of key
issues and topics, which can be explored in
greater detail using appropriate techniques.
A regular review during the exercise with
team members provides the opportunity to
review this progress, and adjust activities
accordingly. The RRA findings are then
presented to the community members to
work out the future plan of action related to
the implementation of a development
project.
The composition of the team which carries
out RRA is extremely important in
determining the outcome. Obviously, the
composition of the team depends very much
on the objectives of the RRA and the
particular concerns which it is addressing.
Identifying the team
Iterative
The person carrying out the RRA keeps
probing deeper and deeper about a point of
interest till she/he is satisfied that the data is
reliable. Thus she/he repeats the same
points of investigation with different
categories of respondents at different
locations, and at more than one time.
A combination of different tools
The approach uses a combination of tools
which help outsiders to observe conditions
in a concise but systematic way. These tools
also allow local people to present their
knowledge, concerns and priorities to
outsiders.
The combination of different tools builds up
a more complete picture where different
viewpoints can be compared and
contrasted. It also reduces the time taken to
acquire knowledge about an area or a
situation, and then decide the development
interventions for that area.
There are a range of tools available.
Depending upon the specific purpose in a
given project, appropriate tools need to be
selected. Some of the RRA tools are-
Transect Walk, Community Mapping, Time
Line and Trend Analysis, Venn Diagram,
Causal Diagram, Daily Routine Clock,
Seasonal Calendars, Matrix Ranking, Wealth
Ranking, Preference Ranking and Scoring,
Focus Group Discussion, etc. Selected tools
relevant to home-based child development
interventions are given on page 9, and their
use delineated in detail thereafter.
5
Consider the following while selecting the team :
Language ability
People on the team should have a good
command of the local language.
Gender composition
Keep a balance between men and
women on the team so that discussions
can be held with both sections of the
community.
RRA experience
Consider whether the team members
have RRA experience. If yes, find out
their understanding of RRA and if they
need to be trained. If members are not
trained, it may be necessary to arrange
for some training from an expert.
Multi-disciplinary
The range of disciplines relevant for the
appraisal would be social work, health,
nutrition, child development, etc. If
people from these disciplines are
available, and also have rural or basti
experience, it will always enrich the
appraisal. Experienced field
functionaries could also be considered.
Identify a team of at least 4-6 people.
6
RRA in Action
7
Applying RRA Prior To Initiating A
Home-based Caregiver Education Programme
8
Planning
s The core project team should review
all the information available with the
organisation related to reproductive
health care and care of children in the
birth to 3 year age-group. This could
be data on number of households
with children in the birth to 3 year
age-group, child care programmes
operational for this age-group, health
infrastructure, spread of the villages,
practices related to care during
pregnancy and early childhood, etc.
s A review will facilitate basic
understanding about the selected
villages/bastis. It enables the core
project team to identify the points of
enquiry. These are areas where you
need to probe to get a better insight
into care practices, and other related
information that can affect care of
young children.
s Identify the RRA team. You could
include people from outside the
organisation in the team. Care must
be taken that all team members are
trained to use the different RRA tools
and techniques.
s Plan the details of the appraisal with
the RRA team members and prepare
a plan of action. This is like a time
table of activities to be carried out on
field, indicating the date, activity,
approximate time needed and the
names of team members who have
been allotted various tasks.
9
Transect Walk
A walk through the lanes and by lanes of a
community where some development
work has to begin, at different times of
the day.
The following RRA tools provide an insight into the care practices related to
nutrition, health and psychosocial stimulation :
Community Resource Mapping
Drawing a detailed picture of the
community that indicates different
facilities, spread of community,
households, etc.
Daily Routine Clock
Drawing up a 24 hour activity clock to
understand the daily routine in the
lives of different groups of people-
women, men, children, young and
old people.
Seasonal Calendar
Drawing up an activity schedule of the
caregivers during different seasons to
find variations in their daily routine
during these seasons.
Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
A discussion among a small group,
guided by a facilitator, where the
group members are encouraged to
talk freely and spontaneously on a
certain topic.
How to use these tools has been delineated in detail in this booklet.
RRA Tools
10
Transect Walk
A Transect Walk is a walk through the lanes and by
lanes of a community at different times of the day with a
view to gaining an insight into the community where
some development work has to begin. The walk can
either be purpose-specific, or just a means to get
introduced to the community.
Purpose
w To become familiarised with the
topography and the people of the
community
w To understand the resources and their
location
w To better understand some problems
e.g. access to health facilities, water,
school, etc.
w To understand the strengths of the
community in terms of resources
w To gather people for the Community
Resource Mapping exercise
You require
s A local person, well versed with the
community, to accompany you
s Paper and pencil to note down all the
observations
11
Process
s The RRA team could divide
themselves into pairs and take
different routes through the village /
basti. Make sure that the wadis / tolas
and the households at the edge of the
village are visited during the walk.
s It is always beneficial to take a walk
through the community at different
times of the day. Although the
infrastructure remains the same,
different facets of the community can
be observed. Each walk enriches your
observations from an earlier walk.
s You could begin the walk in different
ways - from one end of the
community to the other, from a fixed
point, say the balwadi to the farthest
house, etc.
s Request a local person who is familiar
with the community to show you
around. “I want to see your village, if
you have the time would you like to
show me your village?”. The person
should be given some idea of the
purpose of the walk so that he /she
does not miss out on important spots.
s As you walk, stop on the way to get
introduced to the people, especially
to households with pregnant women
and children in the birth to three year
age-group. Chat with them about
issues that concern your work in that
community, go into some homes to
observe things. Informally chat with
the villagers to get information on the
impending farm activities, their work
schedule, feedback on existing
development programmes, etc.
s Observe the spread of the village or
basti, facilities and infrastructure
available, sanitation, etc. You could
look at the places where women
gather together for programmes such
as Self Help groups, and spot the
likely places where the meetings for
the caregiver education programme
could be held.
s One pair of team members could visit
the government infrastructure in the
village which may impinge on your
caregiver education programme
e.g. Primary Health Centre (PHC)
sub-centre, Anganwadi Centre
(AWC), creche, etc. A separate
observation proforma and interview
schedules could be prepared before
visiting them.
s If the community mapping can be
conducted on the same day, you
could use the walk to inform
community members about the time
and place when the activity is to take
place.
12
An example of a map showing route taken by the CLR project team
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13
Follow-up
Each pair of team members should make a
note of all the information gathered during
the walk. Categorise them into heads such
as facilities available, influential people,
number of hamlets/wadis, if you are looking
for a place to start your activity, likely places
where it can be done, important comments
made by community members, etc. Also
note down the questions which may have
come to your mind, so that you could
discuss these during community mapping.
Information collected by all the pairs should
be put together as learnings of the transect
walk.
14
Community Resource Mapping
Community Resource Mapping is a detailed picture
of the community that indicates different facilities,
spread of community, and households etc. Community
map could be a resource map i.e. a map which indicates
topographical features, livestock, farm land, hamlets, etc.
or a social map i.e. a map which shows households with
different categories of the community according to age,
caste, economic background, etc. Discussion with the
members of the community during the course of
preparing the map provides information about the
community.
15
Purpose
s To get a clear idea of the topography,
spread of the community, social
groups, homes of the target
population, etc.
s To help initiate a discussion so as to
gather opinions on different issues,
e.g. services available for pregnant
women and under 3 children at the
AWC and PHC sub-centre
s To gather information about the
resources available in the community
s To collect information on social issues
e.g. a discussion to find out if there
are caste barriers and divides within
the village. This helps us to find out
how people of different castes can
come together for caregivers’
meetings
You require
s An open place where people can
gather to create a map
s Men and women from different
sections of the community
s Chalk/charcoal/sticks, rangoli, seeds,
etc.
s Chart paper, pencils and sketch pens,
if open space is not available.
Preparing a map on paper restricts
participation since all the people may
not be able to see clearly. It also
restricts the boundaries of the map.
s One or more facilitators depending
on the number of maps to be created
16
Process
s Inform people about the place and
time when they should gather to
prepare the map.
s Explain to the community members
the purpose of the mapping exercise,
and briefly explain the work your
organisation proposes to start in their
village/basti.
s After a brief discussion, and answering
their queries, start the exercise.
s A map of the community can be
drawn collectively on the ground with
a stick or chalk. If there are
wadis/tolas attached to the village,
maps for these should be drawn along
with the people living there, and not
with the people of the main village.
s Depending on the number of people
who have gathered, decide whether
one or two maps need to be created.
If there are enough people, divide the
group into men and women or older
women and younger women, etc.
Since each group’s perspective about
looking at their community is
different, the details brought into the
map and the discussion while creating
the maps may be different.
s Identify a person who could lead, and
request him/her to start. It is a good
idea to start making the map from the
spot where people have gathered.
s The group could first mark the main
village, wadis, fields and the lanes.
They could then go on to marking the
households-putting some
identification mark on the households
that have pregnant women and
children in the birth to three year
age-group. Places such as the school,
PHC sub-centre, temple, masjid,
areas with different social groups,
water source, etc. could be marked.
s The facilitator must keep the purpose
of the activity in mind, and initiate
discussion with the community
members while creating the map. It
helps to gain an insight into the
various aspects of community life.
Encourage people to participate in
the discussion and to give their
opinion. The facilitator should probe
into each marked item to get more
details. For example, in one of the
mapping exercises conducted by the
CLR team, when the PHC sub-centre
was marked, the facilitator probed to
learn more about the facilities
provided at the centre. This
information could help while
interacting with pregnant women and
caregivers of children in the birth to 3
year age-group during meetings and
home visits. Given on page 17 is an
example of a discussion between
community members and the CLR
team.
17
There is no water supply or electricity connection so it cannot be used.
So you have a sub-center in the village. That is very good!
What use is a building? There is no doctor.
Why is that?
We have never seen anyone sitting in it. It is locked.
Has the village tried to solve this problem?
There is a private doctor who comes in.
What about the government doctor?
The ANM and the doctor from Kolwan sub-centre visit once a week.
Where do they sit?
In the AWC. They come on Tuesday and on every 9th of the month to give immunizations.
How do you know that they are in the village?
If anyone is going towards the AWC, we ask them to find out if the doctor has come.
An example of a discussion between community members and the CLR team
18
s The team could note down this point,
about the arrival of the doctor, for
further probing with the village
authorities and the health staff. In
another mapping exercise, the
participants marked the liquor shop.
This initiated a discussion on the issue
of alcoholism in the village. The
women participants became extremely
Follow-up
The map created by the community on the
floor or paper is copied out by a team
member indicating various details, e.g.
names of wadis, time taken to walk to the
wadis from the main road, temple, clinic of
the private doctor, etc.
Team members should sit together and
make a note of all the learnings from the
exercise. Points which need to be probed
with specific people or with the community
during focus group discussions should also
be noted.
vocal about the problem of rampant
alcoholism and complained
vociferously about the woman who ran
the shop. Since this problem could
affect the time spent by male
caregivers with their children and also
the home environment, the facilitator
encouraged a discussion on this.
19
An example of a village map created by community members, copied by the CLR team
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The Daily Routine Clock helps in understanding a day
in the lives of different groups of people: women, men,
children, young and old people. It reveals variation in the
daily routine during different seasons and job distribution
among different members of the community.
20
Daily Routine Clock
Purpose
s To understand the daily routine of the
different caregivers
s To learn who the caregivers of
children are, at different times of the
day and night
s To get to know the time of the day
when multiple activities such as
cooking, managing children, washing,
etc. are done. Participation of children
in some of these tasks could be
suggested
s To understand distribution of tasks
between men and women so that
male caregivers’ involvement could be
planned
s To find out about the free time of
different sections of the community
so that caregiver-child interaction can
be suggested
s To understand the chores done by
caregivers inside and outside the
house
21
You require
s A group of community members
whose daily routine you want to
learn about
s A clock prepared on a chart
s Set of cards illustrating the different
chores likely to be done by the
community (list of cards in
appendix 1)-optional material
s Few blank cards
s Chalk
s Paper and pencil to make a note of
observations
Process
s The facilitator should explain the
purpose of the activity to the group.
Give the set of cards illustrating the
different chores done by the
community members to the group.
Let the group look at the cards and
identify the chores. The facilitator
should begin the discussion about
whether the tasks illustrated in the
cards are what the community
members do.
s Ask an individual group member to
recollect a particular day in the recent
past, and recount various activities
done on that day. Keep the relevant
card illustrating each activity on the
clock. If the activity mentioned is not
illustrated, quickly write / illustrate on
a blank card and put it on the clock.
Involve other group members to learn
more about the daily routine of the
community members.
22
Radha, can you recall how you began your day yesterday? What did you do as soon as you woke up?
These days I wake up very early, around5 a.m.
You just said these days. So normally you don’t wake up at this time?
Normally, I wake up little later, but these days we are transplanting the rice saplings. I leave home by 8 a.m. and am back only at 6 p.m.
Are there women in this group who do not go to the field?
Yes, Sarika and Pushpa don’t.
My baby is just 2 months old, so my husband will not send me to work this year.
Let’s talk about when transplanting work is complete. Kavita, can you tell us your routine then?
I will wake up by 6 a.m., light the chula, keep water for heating, collect the cow dung, and clean the cow shed. All this takes about an hour.
Kavita, you have a 2 year old son. Where is he when you are doing this work?
If he wakes up between this time he is with his father. His father sometimes feeds him.
So most of you leave for the field around 11 a.m. and come back by 2 p.m. With whom are your children during this time? What do they do with them?
An example of a discussion of the CLR team with a group of mothers
23
Follow-up
Analyse the daily clock activity keeping in
mind the purpose of the activity. This may
give you information about the time of day
when different caregivers are with these
young children, time of the day when the
mothers and grandmothers are relatively
free, and this can be used to conduct
caregivers’ meetings and home-visits. It may
give you an idea of the time spent by male
caregivers with these children, different
chores the caregivers do, and those in which
a young child can be encouraged to
participate, time spent by different
caregivers on leisure-television viewing,
chatting, etc. Analysis will also give you
information about the number of hours
most mothers work outside the house, and
whether there is a day when the caregivers
do not go out to work.
24
Seasonal Calendar
The Seasonal Calendar helps in finding out the variation
in the daily routine of the different groups of people -
women, men, children, young and old during different
seasons. This tool may not be useful if there is no seasonal
variation in the routine of the community members.
Purpose
s To understand seasonal variations in
their daily routine
s To get to know months in the year
when community members are busy
outside the home e.g. due to
agricultural work
s To learn about the important festivals
and events celebrated in the
community
s To know which are the months when
the caregiver education programme
activities can be intensified
You require
s A group of community members
whose seasonal calendar you want to
know
s Chart paper
s Paper and pencil to make a note of
observations
25
Process
s The purpose of the activity is explained
to the group. Prepare a grid on a chart
paper as shown on page 26, and write
the months of the year-either months
of the Indian calendar or those in the
Gregorian calendar depending on what
is familiar to the community members.
Ask the group to tell you the months in
the year when agricultural work is very
intense. Mark these months on the
calendar with a symbol e.g. four dots.
Mark the months when there is least
agricultural work with one dot. Ask the
group to put two or three dots against
the rest of the months depending on
the amount of work done in the field.
s Now find out which are the different
festivals and events celebrated in the
village. Write these against the
different months. Let the community
members talk about how they
celebrate these events and festivals.
Follow-up
Analyse the exercise with the team
members. Make a note of the months when
the programme activities can be intensified.
Also note the months when the women will
be busy preparing for festivals and other
events.
26
Example of a Seasonal Calendar drawn up with a group of older women
Number of dots indicate the extent of agricultural work in that month, where 1 dot indicates the least and5 dots indicate the maximum amount of agricultural work.
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a discussion held
among approximately 6 -12 persons guided by a
facilitator. The group members are encouraged to talk
freely and spontaneously about a certain topic.
27
Focus Group Discussion
Purpose
s To obtain in-depth information about
concepts, perceptions and ideas of a
group around a focus area
s To get spontaneous information from
the community on a focus area in a
short period of time
You require
s A local contact person to help arrange
the FGDs. This person could be your
programme functionary or a
functionary of any other development
programme e.g. Anganwadi Worker,
Self Help Group organiser, etc.
s A place which is a neutral setting and
where people of all sections of a
community could gather, and which is
sufficiently quiet
s Seating - chairs / dari (floor mat) for
the participants
28
FGDs on these topics are useful :
Ü Care practices related to the
pre-natal period
Ü Care practices related to post-natal
care of the mother and the new born
Ü Causes of low birth weight of babies
in the community
Ü Care practices related to feeding
children in the 6 months to 3 years
period
Ü Play and interaction of caregivers with
children in the birth to 3 years age-
group
Ü Traditional play/interaction/games
practiced by the caregivers with
children in the birth to 3 year age-
group
s A facilitator from among the
programme team who, as far as
possible, is of the same sex and
roughly of the same age as the
participants. Someone who has
adequate background knowledge of
the topic and is able to communicate
in the local language.
s A reporter from among the
programme team who will keep a
record of the content of the
discussion and of the emotions of the
participants (things they feel strongly
about, angry reactions, etc.). The
reporter should understand the local
language.
29
Process
s List the topics/areas related to the
caregiver education programme in
which you need to acquire in-depth
understanding of perceptions and
ideas of community members.
s Prepare one or two clear objectives
for each FGD, e.g. the objectives can
be :
- To find out attitudes of caregivers
related to play and interaction with
children in the birth to 3 years age-
group.
- To find out the traditional
play/interaction/games played by
caregivers with children in the
birth to 3 years age-group.
s Choose the category of community
members for each FGD e.g. older
women, younger women with
children in the birth to 3 years age-
group, field staff of the health
department-Auxiliary Nurse Midwife
(ANM), ASHA worker, Dais
(Traditional birth attendants), etc. You
may repeat an FGD with different
categories of community members
since each group may discuss the
questions from their perspective. For
example, the FGD mentioned above
could be conducted separately with a
group of mothers and grandmothers.
s Prepare discussion guides for each
FGD. These are a set of open-ended
questions which are simple, clear,
non-judgemental and non-
threatening. A discussion guide helps
you to keep the discussion focused on
the objective of the FGD. If an FGD is
being conducted with different
categories of community members on
the same topic, the discussion guide
may vary slightly. Look at Appendix 2
for some examples of discussion
guides for FGDs on different topics
listed on page 28.
s Select participants for each FGD.
Take the help of your local contact
person for the selection. Explain the
purpose of the FGD to this person
and stress on the fact that you need
participants who can express a range
of views on a topic. For a successful
FGD, make sure that the group is
homogenous so that there is free and
open discussion, without pressure
from mothers-in-law.
s There is no need to pre-decide the
number of FGDs that you will
conduct on each topic and with each
category. You may stop when you are
not getting any new information on a
topic. The number of FGDs on a topic
with each category may also depend
on the project needs and the
resources available.
s Inform the participants a day or two
in advance so that their consent to
join the discussion can be obtained.
30
s Probe into a response to gain a better
understanding of an opinion
expressed. The facilitator can seek
clarification by asking, “Can you tell
me more about this?”
On page 32 is an illustration from an
FGD conducted by the CLR team,
with fathers of children in the birth to
3 year age-group.
s The facilitator must control the
dominant participants, and encourage
the shy ones to express their views.
s The facilitator may bring the
discussion back on track if it goes off
track, by repeating the question.
s Hypothetical questions or vignettes
could be used to initiate a discussion
on certain topics. Look at Appendix 2
for an example.
s The facilitator must listen carefully,
and if an opinion is not expressed
loudly for all to listen, repeat it aloud.
s The facilitator should also control the
time allotted to various topics. If the
participants move away from the core
topic of the discussion, the facilitator
could let the discussion continue for a
while, but bring it back to the topic.
s At the end of the discussion, the
facilitator could summarise the main
issues that have emerged, and see if
all agree. The discussion could end by
thanking the participants.
s To begin an FGD, the facilitator
introduces himself / herself and asks
participants to introduce themselves.
s The facilitator explains the purpose of
the FGD and the kind of information
that is required. The FGD could be
started with an informal conversation
or a game, or any activity to put the
participants at ease. If possible, tea
and some refreshments could be
offered either in the beginning or at
the end of the discussion.
s The reporter should sit across from
the facilitator so as to have eye
contact whenever necessary. The
reporter should record the date, time
and place; names and characteristics
of participants; opinion of participants
expressed in their own words,
emotional reactions, comments
made after the meetings or softly on
the side.
s The reporter could also help the
facilitator by drawing his/her
attention to a missed comment from a
participant, missed topic or question
from the discussion guide.
s Begin the discussion with a question
from your discussion guide. Encourage
as many participants as possible to
express their views. There are no
right or wrong answers. The facilitator
must react neutrally to all responses,
and should not portray himself or
herself as an expert on the topic.
31
Follow-up
After each FGD the facilitator, reporter and
rest of the programme team if present at
the FGD should meet and review the
discussion. The notes taken during the
meeting should be read and completed in
case any point is missed. The team should
also evaluate the FGD and decide on any
changes that need to be made before
repeating the FGD with the next group.
Once all the FGDs on a topic have been
completed with all the categories of the
community, a full report of discussions
should be prepared.
It is not advisable to video document or tape
the conversation as the equipment may
inhibit the free flow of discussions.
s An FGD is generally for 1 to 1 and ½
hours. The first discussion on a topic
with a particular group is longer than
the following ones since all the
information is new.
32
When do you play with your child?
My baby is just two month old, so he is mostly with his mother.
Who takes care of the baby when your wife goes to fetch water?
My mother takes care. My sister is also there to help.
So you don’t have to take care of the baby.
We take care of such a young baby only if there’s no one else at home, then my mother asks me to help. The baby is still not holding his neck and we may not be able to lift the baby.
Would you like to lift such a small baby?
No, it’s ok. In any case, we can’t fulfill any of his needs at this age. Baby needs milk and is sleeping most of the time. Once the baby can walk, we take them out and sit near the temple. Children like to play there.
What about playing when the baby is lying in the crib or on the bed?
Yes, one can play. Call his name, smile. Baby is too small to understand anything or to play. If the baby cries, we should do something like snap our fingers or lift him up.
What about talking to these babies? What all do you play or talk with a 1 year old child?
What can we talk with a baby, he can’t understand anything.
Their grandmother talks sometimes. You have to do something when a baby cries, but they don’t understand anything.
An example of an FGD conducted with fathers of children in the birth to 3 year age-group
33
Analysing the discussions
Analyse the opinions and attitudes
expressed in order to extract the learnings
from the FGDs. This step is crucial in order
to make the generic caregiver education
package locale-specific.
There are different ways of analysing the
FGDs. The conclusions you draw from the
opinions expressed should be jotted down
in the margin of the report. To analyse the
causes of a problem revealed through an
FGD, you could prepare a flow diagram
using the learnings from the opinions
expressed. To do this, write each point /
of ace /
Lacksp
pracy
iv
Lack of confidence
Don’t perceive
interaction
with the child
as part of care
Mult ple deman si
d on t e pri a y h m r
c regi er’s ti ea v m
Free t me is spent doing
i
other activities of
int rest /e
utility e.g. ewings
opinion of the community on a separate
card. For example, the cards shown below
were written after the FGD on “Play and
interaction of caregivers with children in the
birth to 3 year age-group”.
The cards should be organised in a logical
sequence to understand the causes of a
problem. This can be depicted in the form
of a ‘flow-diagram’. The diagram will help
the programme team to think of ways of
handling each of the causes during the
relevant caregivers’ meetings or home-visits.
Some examples of flow diagrams prepared
by the CLR team are given in the
following pages.
34
Flow
dia
gra
m :
Analy
sis
of
FGD
on c
are
p
ract
ices
duri
ng p
regnancy
Fie
ld R
ea
lity
He
alth
of th
e p
reg
na
nt m
oth
er
an
d
child
are
co
mp
rom
ise
d.
First
th
ree
mo
nth
s o
f p
reg
na
ncy
are
n
ot m
on
itore
d
He
alth
ch
eck
ups
tho
ug
h p
urs
ue
d d
o
no
t yi
eld
op
tima
l re
sults
- p
resc
rib
ed
in
str
uct
ion
s n
ot fo
llow
ed
up
sin
cere
ly
Mo
the
rs a
re n
ot
rig
oro
us
ab
ou
t co
nsu
min
g ir
on
ta
b
Ina
de
qu
ate
re
st
No
ch
an
ge
in th
e q
ua
ntit
y a
nd
qu
alit
y o
f fo
od
du
rin
g
the
pre
na
tal p
erio
d.
AN
M / A
WW
is n
ot
info
rme
d a
bo
ut
the
pre
gn
an
cy
It is
a s
oci
al t
ab
oo
to
an
no
un
ce o
ne
’s
pre
gn
an
cy b
efo
re
the
first
trim
est
er
is o
ver
lIn
form
atio
n
dis
sem
ina
tion
by
An
ga
nw
ad
is, H
ea
lth
sta
ff a
nd
NG
Os,
on
th
e im
po
rta
nce
of
pre
na
tal h
ea
lth c
are
, h
as
no
t b
ee
n
inte
rna
lise
d b
y th
e
pe
op
le.
l L
ack
of pa
rtic
ipa
tion
o
f th
e fa
mily
Ove
rlo
ad
o
f w
ork
l T
he
re is
a la
ck o
f kn
ow
led
ge
of th
e
imp
ort
an
ce a
nd
e
xte
nt o
f w
eig
ht
ga
in d
urin
g
pre
gn
an
cy
l P
erc
ep
tion
th
at
mo
re fo
od
ca
n
ma
ke th
e b
ab
y b
ig
resu
ltin
g in
diff
icu
lt d
eliv
ery
.l
Tw
o-m
ea
l pa
tte
rn
ma
kes
it d
iffic
ult
to
ea
t e
xtra
l F
oo
ds
such
as
milk
, e
gg
are
no
t a
vaila
ble
in a
ll h
om
es.
Mo
the
r-in
-la
w d
id
no
t h
ave
su
ch a
p
ract
ice
du
rin
g h
er
time
, so
do
es
no
t b
elie
ve in
p
rom
otin
g it
.
Ina
de
qu
ate
m
an
po
we
r in
on
e's
ow
n
field
Ina
de
qu
ate
p
lan
nin
g,
by
the
fa
mily
, to
re
arr
an
ge
d
ivis
ion
of
lab
ou
r w
ithin
th
e
ho
use
ho
ld
to e
nsu
re
rest
fo
r th
e
pre
gn
an
t m
oth
er
Mo
the
rs-in
-la
w
ha
ve n
ot b
ee
n
invo
lve
d in
th
e
pro
cess
of
inst
itutio
na
lise
d
pre
-na
tal c
are
Me
dic
al
ad
vice
u
nd
erm
ine
s m
oth
er-
in-
law
's
au
tho
rity
as
a c
are
giv
er
It is
no
t a
pp
reci
ate
d if
th
e d
au
gh
ter-
in-
law
sl
ee
ps
/ re
sts
du
rin
g
the
da
y
Ho
me
gro
wn
m
ilk &
ve
ge
tab
les
are
no
t ke
pt
for
ho
me
co
nsu
mp
tion
Lim
ited
a
vaila
bili
ty
an
d
fina
nci
al
con
stra
int
Th
e d
au
gh
ter-
in-la
w d
oe
s n
ot e
at th
ese
e
xpe
nsi
ve
foo
ds
Ac
tio
ns
Pla
nn
ed
- To
d
isse
min
ate
kn
ow
led
ge
an
d c
ou
nse
l ca
reg
ive
rs fo
r b
eh
avi
ou
r ch
an
ge
- Ta
ke th
e d
eci
sio
n m
ake
rs in
to c
on
fide
nce
an
d m
ake
th
em
an
inte
gra
l pa
rt o
f th
e s
ess
ion
s
- E
nco
ura
ge
de
velo
pm
en
t o
f ki
tch
en
ga
rde
ns
- D
esi
gn
str
ate
gie
s to
co
nvi
nce
fa
mili
es
tha
t e
xtra
fo
od
an
d ir
on
ta
ble
ts h
ave
a p
osi
tive
effe
ct
on
ch
ild's
birth
we
igh
t
35
Fie
ld R
ea
lity
Exc
lusi
ve b
rea
st fe
ed
ing
no
t p
ract
ise
d fo
r 6
mo
nth
s
Tra
diti
on
ally
acc
ep
ted
to
p fe
ed
s (h
erb
s, h
on
ey,
etc
.) a
re g
ive
nIn
suffic
ien
t b
rea
st m
ilk o
utp
ut
Mo
the
r is
no
t a
vaila
ble
a
t h
om
e to
fe
ed
th
e c
hild
Fa
mili
es
pe
rce
ive
th
at b
rea
st
milk
is n
ot su
ffic
ien
t to
sa
tisfy
ch
ild's
ap
pe
tite
Ce
rta
in tra
diti
on
al
fee
ds
are
co
nsi
de
red
n
ece
ssa
ry fo
r th
e
child
La
ck o
f a
wa
ren
ess
re
ga
rdin
g th
e
ad
van
tag
es
of
exc
lusi
ve b
rea
st
fee
din
g
Th
e b
elie
f th
at a
ch
ild
ne
ed
s a
dd
itio
na
l su
pp
lem
en
ts
esp
eci
ally
at 4
-6
mo
nth
s
Ina
de
qu
ate
fo
od
(Q
ua
lity
& q
ua
ntit
y)
inta
ke b
y m
oth
er
Ina
de
qu
ate
re
st
Mo
the
r h
as
to
lea
ve h
om
e fo
r o
utd
oo
r la
bo
ur
Lim
ited
a
wa
ren
ess
o
f fo
od
s th
at ca
n b
e
incr
ea
sed
Fin
an
cia
l co
nst
rain
t in
bu
yin
g
milk
etc
.
Lim
ited
a
vaila
bili
ty
(lo
cally
) o
f ve
ge
tab
les
Ho
me
gro
wn
m
ilk a
nd
ve
g.
are
no
t ke
pt
for
ho
me
co
nsu
mp
tion
Co
nfo
rmin
g
to e
xpe
cte
d
be
ha
vio
ur
Ina
de
qu
ate
m
an
po
we
r in
on
e's
o
wn
fie
ld. N
ee
d to
w
ork
fo
r w
ag
es
Ac
tio
ns
Pla
nn
ed
- To
dis
sem
ina
te k
no
wle
dg
e a
nd
co
un
sel c
are
giv
ers
fo
r b
eh
avi
ou
r ch
an
ge
- Ta
ke th
e d
eci
sio
n m
ake
rs in
to c
on
fide
nce
an
d m
ake
th
em
an
inte
gra
l pa
rt o
f th
e s
ess
ion
s
- To
en
cou
rag
e d
eve
lop
me
nt o
f ki
tch
en
ga
rde
ns
Flow
dia
gra
m :
Analy
sis
of
FGD
on loca
l ch
ild f
eedin
g p
ract
ices
36
Flow
dia
gra
m :
Analy
sis
of
FGD
on e
xtent
and t
ype o
f ca
regiv
er-
child
inte
ract
ion
Fie
ld R
ea
lity
Ca
reg
ivin
g in
tera
ctio
n w
ith b
irth
to
3-y
ea
r ch
ildre
n p
rovi
de
s lim
ited
stim
ula
tion
He
sita
tion
in s
ing
ing
, h
ug
gin
g, e
tc. in
th
e
pre
sen
ce o
f o
the
rs
Do
no
t p
erc
eiv
e
inte
ract
ion
with
th
e c
hild
as
pa
rt
of ca
re
Do
no
t se
e li
nka
ge
b
etw
ee
n e
arly
stim
ula
tion
an
d
lea
rnin
g
Do
no
t sp
en
d q
ua
lity
time
-
en
ga
gin
g c
rea
tive
ly (
exc
lusi
ve
as
we
ll a
s sh
are
d)
with
th
eir
child
ren
La
ck o
f co
nfid
en
ce
La
ck o
f sp
ace
/
priva
cy
Do
es
no
t co
nfo
rm to
tr
ad
itio
na
l an
d
soci
al n
orm
s o
f ca
reg
ivin
g
Tra
diti
on
al c
are
pra
ctic
es
do
no
t g
ive
an
y pa
rtic
ula
r si
gn
ifica
nce
to
ca
reg
ivin
g
inte
ract
ion
s
Ch
ild is
be
lieve
d
to s
tart
lea
rnin
g
on
ly in
fo
rma
l in
stitu
tion
s e
.g. b
alw
ad
i, sc
ho
ol
Fre
e tim
e is
sp
en
t d
oin
g
oth
er
act
iviti
es
of in
tere
st / u
tility
-
sew
ing
, cl
ea
nin
g, e
tc.
Fre
e tim
e
spe
nt o
nly
in
idle
ch
at
an
d g
oss
ip
(co
nfo
rmin
g to
so
cia
lisin
g
no
rms)
Me
nta
l as
we
ll a
s p
hys
ica
l fa
tigu
e d
ue
to
m
un
da
ne
e
very
da
y ta
sks
an
d p
ress
ure
s (c
rea
tivity
affe
cte
d)
La
ck o
f in
tera
ctiv
esk
ills
with
ch
ildre
n
Ac
tio
ns
Pla
nn
ed
- To
en
ha
nce
kn
ow
led
ge
of th
e p
rim
ary
an
d s
eco
nd
ary
care
giv
er
- To
en
ha
nce
ski
lls o
f th
e p
rim
ary
an
d s
eco
nd
ary
ca
reg
ive
r fo
r
st
imu
latin
g in
tera
ctio
n-
To in
itia
te g
rou
p a
ctiv
itie
s fo
r p
rovi
din
g c
hild
stim
ula
tion
Mu
ltip
le d
em
an
ds
on
th
e p
rim
ary
ca
reg
ive
r's
time
Ph
ysic
al h
ea
lth
of th
e m
oth
er
no
t u
p to
th
e
ma
rk
37
Appendices
38
Appendix I
List of cards to be prepared for the Daily Routine Clock Activity
Women
- Cooking
- Cleaning the cow shed
- Chatting with neighbours
- Washing clothes
- Washing utensils
- Bathing, brushing, etc
- Bathing children
- Fetching water
- Working in the fields
- Watching TV
- Cleaning food grain
- Fetching fire wood
- Taking animals for grazing
- Eating
- Sleeping
- Playing with children
- Sewing
- Milking
- Taking children to the
doctor
- Attending SHG meetings
Men
- Working in the field
- Chopping firewood
- Taking animals for grazing
- Chatting with friends
- Playing cards
- Drinking
- Eating
- Sleeping
- Repairs/other jobs in the house
- Working in a factory
- Milking
- Fetching water
- Fetching fire wood
- Sleeping
- Washing clothes
- Watching TV
- Taking children to the doctor
- Attending village meetings
More cards could be added depending on the community you are working with.
39
Appendix II
Discussion Guides for Focus Group Discussions (FGD)
s What are all the things you do to take
care of a pregnant woman in the early
part of pregnancy and later?
s When should a pregnant woman
make her first visit to the hospital?
What are all the things done during
this visit, and in the later visits? Why
are each of these services provided?
s Should a pregnant woman make any
changes in her diet?
- Increase or decrease in food
quantity. Why?
- Abstinence from certain food items.
(e.g. Hot and cold foods). Why?
- Abstinence from tobacco, drinks,
other harmful substances etc. Why?
s Is the pregnant woman given certain
types of food, if the gender of the
unborn child has been predicted?
s When will you say that a pregnant
woman is healthy? Why?
s How will you know that the growth
of the foetus is good?
Topic : FGD to understand “Care practices related to the prenatal period”
s Is weight gain during pregnancy
considered good? How much weight
should a pregnant woman gain in 9
months?
s How do you handle morning sickness?
s If the pregnant woman has any
problem or questions to ask, whom
does she go to- in the family, in the
community?
s Who is the decision maker when it
comes to accessing health services?
s Should a pregnant woman make any
change in her daily routine?
s Is there a rearrangement of
household work during pregnancy?
s What are the things a pregnant
woman should not do during
pregnancy?
s Where did you deliver (ask few
women) your baby? Why?
s When and why (monetary reasons,
status, convenience, safety) did you
decide where to get the delivery done
i.e. in the hospital or at home?
40
s What are the preparations made for
the delivery? Any special preparations
for the home delivery?
s How is the pregnant woman reached
to the hospital for delivery, especially
during the night or rainy season?
Topic : FGD to understand “Care practices related to
post-natal care of the mother and the new born”
Separate FGDs can be held with mothers and grandmothers of children in
the birth to three year age-group. Dais and women of status who are looked
up to for advice on issues related to pregnancy could be included in the FGD
with grandmothers.
Post natal care of the mother
s Where are most deliveries
conducted-home, private hospitals,
government hospitals?
s Is there a sacrosanct seclusion period
for the mother and the baby? (Present
day as well as traditional).
s What routine is followed during this
period- monitoring of the mother’s
diet, avoidance with outsiders,
avoidance with men, child being
restricted to a room, etc.
s What is the mother given to eat
immediately after delivery? Which
foods are prescribed and which are
avoided?
s If your daughter-in-law is pregnant,
what role will you play in taking care
of her? (for the mother-in-law)
s What are the parameters used to
judge whether a new born is healthy
or not?
s Is the quantity of food increased or
decreased immediately after delivery
and later? What is the frequency of
food intake?
s Who monitors the mother’s diet after
delivery? For how long is the special
diet given?
s When should a lactating mother get
back to work (within the house and
outside the house)? What is the actual
practice- difference based on the
order of pregnancy, gender of the
child, division of labour, etc.?
s Any other practices during this
period?
41
Initiating breast feeding
s When do mothers start breast
feeding? (Ask few women)
s Who decides when to initiate breast
feeding?
s (If breast feeding is initiated in the first
hour) What is the significance of this
practice for the mother as well as the
child?
s If breast feeding is not initiated in the
first hour/day, is the first milk
discarded? Is there a cultural clash
which hinders the practice or
advocates against it?
s Are any foods given to increase breast
milk output?
s What are some ways followed to
increase breast milk output? (Rest,
herbs, water, etc.)
s What according to you are the
reasons for low breast milk output?
s Any other taboos and practices
related to breast feeding?
s How should the mother breast feed?
- Cover the child’s face, why?
- How often, why?
- Activity during this time: Singing,
working, playing with the baby,
chatting or no activity.
s For how long does a mother continue
to breast feed? Especially at night.
s Foods and liquids given to babies
within the first month - honey,
almonds, ghutti (mixture of herbs),
water. Reasons for giving these.
s Do they believe that all mothers can
lactate? If no, how is the situation
handled where they think the mother
is not producing milk or enough milk ?
s What are the methods used for
spacing children? Problems they face
related to this issue.
42
s At what age is food other than breast
milk started?
s What is the food given to the child
during the following ages:
- Birth- 6 months
- 6 months-1 year
- 1-3 years
s Traditional food preparations for
children in the 6-12 month period.
s Ask a mother of a 6-9 month old baby
to recall all the food/s she gave her
baby yesterday and the approximate
quantity of food.
s How much should a child eat at
different ages?
s Who generally feeds the baby-
variation during agricultural cycle,
time of the day?
Topic : FGD to understand “Care practices related to
feeding children in the 6 month to 3 year period”
Separate FGDs can be held with mothers and grandmothers of children in
the birth to three year age-group. Dais and women of status who are looked
up to for advice on issues related to pregnancy could be included in the FGD
for grandmothers.
s If the mother is outside the home for
4-6 hours, is the food kept ready for
the grandmother to feed the baby?
Ask them to recall the food that is
kept ready.
s How many times in a day is food
served to the baby? How do they
decide that it is time to feed the baby?
s How do they know the food they are
giving (food and breast milk) is
enough for the baby?
s Methods used for modifying the food
preparations to suit the different age-
group?
s How is the food served to the baby -
on a separate plate or from the plate
of an older person?
s What are the other activities carried
out while feeding the baby-e.g.
chatting or showing things while
feeding?
43
s Let caregivers suggest things which
are missing in the care of Babita. Let
them say why the care they suggest is
essential for the baby. Do they think
care of children differs with age,
gender, etc.?
s Let caregivers talk about things they
consider as care, and do with their
children? If none of the caregivers
mentions play or interaction as one of
the care aspects, open a discussion on
it by asking if Radha and her mother-
in-law should play and interact with
Babita? Why?
s What are the different ways in which
caregivers play with their children?
(Singing, rocking the child, telling
stories, traditional games, etc.)
s When do they do these activities?
How do these activities help children?
s What play materials do they provide
their children with? Are they
purchased, or are they things around
the house,etc.?
Topic : FGD to understand “Play and interaction of caregivers
with children in the birth to 3 year age-group”
You could begin the discussion with this vignette:
Radha has a 9 month old baby called Babita. Radha with help from her mother-in-law, takes
care of Babita. They bathe her, feed her and keep her clean. They even get her weighed and
immunized on time.
- Would you say Radha and her mother-in-law are taking good care of Babita?
- Do you think there is anything missing in her care?
- Do you do anything more in taking care of your little children?
Separate FGDs can be held with
mothers, fathers, grandfathers and
grandmothers of children in the birth
to three year age-group.
s What are all the things children in the
birth to three year age-group learn to
do? At what age do children start
learning?
s How do you recognise that the child
is learning?
s Do you do anything for this learning?
Please elaborate.
s Do you think it is necessary to talk to
the baby especially in the birth to one
year age-group? Why?
s How do they think a baby less than
one year communicates with an adult?
s What do you think contributes to the
child doing well in school? What can
you do about it within the family?
References
1. Dhamankar, Mona - Compilation of PRA notes
2. National Institute of Urban Affairs - Resource Book
3. FAO Corporate Document Repository Title : Marketing research and information
systems (Chapter 8 : Rapid Rural Appraisal)
http: // www.fao.org/docrep/W3241E/W3241eo9.htm
4. Participatory Rural Appraisal Collaborative Decision making : Community-based method
http : // nird.ap.nic.in/clic/Rrd125.html#8
5. Participatory Rural Appraisal
http : // en.wikipedia.org/wiki/participatory_rural_appraisal
6. Jaswal, Surender - Focus Group Discussion, TISS, Mumbai
44
Centre For Learning Resources
8 Deccan College Road, Yerawada, Pune 411 006
E-mail : [email protected]
Website : www.clrindia.net
The Centre For Learning Resources (CLR), is a non-governmental educational
institution. The CLR acts as a technical support organisation to NGOs working at the
grassroots level, and to government agencies and private schools. Its main goal is to
improve the quality of education and development of socially and economically
disadvantaged rural and urban children. The CLR's activities include training, research,
materials development, advocacy and consultancy for educational programmes.
It has recently been working intensively with trainers and field workers involved in
interventions to improve child care within disadvantaged families.