ranchers guide to grassland management guide... · 2009. 7. 14. · Rancher’s Guide Kevin K....

Rancher’s

Guide

Kevin K. SedivecJeffrey L. Printz

to GrasslandManagement

North Dakota State UniversityFargo, North Dakota 58105

JANUARY 2003

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■ IntroductionThis guide is intended to serve as a quick

reference for ranchers looking for informa-

tion on grazing management. As such, it

does not attempt to cover any single topic in

great depth. Instead, it provides general

information on a variety of subjects related

to range, pasture and hayland management.

References for other sources of information

are provided should the reader wish to

research the topic in greater depth. See

tabs for desired section for guidelines, tips

and notes on grassland management.

The basic outline for this handbook was

developed by a small group of ranchers

consisting of Larry Woodbury, Keith

Bartholomay, Darryl Evanson and Lynn

Wolf. They provided the authors with ideas

and guidelines in producing a user friendly

guide containing topical information that

they felt their fellow ranchers would find

useful. The authors would like to thank

Dr. Don Kirby, Jay Mar, Merlyn Lepp, Darell

Evanson, David Lautt, Gary Moran, Myron

Senechal, Keith Bartholomay and Todd

Hagel for review and constructive criticism.

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■ DefinitionsUnderstanding the terminology in range-land management is important wheninterpreting ideas, strategies, and goals.The following are common termsdescribed by the Society for RangeManagement in the “Glossary of TermsUsed in Range Management (1989)”:

Acclimatized Species: An introduced species whichhas become adapted to a new climate or adifferent environment and can perpetuate itself inthe community without cultural treatment. cf. exotic,introduced species.

Aerial Photograph: A photograph of the earth’ssurface taken from airborne equipment, some-times called aerial photo or air-photograph.

Aftermath: Residue and/or regrowth of plants grazedafter harvesting of a crop.

Allelopathy: Chemical inhibition of one organism byanother.

Animal unit: Considered to be one mature cow ofapproximately 1000 pounds, either dry or with calfup to six months of age, or their equivalent, basedon a standardized amount of forage consumed.Abbr = AU.

Animal unit day: The amount of forage on a drymatter basis required by one animal unit in oneday based on a 26-pound forage allowance.Abbr = AUD.

Animal unit equivalent: A number expressingthe energy requirements of a particular kind orclass of animal relative to one animal unit.Abbr = AUE.

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Animal unit month: The amount of dry foragerequired by one animal unit for one month basedon a forage allowance of 26 pounds per day.Abbr = AUM.

Animal Unit Conversion Factor: A numerical figureexpressing the forage requirements of a particularkind or class of animal related to the requirementfor an animal unit. A conversion factor is satisfac-tory with respect to the amount of forage requiredto maintain an animal, but may not be applicable indetermining stocking rates for range use forparticular kinds or classes of animals because ofdifferent grazing preferences.

Annual Plant: A plant that completes its life cycleand dies in one year or less.

Apical Dominance: Domination and control ofmeristematic leaves or buds located on the lowerstem, roots, or rhizomes by hormones produced byapical meristems located on the tips and upperbranches of plants, particularly woody plants.

Auxin: A plant hormone promoting or regulatinggrowth.

Backfiring: Ignition of a fire on the leeward (down-wind) side of a bum area, resulting in a slowmoving ground fire. cf. headfiring.

Badland: A land type consisting of steep or verysteep barren land, usually broken by an intricatemaze of narrow ravines, sharp crests, andpinnacles resulting from serious erosion of softgeologic materials. Most common in and orsemiarid regions. A miscellaneous land type.

Bentonite: A natural clay deposit which has highswelling capabilities when saturated; used to sealearthen stock ponds.

Biennial: A plant that lives for two years, producingvegetative growth the first year and usuallyblooming and fruiting in the second year and thendying.

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Biomass: The total amount of living plants andanimals above and below ground in an area at agiven time.

Biome: A major biotic nit consisting of plant andanimal communities having similarities in form andenvironmental conditions, but not including theabiotic portion of the environment.

Biota: All the species of plants and animals occurringwithin an area or region.

Biotic: Refers to living components of an ecosystem,e.g., plants and animals.

Blowout: (1) An excavation in areas of loose soil,usually sand, produced by wind. (2) A break-through or rupture of a soil surface attributable tohydraulic pressure, usually associated with sandboils.

Breeding Herd: The animals retained for breedingpurposes to provide for the perpetuation of theherd or band. Excludes animals being prepared formarket.

Broadcast Seeding: Process of scattering seed onthe surface of the soil prior to natural or artificialmeans of covering the seed with soil. cf. dillseeding.

Browse: (n.) That part of leaf and twig growth ofshrubs, woody vines and trees available for animalconsumption. (v.) Act of consuming browse.cf. graze.

Brush: A term encompassing various species ofshrubs or small trees usually considered undesir-able for livestock or timber management. Thesame species may have value for browse, wildlifehabitat, or watershed protection.

Brush Control: Reduction of unwanted woody plantsthrough fire, chemicals, mechanical methods, orbiological means to achieve desired land manage-ment goals.

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Brush Management: Manipulating woody plantcover to obtain desired quantities and types ofwoody cover and/or to reduce competition withherbaceous understory vegetation, in accordancewith ecologically sound resource managementobjectives.

Buck-Fence: A fence constructed of wooden polesfastened horizontally to wooden cross-members.Such fences withstand heavy snows in mountain-ous regions, and eliminate the need for diggingholes for posts in rocky terrain. Also called buck-pole fence.

Bunch Grass: A grass having the characteristicgrowth habit of forming a bunch; lacking stolons orrhizomes. cf. sod grass.

Burn: An area over which fire has recently passed.

Butte: An isolated hill with relatively steep sides.cf. mesa.

C-3 Plant: A plant employing the pentose phosphatepathway of carbon dioxide assimilation duringphotosynthesis; often a cool-season plant.

C-4 Plant: A plant employing the dicarboxylic acidpathway of carbon dioxide assimilation duringphotosynthesis; often a warm-season plant.

Cactus: A spiny, succulent plant of the Cactaceaefamily.

Canopy: (1) The vertical projection downward of theaerial portion of vegetation, usually expressed asa percent of the ground so occupied. (2) The aerialportion of the overstory vegetation. cf. canopycover.

Canopy Cover: The percentage of ground coveredby a vertical projection of the outermost perimeterof the natural spread of foliage of plants. Smallopenings within the canopy are included. It mayexceed 100 percent. Syn. aerial cover.

Carrying Capacity: The maximum stocking ratepossible which is consistent with maintaining or

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improving vegetation or related resources. It mayvary from year to year on the same area due tofluctuating forage production. cf. grazing capacity.

Cell: A grazing arrangement comprised of numeroussub-divisions (paddocks or pastures) often formedby electrical fencing, with a central component tofacilitate livestock management and movementto the various sub-divisions. Normally used tofacilitate a form of controlled grazing. cf. paddock.

Class of Animal: Description of age and/or sex-group for a particular kind of animal. Example,cow, calf, yearling, ewe, doe, fawn, etc.

Claypan: A dense compact layer in the subsoilhaving much higher clay content than the overlay-ing material from which it is separated by a sharplydesigned boundary; formed by downward move-ment of clay or by synthetic of clay in place duringsoil formation. Claypans are usually hard whendry and plastic and sticky when wet. They usuallyimpede the movement of water and air.cf. hardpan.

Climax: (1) The final or stable biotic community in asuccessional series which is self-perpetuating andin dynamic equilibrium with the physical habitat;(2) the assumed end point in succession.cf. potential natural community.

Community (Plant Community): An assemblage ofplants occurring together at any point in time, whiledenoting no particular ecological status.A unit of vegetation.

Companion Crop: A crop sown with another crop(perennial forage or trees or shrubs) that isallowed to mature and provide a return in the firstyear. cf. nurse crop.

Complementary Pasture: Short-term forage crop(not necessarily annual) planted for use bydomestic stock to enhance the management andproductivity of the ranch.

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Concentrate Feed: Grains or their products andother processed food materials that contain a highproportion of nutrients and are low in fiber andwater.

Conservation: The use and management of naturalresources according to principles that assure theirsustained economic and/or social benefits withoutimpairment of environmental quality.

Conservation District: A public organization createdunder State enabling law as a special-purposedistrict to develop and carry out a program of soil,water, and related resource conservation, use, anddevelopment within its boundaries. Usually asubdivision of State government with a localgoverning body and always with limited authorities.Often called a soil conservation district or a soiland water conservation district.

Conservation Plan: The recorded decisions of alandowner or operator, cooperating with a conser-vation district on how he/she plans, within practicallimits, to use his/her land according to its capabilityand to treat it according to its needs for mainte-nance or improvement of the soil, water, and plantresources.

Consumption: Dietary intake based on (1) amountsof specific forages and other feedstuffs, or (2)amounts of specific nutrients.

Contact Herbicide: An herbicide that kills primarilyby contact with plant tissue rather than as a resultof translocation.

Continuous Grazing: The grazing of a specific unitby livestock throughout a year or for that part ofthe year during which grazing is feasible. The termis not necessarily synonymous with year-longgrazing, since seasonal grazing may be involved.

Cool-Season Plant: A plant which generally makesthe major potion of its growth during the late fall,winter, and early spring. Cool-season speciesgenerally exhibit the C3 photosynthetic pathway.

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Coordinated Resource Management Planning:The process whereby various user groups areinvolved in discussion of alternate resource usesand collectively diagnose management problems,establish goals and objectives, and evaluatemultiple use resource management.

Coulee: The term used for deep gulch or ravine in thenorthern USA.

Cover: (1) The plants or plant parts, living or dead, onthe surface of the ground. Vegetative cover orherbage cover is composed of living plants andlitter cover of dead parts of plants. Syn. foliar cover.(2) The area of ground cover by plants of one ormore species. cf. basal area.

Cover Type: The existing vegetation of an area.

Creep Feeding: Supplemental feeding of sucklinglivestock in such a manner that the feed is notavailable to the mothers or other mature livestock.

Cryptogam: A plant in any of the groups Thallo-phytes, Byophyte, and Pteridiophytes — mosses,lichens, and ferns.

Cultivar: A named variety selected within a plantspecies. Distinguished by any morphological,physiological, cytological, or chemical characteris-tics. A variety of plant produced and maintained bycultivation which is genetically retained throughsubsequent generations.

Cured Forage: Forage, either standing or harvested,that has been naturally or artificially dried andpreserved for future use. cf. stockpiling.

Debris: Accumulated plant and animal remains.

Deciduous (Plant): Plant parts, particularly leavesthat are shed at regular intervals, or at a givenstage of development, i.e. a deciduous plantregularly loses or sheds its leaves. cf. evergreen.

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Decomposer: Heterotrophic organisms, chiefly themicroorganisms, that break down the bodies ofdead animals or parts of dead plants and absorbsome of the decomposition products whilereleasing similar compounds usable by producers.

Decreaser: Plant species of the original or climaxvegetation that will decrease in relative amountwith continued disturbance to the norm, e.g. heavydefoliation, fire, drought. Some agencies use thisonly in relation to response to overgrazing.

Deferment: Delay of livestock grazing in an area foran adequate period of time to provide for plantreproduction, establishment of new plants, orrestoration of vigor of existing plants. cf. deferredgrazing, rest.

Deferred Grazing: The use of deferment in grazingmanagement of a management unit, but not in asystematic rotation including other units. cf. grazingsystem.

Deferred-Rotation: Any grazing system whichprovides for a systematic rotation of the defermentamong pastures.

Defoliation: The removal of plant leaves, i.e. bygrazing or browsing, cutting, chemical defoliant, ornatural phenomena such as hail, fire, or frost.

Degree of Use: The proportion of current year’sforage production that is consumed and/ordestroyed by grazing animals. May refer either to asingle species or to the vegetation as a whole.Syn. use.

Density: (1) The number of individuals per unit area.It is not a measure of cover. However, in the past,the term “density” has been used to mean cover.cf. frequency.

Desert: An arid area with insufficient available waterfor dense plant growth.

Desirable Plant Species: Species which contributepositively to the management objectives.

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Desired Plant Community: A plant communitywhich produces the kind, proportion, and amountof vegetation necessary for meeting or exceedingthe land use plan/activity plan objectives estab-lished for an ecological site(s). The desired plantcommunity must be consistent with the site’scapability to produce the desired vegetationthrough management, land treatment, or acombination of the two.

Deteriorated Range: Range where vegetation andsoils have significantly departed from the naturalpotential. Corrective management measures suchas seeding would change the designation fromdeteriorated range to some other term. Syn.degenerated range.

Detritus: Fragmented particulate organic matterderived from the decomposition of debris.

Diurnal: Active during daylight hours.

Diversity: The distribution and abundance of differentplants and animal communities within an area.

Dominant: (1) Plant species or species groups,which by means of their number, coverage, or site,have considerable influence or control upon theconditions of existence of associated species. (2)Those individual animals which, by their aggres-sive behavior or otherwise, determine the behaviorof one or more animals resulting in the establish-ment of a social hierarchy.

Draw: A natural watercourse, including the channeland adjacent areas on either side, which ayoccasionally overflow or receive extra water fromhigher adjacent areas; generally having intermit-tent flows associated with higher intensity rainfall.

Drill Seeding: Planting seed directly into the soil witha drill in rows, usually 6' to 24' apart.

Drip Torch: Portable equipment for applying flam-mable liquids giving a residual flame upon ignition;primarily used in prescribed burning.

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Drouth (Drought): (1) A prolonged chronic shortageof water, as compared to the norm, often associ-ated with high temperatures and winds duringspring, summer, and fall. (2) A period withoutprecipitation during which the soil water content isreduced to such an extent that plants suffer fromlack of water.

Dugout: (1) An artificially constructed depression thatcollects and stores water and differs from areservoir in that a dam is not relied upon toimpound water. cf. stock pond (2) a large hole dugin the ground, frequently on the side of a hill, andoften covered with logs and sod, used as adwelling or shelter.

Ecological Site: A kind of land with a specificpotential natural community and specific physicalsite characteristics, differing from other kinds ofland in its ability to produce vegetation and torespond to management. Syn. ecological type,ecological response unit. cf. range site.

Ecological Status: The present state of vegetationand soil protection of an ecological site in relationto the potential natural community for the site.Vegetation status is the expression of the relativedegree of which the kinds, proportions, andamounts of plants in a community resemble that ofthe potential natural community. If classes orratings are used, they should be described inecological rather than utilization terms. Forexample, some agencies are utilizing four classesof ecological status ratings (early seral, mid-seral,late seral, potential natural community) of vegeta-tion corresponding to 0-25%, 26-50%, 51-75% and76-I00% of the potential natural communitystandard. Soil status is a measure of presentvegetation and litter cover relative to the amount ofcover needed on the site to prevent acceleratederosion. This term is not used by all agencies.cf. range condition.

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Ecological Type: A land classification categorywhich is more specific than a phase of a habitattype. Ecological types are commonly used todifferentiate habitat phases into categories of landwhich differ in their ability to produce vegetation ortheir response to management. Syn. ecologicalresponse unit, ecological site.

Ecology: The study of the interrelationships oforganisms with their environment.

Ecosystem: Organisms together with their abioticenvironment, forming an interacting system,inhabiting an identifiable space.

Ecotone: A transition area of vegetation between twocommunities, having characteristics of both kindsof neighboring vegetation as well as characteris-tics of its own. Varies in width depending on siteand climatic factors.

Ecotype: A locally adapted population within aspecies which has certain genetically determinedcharacteristics; interbreeding between ecotypes isnot restricted. cf. biotype.

Enclosure: An area fenced to confine animals.

Endemic: Native to or restricted to a particular area,region or country.

Environment: The sum of all external conditions thataffect an organism or community to influence itsdevelopment or existence.

Eradication (plant): Complete kill or removal of anoxious plant from an area, including all plantstructures capable of sexual or vegetative repro-duction.

Erosion: (v.) Detachment and movement of soil orrock fragments, by water, wind, ice, or gravity.(n.) The land surface worn away by running water,wind, ice, or other geological agents, includingsuch processes as gravitational creep.

Essential Element: A chemical element which isnecessary for the life of an organism.

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Evergreen (plant): A plant that has leaves all yearround, and generally sheds them in a singleseason after new leaves of the current growingseason have matured. cf. deciduous.

Evapotranspiration: The actual total loss of water byevaporation from soil, water bodies, and transpira-tion from vegetation, over a given area with time.

Exclosure: An area fenced to exclude animals.

Exotic: An organism or species which is not native tothe region in which it is found.

Exposure: Direction of slope with respect to points ofa compass.

Fauna: The animal life of a region. A listing of animalspecies of a region.

Feces: Waste material voided through the anus.

Fibrous Root System: A plant root system having alarge umber of small, finely divided, widelyspreading roots, but no large taproots. Typified bygrass root system. cf. taproot system.

Flushing: Improving the nutrition of female breedinganimals prior to and during the breeding season tostimulate ovulation.

Flora: (1) The plant species of an area. (2) A simplelist of plant species or a taxonomic manual.

Foliage: The green or live leaves of plants; massleaves, leafage.

Forage: (n.) Browse and herbage which is availableand may provide food for grazing animals or beharvested for feeding. (v.) To search for or con-sume forage. Syn. graze.

Forage Production: The weight of forage that isproduced within a designated period of time on agiven area. The weight may be expressed as eithergreen, air-dry, or oven-dry. The term may also bemodified as to time of production such as annual,current year’s growth, or seasonal forage produc-tion.

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Forage Reserve: Standing forage specificallymaintained for future or emergency use.

Forb: Any broad-leafed herbaceous plant other thanthose in the Gramineae (or Poaceae), Cyperaceaeand Juncacea families.

Free Range: Range open to grazing regardless ofownership and without payment of fees. Not to beconfused with open range.

Frequency: The ratio between the number of sampleunits that contain a species and the total numberof sample units.

Fresh Weight: The weight of plant materials at thetime of harvest. Syn. green weight.

Full Use: The maximum use during a grazing seasonthat can be made of range forage under a givengrazing program without inducing a downwardtrend in range condition or ecological status.

Geographic lnformation System (GIS): A spatialtype of information management system whichprovides for the entry, storage, manipulation,retrieval, and display of spatially oriented data.

Graminoid: Grass or grass-like plant, such as Poa,Carex and Juncus species.

Grass: A member of the family Gramineae(Poaceae).

Grassland: Land on which the vegetation is domi-nated by grasses, grasslike plants, and/ or forbs(cf. dominant). Non-forest land shall be classifiedas grassland if herbaceous vegetation provides atleast 80% of the canopy cover excluding trees.Lands not presently grassland that were originallyor could become grassland through naturalsuccession may be classified as potential naturalgrassland. cf. prairie, rangeland.

Grasslike Plant: A plant of the Cypeaceae orJuncacea families which vegetatively resembles atrue grass of the Gramineae family.

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Gravel, Cobble, Stones: As defined in Soil Tax-onomy (Soil Conservation Service 1975): Gravel(2 mm-3 inches), cobble (3-10 inches), stones(over 10 inches). (Note: For standard rangeinventory procedures it is recommended thatgravel smaller than 5 mm in diameter be classedas bare ground in cover determinations.)

Graze: (1) (vi.) The consumption of standing forageby livestock or wildlife. (2) (vt.) To put livestock tofeed on standing forage.

Grazer: A grazing animal.

Grazier: A person who manages grazing animals.

Grazing: (vt.) To graze.

Grazing Behavior: The foraging response elicitedfrom an herbivore by its interaction with itssurrounding environment.

Grazing Capacity: The total number of animalswhich may be sustained on a given area based ontotal forage resources available, including har-vested roughage and concentrates. cf. carryingcapacity.

Grazing Distribution: Dispersion of livestock grazingwithin a management unit or area.

Grazing Land: A collective term that includes alllands having plants harvestable by grazing withoutreference to land tenant, other land uses, manage-ment, or treatment practices.

Grazing Management: The manipulation of grazingand browsing animals to accomplish a desiredresult.

Grazing Management Plan: A program of actiondesigned to secure the best practicable use of theforage resources with grazing or browsing animals.

Grazing Period: The length of time that animals areallowed to graze on a specific area.

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Grazing Preference: (1) Selection of certain plants,or plant parts, over others by grazing animals.(2) In the administration of public lands, a basisupon which permits and licenses are issued forgrazing use. cf. palatability, grazing privilege andgrazing right.

Grazing Pressure: An animal to forage relationshipmeasured in terms of animal units per unit weightof forage at any instant, i.e., AU/T.

Grazing Pressure Index: An animal to foragerelationship measured in terms of animal units perunit weight of forage over a period of time, i.e.,AUM /T.

Grazing Season: (1) On public lands, an establishedperiod for which grazing permits are issued. Maybe established on private land in a grazingmanagement plan. (2) The time interval whenanimals are allowed to utilize a certain area.

Grazing System: A specialization of grazing man-agement which defines the periods of grazing andnon-grazing. Descriptive common names may beused; however, the first usage of a grazing systemname in a publication should be followed by adescription using a standard format. This formatshould consist of at least the following: the numberof pastures (or units); number of herds; length ofgrazing periods; length of non-grazing periods forany given unit in the system followed by anabbreviation of the unit time used. cf. deferredgrazing, deferred-rotation, rotation, rest-rotation,and short duration grazing.

Grazing Unit: An area of rangeland, public or private,which is grazed as an entity.

Ground Cover: The percentage of material, otherthan bare ground, covering the land surface. It mayinclude live and standing dead vegetation, litter,cobble, gravel, stones and bedrock. Ground coverplus bare ground would total 100 percent. cf. foliarcover.

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Growing Season: In temperate climates, that potionof the year when temperature and moisture permitplant growth. In tropical climates it is determinedby availability of moisture.

Growth Form: The characteristic shape or appear-ance of an organism.

Gully: A furrow, channel or miniature valley, usuallywith steep sides through which water commonlyflows during and immediately after rains orsnowmelt.

Habitat: The natural abode of a plant or animal,including all biotic, climatic, and edaphic factorsaffecting life.

Habitat Type: The collective area which one plantassociation occupies or will come to occupy assuccession advances. The habitat type is definedand described on the basis of the vegetation andits associated environment.

Half-Shrub: A perennial plant with a woody basewhose annually produced stems die each year.

Hardiness: The ability to survive exposure to adverseconditions.

Hardpan: A hardened soil layer in the lower A or inthe B horizon caused by cementation of soilparticles with organic matter or with materials suchas silica, sesquioxides, or calcium carbonate. Thehardness does not change appreciably withchanges in moisture content, and pieces of thehard layer do not crumble in water.

Harvest: Removal of animal or vegetation productsfrom an area of land.

Heavy Grazing: A comparative term which indicatesthat the stocking rate of a pasture is relativelygreater than that of other pastures. Often errone-ously used to mean overuse. cf. light and moderategrazing.

Herb: Any flowering plant except those developingpersistent woody stems above ground.

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Herbaceous: Vegetative growth with little or nowoody component. Non-woody vegetation, suchas graminoids and forbs.

Herbage: (1) Herbs taken collectively. (2) Totalaboveground biomass of herbaceous plantsregardless of grazing preference or availability.

Herbage Disappearance Rate: The rate per unitarea at which herbage leaves the standing cropdue to grazing, senescence or other causes.Unit: kg/ha/d, or lbs/ac/d.

Herbicide: A phytotoxic chemical used for killing orinhibiting the growth of plants.

Herbivore: An animal that subsists principally orentirely on plants or plant materials.

Herd: An assemblage of animals usually of the samespecies.

Holistic Resource Management: Holistic ResourceManagement (HRM) is a practical, goal-orientedapproach to the management of the ecosystemincluding the human, financial and biologicalresources on farms, ranches, public and triballands, as well as national parks, vital watercatchments and other areas. HRM entails the useof a management model which incorporates aholistic view of land, people and dollars.

Hybrid: Offspring of a cross, between geneticallydissimilar individuals.

Hybrid Vigor: The increased performance (rate ofgain) associated with Fl crossbreeding.

Ice-Cream Species: An exceptionally palatablespecies sought and grazed frequently by livestockor game animals. Such species are oftenoverutilitized under proper grazing.

Increaser: Plant species of the original vegetationthat increase in relative amount, at least for a time,under continued disturbance to the norm, e.g.,heavy defoliation, fire, drought.

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Indicator Species: (1) Species that indicate thepresence of certain environmental conditions,seral stages, or previous treatment. (2) One ormore plant species selected to indicate a certainlevel of grazing use. cf. key species.

Infestation: Invasion by large numbers of parasitesor pests.

Infiltration: The flow of a fluid into a substancethrough pores or small openings. It connotes flowinto a substance in contradistinction to the wordpercolation.

Infiltration Rate: Maximum rate at which soil underspecified conditions can absorb rain or shallowimpounded water, expressed in quantity of waterabsorbed by the soil per unit of time, e.g., inches/hour.

Interseeding: Seeding into an established vegetationcover. Often is planting seeds into the center ofnarrow seedbed strips of variable spacing andprepared by mechanical or chemical methods.

Introduced Species: A species not a part of theoriginal fauna or flora of the area in question.cf. native and resident species.

Invader: Plant species that were absent in undis-turbed portions of the original vegetation of aspecific range site and will invade or increasefollowing disturbance or continued heavy grazing.

Invasion: The migration of organisms from one areato another area and their establishment in thelatter. cf. ecesis.

Key Management Species: Plant species on whichmanagement of a specific unit is based.

Key Species: (1) Forage species of sufficientabundance and palatability to justify its use asan indicator to the degree of use of associatedspecies. (2) Those species, which must, becauseof their impotence, be considered in the manage-ment program.

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Kind of Animal: An animal species or species groupsuch as sheep, cattle, goats, deer, horses, elk,antelope, and etc. cf. class of animal.

Land: The total natural and cultural environmentwithin which production takes place; a broaderterm than soil. In addition to soil, its attributesinclude other physical conditions, such as mineraldeposits, climate, and water supply; location inrelation to centers of commerce, populations, andother land; the size of the individual tracts orholdings; and existing plant cover, works ofimprovement, and the like. Some use the termloosely in other senses; as defined above butwithout the economic or cultural criteria; especiallyin the expression “natural land;” as a synonym for“soil;” for the solid surface of the earth; and also forearthly surface formations, especially in geomor-phologic expression “land form.”

Land Use Planning: The process by which decisionsare made on future land uses over extended timeperiods that are deemed to best serve the generalwelfare. Decision-making authorities on land usesare usually vested in state and local governmentalunits, but citizen participation in the planningprocess is essential for proper understanding andimplementation, usually through zoning ordin-ances.

Light Grazing: A comparative term which indicatesthat the stocking rate of one pasture is relativelyless than that of other pastures. Often erroneouslyused to mean under use. cf. heavy and moderategrazing.

Lime: (1) Calcium oxide. (2) All limestone-derivedmaterials applied to neutralize acid soils.

Limiting Factor: Any environmental factor whichexists at suboptimal level and thereby prevents anorganism from reaching its full biotic potential.

Livestock: Domestic animals.

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Management Area: An area for which a singlemanagement plan is developed and applied.

Management Objective: The objectives for whichrangeland and rangeland resources are managedwhich includes specified uses, accompanied by adescription of the desired vegetation and theexpected products and/or values.

Management Plan: A program of action designedto reach a given set of objectives.

Marginal Land: Land of questionable physical oreconomic capabilities for sustaining a specific use.

Marsh: Flat, wet treeless areas usually covered bystanding water and supporting a native growth ofgrasses and grasslike plants.

Mast: Nuts, acorns, and similar products which areconsumed by animals.

Meadow: (1) An area of perennial herbaceousvegetation, usually grass or grasslike, usedprimarily for hay production. (2) Openings inforests and grasslands of exceptional productivityin arid regions, usually resulting from high watercontent of the soil, as in stream-side situations andareas having a perched water table. cf. dry and wetmeadow.

Moderate Grazing: A comparative term whichindicates that the stocking rate of a pasture isbetween the rates of other pastures. Oftenerroneously used to mean proper use. cf. heavyand light grazing.

Monitoring: The orderly collection, analysis, andinterpretation of resource data to evaluateprogress toward meeting management objectives.

Morphology: The form and structure of an organismwith special emphasis on external features.

Mulch: (n.) (1) A layer of dead plant material on thesoil surface. (cf. fresh and humic mulch.) (2) Anartificial layer of material such as paper or plasticon the soil surface. (v.) Cultural practice of placing

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rock, straw, asphalt, plastic or other material onthe soil’s surface as a surface cover.

Multiple Use: Use of range for more than onepurpose, i.e., grazing of livestock, wildlife produc-tion, recreation, watershed and timber production.Not necessarily the combination of uses that willyield the highest economic return or greatest unitoutput.

Native Species: A species which is a part of theoriginal fauna or flora of the area in question. Syn.indigenous. cf. introduced and resident species.

Naturalized Species: A species not native to anarea but which adapted to that area and hasestablished a stable or expanding population.Does not require artificial inputs for survival andreproduction. Examples: cheatgrass, Kentuckybluegrass, starling, etc.

Nonuse: (1) Absence of grazing use on current year’sforage production. (2) Lack of exercise, tempo-rarily, of a grazing privilege on grazing lands.(3) An authorization to refrain, temporarily, fromplacing livestock on public ranges without loss ofpreference for future consideration.

Noxious Species: A plant species that is undesirablebecause it conflicts, restricts, or otherwise causesproblems under management objectives. Not to beconfused with species declared noxious by lawsconcerned with plants that are weedy in cultivatedcrops and on range.

Nurse Crop: A temporary crop seeded at or near thetime primary plant species are seeded to provideprotection and otherwise help to insure establish-ment of the latter, cf. companion crop, preparationcrop.

Nutritive Value: Relative capacity of given forage orother feedstuff to furnish nutrition for animals. Inrange management, the term is usually prefixed byhigh, low or moderate.

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Open Range: (1) Range which has not been fencedinto management units. (2) All suitable rangelandof an area upon which grazing is permitted. (3)Untimbered rangeland. (4) Range on which thelivestock owner has unlimited access withoutbenefit of land ownership or leasing.

Organism: Any living entity; plant, animal, fungus,etc.

Outcrop: The exposure of bedrock or strata project-ing through the overlying cover of detritus and soil.

Oven Dry Weight: The weight of a substance after ithas been dried in an oven at a specific tempera-ture to equilibrium.

Overgrazing: Continued heavy grazing whichexceeds the recovery capacity of the communityand creates a deteriorated range. cf. overuse.

Overland Flow: Surface runoff of water following aprecipitation event. cf. runoff.

Overstocking: Placing a number of animals on agiven area that will result in overuse if continued tothe end of the planned grazing period.

Overstory: The upper canopy or canopies of plants.Usually refers to trees, tall shrubs and vines.

Overuse: Utilizing an excessive amount of thecurrent year’s growth which, if continued, will resultin range deterioration. cf. overgrazing.

Paddock: (1) One of the subdivisions or subunits ofthe entire pasture unit, i.e. a grazing area enclosedand separated from other areas by fencing or otherbarriers. (2) A subdivision or subunit of an entiregrazing unit (cell) often involved in controlledgrazing of some manner. (3) A relatively smallenclosure used as an exercise and saddling areafor horses, generally adjacent to stalls or stable.Syn. pasture. cf. cell.

Palatability: The relish with which a particularspecies or plant part is consumed by an animal.

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Pan (Soils): Horizon or layer in soils that is stronglycompacted, indurated, or very high in clay content.cf. caliche, claypan, hardpan.

Pasture: (1) A grazing area enclosed and separatedfrom other areas by fencing or other barriers; themanagement unit for grazing land. (2) Forageplants used as food for grazing animals. (3) Anyarea devoted to the production of forage, native orintroduced, and harvested by grazing. (4) A groupof subunits grazed within a rotational grazingsystem.

Pastureland: Grazing lands, planted primarily tointroduced or domesticated native forage species,that receive periodic renovation and/ or culturaltreatments, such as tillage, fertilization, mowing,weed control and irrigation. Not in rotation withcrops.

Percent Use: Grazing use of current growth, usuallyexpressed as a percent of the current growth (byweight) which has been removed. cf. degree ofuse.

Perennial Plant: A plant that has a life span of 3 ormore years.

Pesticide: Any chemical agent such as herbicide,fungicide, insecticide, etc., used for control ofspecific organisms.

Phenotype: The physical appearance of an individualas contrasted with genetic makeup or genotype.

Photopoint: An identified point from which photo-graphs are taken at periodic intervals.

Photosensitization: A noncontagious diseaseresulting from the abnormal reaction of light-colored skin to sunlight after a photodynamicagent has been absorbed through the animal’ssystem. Grazing certain kinds of vegetation oringesting certain molds under specific conditionscauses photosensitization.

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Pioneer Species: The first species or community tocolonize or recolonize a barren or disturbed areain primary or secondary succession.

Pitting: Making shallow pits or basins of suitablecapacity and distribution on range to reduceoverland flow from rainfall or snowmelt.

Plain: A broad stretch of relatively level treeless land.

Plant Vigor: Plant health.

Poisonous Plant: A plant containing or producingsubstances that cause sickness, death or adeviation from the normal state of health ofanimals.

Prairie: An extensive tract of level or rolling land thatwas originally treeless and grass-covered.cf. grassIand, rangeland.

Precipitation: Condensation from the atmosphere,falling as rainfall, snow, hail or sleet.

Preferred Species: Species that are preferred byanimals and are grazed by first choice.

Prescribed Burning: The use of fire as a manage-ment tool under specified conditions for burning apredetermined area. cf. maintenance burning.

Primary Production: The conversion of solar energyto chemical energy through the process ofphotosynthesis. It is represented by the totalquantity of organic material produced within agiven period by vegetation.

Primary Productivity: The rate of conversion ofsolar to chemical energy through the process ofphotosynthesis.

Primary Range: Areas which animals prefer to usewhen management is limited. Primary range will beoverused before secondary range is fully used.

Pristine: A state of ecologicaI stability or conditionexisting in the absence of direct disturbance bymodem man.

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Productivity: The rate of production per unit area,usually expressed in terms of weight or energy.

Proper Grazing: The act of continuously obtainingproper use.

Proper Stocking: Placing a number of animals on agiven area that will result in proper use at the endof the planned grazing period. Continued properstocking will lead to proper grazing.

Proper Use: A degree of utilization of current year’sgrowth which, if continued, will achieve manage-ment objectives, and maintain or improve the long-term productivity of the site. Proper use varies withtime and systems of grazing. Syn. proper utiliza-tion, proper grazing use. cf. allowable use.

P.L.S.: Abbreviation for pure live seed.

Pure Live Seed: Purity and germination of seedexpressed in percent; may be calculated byformula: P.L.S. = % germination X % purity / 100;e.g. 91 X 96/100 = 87.36%. Abbr., PLS or P.L.S.cf. seed purity.

Range: (n.) Any land supporting vegetation suitablefor grazing including rangeland, grazable wood-land and shrubland. Range is not a use. (adj.)Modifies resources, products, activities, practices,and phenomena pertaining to rangeland. cf.rangeIand, forested range, grazable woodland,shrubland.

Range Appraisal: The classification and valuationof rangeland from an economic or productionstandpoint.

Range Condition: (a) A generic term relating topresent status of a unit of range in terms ofspecific values or potentials. Specific values orpotentials must be stated. (b) Some agenciesdefine range condition as follows: The presentstate of vegetation of a range site in relation to theclimax (natural potential) plant community for thatsite. It is an expression of the relative degree towhich the kinds, proportions, and amounts of

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plants in a plant community resemble that of theclimax plant community for the site. cf. ecologicalstatus and resource value rating.

Range Condition Class: Confusion has existedregarding both definition and use of this term. (1)The following definition fits the thinking expressedin the definition Range Condition (a) above: One ofa series of arbitrary categories used to eitherclassify ecological status of a specific range site inrelation to its potential (early, mid, late seral orPNC) or classify management-oriented valuecategories for specific potentials, e.g., goodcondition spring cattle range. (2) Some agenciesconsider range condition class in the context ofRange Condition (b) above as follows:

Range Condition % of climaxClass for the range site

Excellent 76-100Good 51-75Fair 26-50Poor 0-25

Range Improvement: (1) Any structure or excava-tion to facilitate management of range or livestock.(2) Any practice designed to improve rangecondition or facilitate more efficient utilization ofthe range. (3) An increase in the grazing capacityof range, i.e., improvement of rangeland condition.

Range Management: A distinct discipline foundedon ecological principles and dealing with the useof rangelands and range resources for a variety ofpurposes. These purposes include use as water-sheds, wildlife habitat, grazing by livestock,recreation, and aesthetics, as well as otherassociated uses.

Range Readiness: The defined stage of plant growthat which grazing may begin under a specificmanagement plan without permanent damage tovegetation or soil. Usually applied to seasonalrange.

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Range Seeding: The process of establishingvegetation by the artificial dissemination of seed.

Range Site: Synonymous with ecological site whenreferring to rangeland. An area of rangeland whichhas the potential to produce and sustain distinctivekinds and amounts of vegetation to result in acharacteristic plant community under its particularcombination of environmental factors, particularlyclimate, soils, and associated native biota. Someagencies use range site based on the climaxconcept, not potential natural community.cf. vegetative type.

Rangeland: Land on which the native vegetation(climax or natural potential) is predominantlygrasses, grass-like plants, forbs, or shrubs.Includes lands revegetated naturally or artificiallywhen routine management of that vegetation isaccomplished mainly through manipulation ofgrazing. Rangelands include natural grasslands,savannas, shrublands, most deserts, tundra,alpine communities, coastal marshes, and wetmeadows. cf. forestland, range.

Rangeland Inventory: (1) The systematic acquisitionand analysis of resource information needed forplanning and for management of rangeland.(2) The information acquired through rangelandinventory.

Rangeland Renovation: Improving rangeland bymechanical, chemical or other means.

RecIamation: Restoration of a site or resource toa desired condition to achieve managementobjectives or stated goals. cf. revegetation.

Remote Sensing: The measurement or acquisitionof information of some property of an object orphenomenon by a recording device that is not aphysical or intimate contact with the object orphenomenon under study. Often involves aerialphotography or satellite imagery.

Reseeding: Syn. range seeding.

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Rest: Leaving an area ungrazed; thereby, foregoinggrazing of one forage crop. Normally rest impliesabsence of grazing for a full growing season orduring a critical portion of plant development; i.e.,seed production. cf. deferment.

Rest Period: A time period of no grazing included aspart of a grazing system.

Rest-Rotation: A grazing management scheme inwhich rest periods for individual pastures, pad-docks, or grazing units, generally for the fullgrowing season, are incorporated into a grazingrotation. cf. grazing system.

Rhizome: A horizontal underground stem, usuallysending out roots and above-ground shoots fromthe nodes.

Riparian:Riparian:Riparian:Riparian:Riparian: Referring to or relating to areas adjacent towater or influenced by free water associated withstreams or rivers on geologic surfaces occupyingthe lowest position on a watershed.

Riparian Species: Plant species occurring within theriparian zone. Obligate species require theenvironmental conditions within the riparian zone;facultative species tolerate the environmentalconditions, and may occur away from the riparianzone.

Riparian Zone: The banks and adjacent areas ofwater bodies, water courses, seeps and springswhose waters provide soil moisture sufficiently inexcess of that otherwise available locally so as toprovide a more moist habitat than that of contigu-ous flood plains and uplands.

Ripping: The mechanical penetration and sheering ofrange soils to depths of 8 to 18 inches, for thepurpose of breaking hardpan layers to facilitatepenetration of plant roots, water, organic matter,and nutrients. A range improvement practice usedwhere native grasses of a rhizomatous nature canspread into the ripped soil. cf. chiseling.

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Rotation Grazing: A grazing scheme where animalsare moved from one grazing unit (paddock) in thesame group of grazing units to another withoutregard to specific graze:rest periods or levels ofplant defoliation. cf. grazing system.

Roughage: Plant materials containing a low propor-tion of nutrients per unit of weight and usuallybulky and coarse, high in fiber and low in totaldigestible nutrients. Roughage may be classed aseither dry or green.

Rumen: The large, first compartment of the stomachof a ruminant from which ingested food is regurgi-tated for rechewing and in which digestion is aidedby symbiotic action of microbes.

Ruminant: Even-toed, hoofed mammals that chewthe cud and have a 4-chamber stomach., i.e.Ruminantia.

Runoff: The total stream discharge of water,including both surface and subsurface flow, usuallyexpressed in acre-feet of water yield.

Sacrifice Area: A portion of the range, respective ofsite that is unavoidably overgrazed to obtainefficient overall use of the management area.

Season Long Grazing: See Continuous Grazing.

Seasonal Grazing: Grazing restricted to a specificseason.

Seasonal Use: (1) Synonymous with seasonalgrazing. (2) Seasonal preference of certain plantspecies by animals.

Secondary Range: Range which is lightly used orunused by livestock under minimal managementand will ordinarily not be fully used until theprimary range has been overused.

Seed: A fertilized ripened ovule of a flowering plant.

Seed Certification: A system whereby seed of plantcultivars is produced, harvested and marketedunder authorized regulation to insure seed of highquality and genetic purity.

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Seed, Dormant: Live seed in a non-germinativecondition because of (1) internal inhibitions in theseed, i.e., hard seed, or (2) unfavorable environ-mental conditions.

Seed Inoculation: Treatment of legume seed withrhizobium bacteria before planting to enhancesubsequent nitrogen fixation.

Seedbed Preparation: Soil treatment prior toseeding to: (1) reduce or eliminate existingvegetation, (2) reduce the effective supply of weedseed, (3) modify physical soil characteristics, and(4) enhance temperature and water characteristicsof the micro-environment.

Seed Purity: The percentage of the desired speciesin relation to the total quantity, including otherspecies, weed seed, and foreign matter. cf. purelive seed.

Seep: Wet areas, normally not flowing, arising froman underground water source.

Selective Grazing: The grazing of certain plantspecies, individual plants, or plant parts on therange to the exclusion of others.

Short-Duration Grazing: Grazing managementwhereby relatively short periods (days) of grazingand associated non-grazing are applied to rangeor pasture units. Periods of grazing and non-grazing are based upon plant growth characteris-tics. Short duration grazing has nothing to do withintensity of grazing use. cf. grazing system.

Shrub: A plant that has persistent, woody stems anda relatively low growth habit, and that generallyproduces several basal shoots instead of a singlebole. It differs from a tree by its low stature(generally less than 5 meters, or 16 feet) andnon-arborescent form.

Shrubland: Any land on which shrubs dominate thevegetation.

Slope: A slant or incline of the land surface, mea-sured in degrees from the horizontal, or in the

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percent (defined as the number of feet or meterschange in elevation per 100 of the same units ofhorizontal distance); may be further characterizedby direction (exposure).

Sod: Vegetation which grows so as to form a mat ofsoil and vegetation. Syn. turf.

Sod Grasses: Stoloniferous or rhizomatous grasseswhich form a sod or turf. cf. bunchgrass.

Soil: (1) The unconsolidated mineral and organicmaterial on the immediate surface of the earth thatserves as a natural medium for the growth of landplants. (2) The unconsolidated mineral matter onthe surface of the earth that has been subjected toand influenced by genetic and environmentalfactors of parent material, climate (includingmoisture and temperature effects), macro- andmicro-organisms, and topography, all acting over aperiod of time and producing a product-soil-thatdiffers from the material from which it was derivedin many physical, chemical, biological, andmorphological properties and characteristics.

Soil Condition Class: One of a series of arbitrarycategories based principally on the amount ofground cover weighted by the degree of acceler-ated erosion used to identify soil stability.

Species: A taxon or rank species; in the hierarchy orbiological classification, the category below genus.

Species Composition: The proportions of variousplant species in relation to the total on a givenarea. It may be expressed in terms of cover,density, weight, etc.

Spot Grazing: Repeated grazing of small areas whileadjacent areas are lightly grazed or unused.

Spring: Flowing water originating from an under-ground source.

Stand: An existing plant community with definitivebounds that is relatively uniform in composition,structural, and site conditions; thus it may serve asa local example of a community type.

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Standing Crop: The total amount of plant materialper unit of space at a given time. Often is dividedinto aboveground and belowground portions andfurther may be modified by the descriptors ‘dead,’‘live’ to more accurately define the specific type ofbiomass.

Stem: The culm or branch of a plant.

Stock: Livestock.

Stocking Density: The relationship between numberof animals and area of land at any instant of time.It may be expressed as animal-units per acre,animal-units per section or AU/ ha. cf. stockingrate.

Stocking Rate: The number of specific kinds andclasses of animals grazing or utilizing a unit ofland for a specified time period. May be expressedas animal unit months or animal unit days peracre, hectare, or section, or the reciprocal (area ofland/animal unit month or day). When dual use ispracticed (e.g., cattle and sheep), stocking rate isoften expressed as animal unit months/unit of landor the reciprocal. Syn. stocking Ievel. cf. stockingdensity.

Stockpiling: Allowing standing forage to accumulatefor grazing at a later period, often for fall andwinter grazing after dormancy. cf. cured forage.

Stock pond: A water impoundment made by con-structing a dam or by excavating a dugout or both,to provide water for livestock and wildlife.cf. catchment, guzzler, drink tank.

Stockwater Development: Development of a newor improved source of stockwater supply, such aswell, spring, pond, together with storage anddelivery system.

Stolon: A horizontal stem which grows along thesurface of the soil and roots at the nodes.

Stubble: The basal portion of herbaceous plantsremaining after the top portion has been harvestedeither artificially or by gazing animals.

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Submarginal Land: Land that is either physically oreconomically incapable of indefinitely sustaining acertain use.

Succession: The progressive replacement of plantcommunities on a site which leads to the potentialnatural plant community: i.e., attaining stability.Primary succession entails simultaneous suc-cessions of soil from parent material and vegeta-tion. Secondary succession occurs followingdisturbances on sites that previously supportedvegetation and entails plant succession on a moremature soil.

Suitable Range: (1) Range accessible to a specifickind of animal and which can be grazed on asustained yield basis without damage to theresource. (2) The limits of adaptability of plant oranimal species. One U.S. agency utilizes the termas follows: Land that is accessible or that canbecome accessible to livestock; that producesforage or has inherent forage producing capabili-ties; and, that can be grazed on a sustained yieldbasis under reasonable management goals.Suitable range includes both rangeland and forestland with a grazable understory which are con-tained in grazing allotments.

Supplement: Nutritional additive (salt, protein,phosphorus, etc.,) intended to remedy deficienciesof the range diet.

Supplemental Feeding: Supplying concentrates orharvested feed to correct deficiencies of the rangediet. Often erroneously used to mean emergencyfeeding. cf. maintenance feeding.

Surfactant: (surface active agent). Materials used inherbicide formulations to bring about emulsifiabil-ity, spreading, wetting, sticking, dispersibility,solubilization or other surface modifying proper-ties.

Swale: An area of low and sometimes wetland.

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Taproot System: A plant root system dominated bya single large root, normally growing straightdownward, from which most of the smaller rootsspread out laterally. cf. fibrous root system.

Terracing: Mechanical movement of soil along thehorizontal contour of a slope to produce anearthen dike to retain water and diminish thepotential of soil erosion.

Tiller: The asexual development of a new plant froma meristematic region of the parent plant.

Total Annual Yield: The total annual production of allplant species of a plant community.

Trace Element: An element essential for normalgrowth and development of an organism butrequired only in minute quantities.

Trampling: Treading underfoot; the damage to plantsor soil brought about by movements or congestionof animals.

Tree: A woody perennial, usually single stemmedplant that has a definite crown shape and reachesa mature height of at least 16 feet (5 meters).There is no clear-cut distinction between trees andshrubs. Some plants, such as oaks (Quecus spp.)may grow as either trees or shrubs.

Trend (Range Trend) Classes and EcologicalStatus Ratings: Trend in range condition orecological status should be described as up, downor not apparent. Up represents a change towardclimax or potential natural community; downrepresents a change away from climax or potentialnatural community; and not apparent indicatesthere is no recognizable change. This category isoften recorded as static or stable. There is nonecessary correlation between trends in resourcevalue ratings, vegetation management status, andtrend in range condition or ecological status.

Trophic Levels: The sequence of steps in a foodchain or food pyramid, from producer to primary,secondary or tertiary consumer.

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Turf: Syn. sod.

Twice-over Rotational Grazing: A variation of thedeferred-rotation grazing system, which involvesgrazing three or more native pastures in rotationbased on the growth stages of key species.Livestock are rotated through the grazing systemfaster than a deferred-rotation (once-over),allowing for periods of regrowth and recovery ofvegetation, resulting in a second grazing period;thus twice-over.

Undergrazing: The act of continued underuse.

Understocking: Placing a number of animals on agiven area that will result in underuse at the end ofthe planned grazing period.

Understory: Plants growing beneath the canopy ofother plants. Usually refers to grasses, forbs andlow shrubs under a tree or shrub canopy.cf. overstory.

Underuse: A degree of use less than proper use.

Undesirable Species: (1) Species that conflict withor do not contribute to the management objectives.(2) Species that are not readily eaten by animals.

Ungulate: A hoofed animal, including ruminants butalso horses, tapirs, elephants, rhinoceroses, andswine.

Unsuitable Range: Range which has no potentialvalue for, or which should not be used for, aspecific use because of permanent physical orbiological restrictions. When unsuitable range isidentified, the identification must specify what useor uses are unsuitable (e.g., “unsuitable cattlerange”).

Use: (1) The proportion of current years forageproduction that is consumed or destroyed bygrazing animals. May refer either to a singlespecies or to the vegetation as a whole. Syn.degree of use. (2) Utilization of range for apurpose such as grazing, bedding, shelter, trailing,watering, watershed, recreation, forestry, etc.

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Utilization: Syn. use.

Vegetation: Plants in general, or the sum total ofthe plant life above and below ground in an area.cf. vegetative.

Vegetation Type: A kind of existing plant communitywith distinguishable characteristics described interms of the present vegetation that dominates theaspect or physiognomy of the area.

Vegetative: Relating to nutritive and growth functionof plant life in contrast to sexual reproductivefunctions. Of or relating to vegetation.

Vegetative Reproduction: Production of new plantsby any asexual method.

Vigor: Relates to the relative robustness of a plant incomparison to other individuals of the samespecies. It is reflected primarily by the size of aplant and its parts in reIation to its age and theenvironment in which it is growing. Syn. plant vigor.cf. hybrid vigor.

Virgin: Syn. pristine.

Warm-Season Plant: (1) A plant which makes mostor all its growth during the spring, summer or falland is usually dormant in winter. (2) A plant thatusually exhibits the C4 photosynthetic pathway.

Watershed: (1) A total area of land above a givenpoint on a waterway that contributes runoff waterto the flow at that point. (2) A major subdivision ofa drainage basin.

Weed: (1) Any plant growing where unwanted.(2) A plant having a negative value within a givenmanagement system.

Wetlands: Areas characterized by soils that areusually saturated or ponded, i.e., hydric soils thatsupport mostly water-loving plants (hydrophyticplants).

Wetland Communities: Plant communities thatoccur on sites with soils typically saturated with orcovered with water most of the growing season.

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Wet Meadow: A meadow where the surface remainswet or moist throughout the growing season,usually characterized by sedges and rushes.

Wildlife: Undomesticated vertebrate animals consid-ered collectively, with the exception of fish.cf. game.

Winter Range: Range that is grazed during thewinter months.

Wolf Plant: (1) An individual plant that is generallyconsidered palatable, but is not grazed by live-stock. (2) An isolated plant growing to extraordi-nary size, usually from lack of competition orutilization.

Woodland: A land area occupied by trees; a forest,woods.

Woody: A term used in reference to trees, shrubs orbrowse that characteristically contain persistentligneous material.

Xeric: Having very little moisture; tolerating oradapted to dry conditions.

Yearling: An animal approximately one year of age. Ashort yearling is from 9 to 12 months of age and along yearling is from 12 to 18 months.

Yield: (1) The quantity of a product in a given spaceand/or time. (2) The harvested portion of a product.Syn. production, total annuaI yieId or runoff.

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■ Range (Ecological) SitesAuthor’s note: The Natural Resources ConservationService (NRCS) is presently updating its range sitedescriptions. The new site descriptions will be calledEcological Site Descriptions (ESD) and will containmore extensive plant community and related data.

An ecological (range) site is a distinctivekind of rangeland based on present orpotential natural vegetation, potentialproductivity, and/or soils and other envi-ronmental factors. The kind and amount ofvegetation produced on a range site willvary within an area due to soil type differ-ences and landscape position (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Landscape features and location of allsoils types from a common soil sequence.

Zahl (thin-upland)10% +

Parnell (wetland)1-3%Bowbells

(overflow)

Williams(Silty)3-10%

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To help identify ecological sites, the mostcommon sites are illustrated below with locationfound in the landscape, major vegetation speciesassociated with the site, and recommendedstocking rate for sites in high good to excellentcondition. Lowest levels are for western NorthDakota and highest levels for eastern NorthDakota and western Minnesota.

Tip: Actual stocking rates forthese sites will vary from ranch toranch depending on actual sitecondition.

OverflowLocation: On nearly level swales anddepressions receiving additional moisturefrom adjacent slopes.

Major plant species: big bluestem,switchgrass, green needlegrass, westernwheatgrass, porcupine grass, Indiangrass,goldenrod species, cudweed sagewort,American licorice, western snowberry.

Recommended stocking rate: 0.9 AUMs/acre(western North Dakota) – 1.4 AUMs/acre(eastern North Dakota, western Minnesota).

Saline lowlandLocation: On saline soils occurring indepressions and along stream channels thatreceive additional moisture.

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Major plant species: western wheatgrass,nuttall alkaligrass, slender wheatgrass, inlandsaltgrass, foxtail barley, silverweed cinquefoil,pursh seepweed, curly dock.


SandsLocation: On loamy fine sand textured soilsoccurring on nearly level to rolling landscapes.

Major plant species: needle-and-thread,prairie sandreed, sand dropseed, blue grama,upland sedges, western wheatgrass, purpleprairieclover, green sagewort, Missourigoldenrod, fringed sagewort, prairie rose.


SandyLocation: On fine sandy loam textured soilsoccurring on nearly level to strongly rollinguplands and river terraces.

Major plant species: needle-and-thread,prairie sandreed, green needlegrass, westernwheatgrass, blue grama, upland sedges,western wheatgrass, western ragweed,green sagewort, Missouri goldenrod, fringedsagewort, prairie coneflower, heath aster,lead plant, prairie rose.


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Shallow-to-gravelLocation: On medium to moderately coarsetextured soils overlying sand and gravel onnearly level to gently sloping uplands andstream terraces.

Major plant species: needle-and-thread,western wheatgrass, blue grama, prairiejunegrass, upland sedges, rush skeletonweed,dotted gayfeather, black samson, fringedsagewort, prairie rose.


SiltyLocation: On fine textured soils occurring ongentle undulating to strongly rolling uplandsand high stream terraces.

Major plant species: green needlegrass,western western, needle-and-thread, bluegrama, upland sedges, western ragweed,silverleaf scurfpea, fringed sagewort, prairieconeflower, western snowberry, prairie rose.


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Thin uplandLocation: On medium textured soils occurringon hill tops and steep uplands.

Major plant species: little bluestem, sideoatsgrama, needle-and-thread, prairie sandreed,western wheatgrass, porcupine grass, plainsmuhly, blue grama, upland sedges, blacksamson, dotted gayfeather, Missouri golden-rod, purple prairieclover, prairie rose, broomsnakeweed.


Wet meadowLocation: On poorly drained medium andfine textured soils occurring in swales anddepressions of rolling prairies.

Major plant species: prairie cordgrass, north-ern reedgrass, switchgrass, fowl bluegrass,lowland sedges, baltic rush, common wildmint, tall white aster, curly dock.


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Wet LandLocation: On poorly drained fine textured soilsoccurring in shallow basins and depressionsof upland prairies.

Major plant species: common reedgrass,prairie cordgrass, cattails, reed canarygrass,northern reedgrass, lowland sedges, balticrush, smartweed species, curly dock, willowspecies.


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■ Forage Suitability GroupsA forage suitability group is a grouping ofsoils with similar potentials and limitationsfor forage production. Soils within a foragesuitability group are sufficiently uniform to:

• Support the same adapted forage plantsunder the same management conditions.

• Require similar conservation treatment andmanagement to produce the forages se-lected in the quality and quantity desired

• Have comparable potential productivity.

Tip: The following includescommon forage suitability groupsand recommended plant speciesto seed in the western half ofNorth Dakota, and the easternhalf of North Dakota and westernMinnesota.

Tip: Other native and introducedlegumes are available for use.Examples would include cicermilkvetch, sainfoin, birdsfoottrefoil, red clover, and purpleprairie clover.

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Loamy and silty soils (A1):deep, mostly well and moderately well drained,medium textured soils on uplands.

Western Eastern North Dakota/North Dakota Western Minnesota

Introduced:

Altai wildrye Altai wildryeCrested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrassIntermediate wheatgrass Pubescent wheatgrassPubescent wheatgrass Meadow bromegrassMeadow bromegrass Russian wildryeRussian wildrye Smooth bromegrassSmooth bromegrass

Native:

Green needlegrass Big bluestemSlender wheatgrass Green needlegrassWestern wheatgrass Indiangrass

Slender wheatgrassSwitchgrassWestern wheatgrass

Legumes:

Alfalfa AlfalfaSweetclover Sweetclover

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Thin upland soils (A2):deep, well and excessively drained, mediumtextured soils occurring on ridges and knobs andsubject to runoff.


Introduced:

Crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrassPubescent wheatgrass Pubescent wheatgrass

Native:

Little bluestem Little bluestemPrairie sandreed Prairie sandreedSideoats grama Sideoats grama

Legumes:


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Sandy soils (A6):deep, well and moderately well drained,moderately coarse textured soils on uplands andfloodplains.


Introduced:

Crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrassPubescent wheatgrass Pubescent wheatgrass

Smooth bromegrass

Native:

Prairie sandreed Prairie sandreedSand bluestem Sand bluestem

Slender wheatgrassSwitchgrass

Legumes:


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Shallow to gravel soils (B1):deep, well and excessively drained, medium tocoarse textured soils with gravel and/or coarsesand at depths of 14 to 24 inches.


Introduced:

Crested wheatgrass Crested wheatgrassPubescent wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass

Pubescent wheatgrass

Native:

Little bluestem Little bluestemSlender wheatgrass Slender wheatgrassWestern wheatgrass Western wheatgrass

Legumes:


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Saline soils (G4):deep, somewhat poorly and poorly drained,coarse to fine-textured saline soils.


Introduced:

Altai wildrye Altai wildryeRussian wildrye Russian wildryeTall wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass

Native:

Alkali sacaton Alkali sacatonBeardless wildrye Beardless wildryeWestern wheatgrass Western wheatgrass

Legumes:

Alsike clover Alsike cloverSweetclover Sweetclover

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Wet soils (C1):deep, poorly drained, coarse to fine-texturedsoils on floodplains or low areas on till and lakeplains.


Introduced:

Creeping foxtail Creeping foxtailMeadow foxtail

Native:

Big bluestem Big bluestemReed canarygrass Reed canarygrassSlender wheatgrass Slender wheatgrassSwitchgrass Switchgrass

Legumes:

Alsike clover Alsike clover

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■ Native Range PlantsNative range plants include species thatare a part of the original flora of the areain question. Listed on the following pagesare common native range plants found inNorth Dakota and eastern Minnesota witha short description, season of growth, sitefound on, forage value, and their responseto grazing.

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Big bluestemA warm-season, perennial, tall-stature, sod-forming grass found on moist soils and ecologi-cal sites. Potentially abundant on overflow andsubirrigated ecological sites. This grass de-creases with overgrazing, frequently beingreplaced by less productive mid and short grassspecies. Big bluestem is very palatable andnutritious to all classes of livestock when activelygrowing but becomes coarse late in the seasonand quality declines.

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Blue gramaA warm-season, perennial, short-stature bunch-grass found on drier upland sites includingsandy, gravelly, silty, clayey, and claypan soils.This grass increases with overgrazing, frequentlyreplacing more productive mid and tall grassspecies, often forming a dense sod intermixedwith sedges. Blue grama is low producing, verypalatable and nutritious to all classes of live-stock, even during the winter.

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Foxtail barleyA cool-season, perennial, mid-stature bunch-grass found on moist saline sites, often forming adistinctive ring around wetlands. This grassincreases with overgrazing, frequently replacingproductive mid and tall grasses, and wetlandsedges. Due to increase levels of salts causedby a reduction of the more desirable plantsspecies, foxtail barley will increase and dominatethese sites. Once this occurs, it becomes difficultto return these sites to their original status.Foxtail barley provides fair forage for cattle,horses, and sheep when young but becomesunpalatable when mature.

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Green needlegrassA cool-season, perennial, mid-stature bunch-grass found on medium and fine textured soils.This species grows best on sandy to loamy soilsbut is also found on heavy clay soils. This grassdecreases with overgrazing and early seasongrazing, frequently being replaced by lessproductive mid and short grass species. Greenneedlegrass is regarded as the most palatable ofthe needlegrasses and is nutritious to all classesof livestock.

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Little bluestemA warm-season, perennial, mid-stature bunch-grass found dry ridges, hillsides, and sand hillareas; often associated with calcareous soils.The grass decreases with overgrazing, fre-quently being replaced by short grass, such asbluegrama, sedges, and broad leaf species. Theyoung shoots or new leaf tissue of little bluestemis regarded as palatable and often selected bygrazing livestock. Older plant leaf tissue andseed stocks are avoided, giving the impressionthat the plant is not being grazed. Mature littlebluestem becomes wolfy and has a classic redtinge color in late summer.

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Needle-and-threadA cool-season, perennial, mid-stature bunch-grass found on sandy and course textured soils.This grass initially increases with grazing pres-sure, eventually decreasing with overgrazing,replaced by less productive mid and short grassspecies. Needle-and-thread is regarded as verypalatable by all classes of livestock when grazedbefore plant maturity. If grazing occurs whenseed or “needles” are present, they may bemechanically injurious, especially to sheep.

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Prairie cordgrassA warm-season, perennial, tall-stature, sod-forming grass found on moist soils and ecologi-cal sites. Potentially abundant on moist areassuch as wet prairie, including the wet meadowecological sites. This grass decreases withovergrazing, frequently being replaced by spikerush, undesirable wetland sedges, and lowerproducing mid grasses. Prairie cordgrass is notreadily eaten by livestock except in the spring orin the fall after a killing frost.

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Prairie sandreedA warm-season, perennial, tall-stature, sod-forming grass found on sand, sandy, and coarsetextured soils. Often associated with drier uplandsites, forming dense patches or colonies. Thisgrass decreases with overgrazing, frequentlybeing replaced by lower producing mid and shortgrasses. Prairie sandreed provides fair to goodforage value for bison, cattle and horses and fairfor sheep during its first two months of growthand after it cures on the stem for fall and wintergrazing.

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Reed canarygrassA cool-season, strongly rhizomatous perennialthat is tall-stature. It is most commonly found onwet meadow ecological sites. This grass de-creases with overgrazing, frequently beingreplaced by less productive mid and short grassspecies. Reed canarygrass is palatable andprovides good forage for all classes of livestock.

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Sideoats gramaA warm-season, perennial, mid-stature sod-forming grass found on fine textured soils andweakly developed soils of steeper slopes, oftenassociated with calcareous soils. May also occuron subirrigated and overflow ecological sites inexcellent condition. This grass decreases withovergrazing, frequently replaced by short grassspecies. Sideoats grama is very palatable andnutritious to all classes of livestock throughoutmuch of the summer and fall.

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SwitchgrassA warm-season, perennial, tall-stature sod-forming grass found on moist lowland prairies,including overflow and subirrigated ecologicalsites. This grass decreases with overgrazing,frequently being replaced by lower producingmid and short grasses, particularly Kentuckybluegrass. Switchgrass provides good foragefor bison and cattle when in the vegetativegrowth stage. As the plant matures in midsummer, nutrient quality and palatability declinedramatically.

69

Western wheatgrassA cool-season, perennial, mid-stature, sod-forming grass found on a wide variety of soilsand sites, often associated with loamy andclayey ecologically sites. It also possesses a hightolerance to saline and alkaline soils. This grassdecreases when exposed to long-term over-usebut may increase with short-term overuse.Western wheatgrass is regarded as very palat-able, nutritious, and digestible to all classes oflivestock. Western wheatgrass is North Dakota’sstate grass.

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Upland sedges (needleleaf, threadleaf,sun sedge)Cool-season, perennial, short-stature, grass-likeplants found on dry prairies, rocky hilltops, andsandy to fine-textured soils. These grass-likeplants increase with overgrazing, replacing manymid grasses. Upland sedges are good forage forall classes of livestock in early spring, becomingless palatable once mature.

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ForbsBroad-leaf herbaceous plants other than those inthe grass, grass-like, or shrub families. Forbsprovide the greatest diversity of plant species onthe prairie, occurring on a wide range of soilsand ecological sites. Some forbs, such as fringedsagewort, green sagewort, and curly-cupgumweed, increase with overgrazing; most nativelegumes such as purple prairie clover decreasewith poor grazing management.

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ShrubsA plant that has persistent woody stems andrelatively low growth habit. Common shrubswould include western snowberry (buckbrush),lead plant, prairie rose, sage brush, and somewillow species. Most shrubs tend to increase withlack of grazing and fire.

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■ Introduced PlantsIntroduced plants include species that are

NOT a part of the original flora of the area in

question. Listed on the following pages are

common introduced grasses and forbs

found in North Dakota and eastern Minne-

sota with a short description, season of

growth, site found on, forage value, and

their response to grazing.

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Altai wildryeA cool-season, perennial bunchgrass adapted toa wide range of soils and sites. This grass is aspecial purpose grass used to extend the grazingseason into late summer and fall (October andNovember). Recommended as a single speciesstand for grazing.

75

Crested wheatgrassA cool-season, perennial bunchgrass adapted toa wide variety of soils and sites, particularly inwestern North Dakota. This grass is a specialpurpose grass used for spring grazing (earlyMay-mid June); however, it can and has becomea nuisance invading plant on native rangeland.Recommended as a single species stand forgrazing and hayland or mixed with alfalfa for hayproduction.

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Intermediate/PubescentwheatgrassCool-season, perennial sod-forming grassadapted to a wide range of soils and sites;however, it does not tolerate saline soils. Thisgrass is a special purpose grass used forpastureland, hay, and conservation programs.Intermediate/pubescent wheatgrass can providegrazing from late spring into early summer andproduce a large quantity of hay.

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Kentucky bluegrassA cool-season, perennial, mid-stature sod-forming grass found on moist, well drained soils.Often associated with overflow, loamy, andsubirrigated ecological sites. This grass invadesand increases with overgrazing and no use,frequently replacing desirable native mid and tallgrass species. Kentucky bluegrass is verypalatable and nutritious to all classes of livestockwhen immature. Nutritional quality and palatabil-ity declines rapidly with maturity. Regrowth in thefall provides good quality feed with favorablegrowing conditions occur. Many ranchers refer toKentucky bluegrass as junegrass.

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Meadow bromegrassA cool-season, perennial bunchgrass found onfine to moderately fine texture soils. It is generallynot recommended in western North Dakota dueto its low drought tolerance. This grass is aspecial purpose grass used for spring and earlysummer grazing (early May to mid July). Recom-mended alone or in combination with otherintroduced grasses or legumes for grazing andhay production.

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Russian wildryeA cool-season, perennial bunchgrass adapted forfine to moderately textured soils (silty andclayey). This grass is a special purpose grassused to extend the grazing season into latesummer and fall (October–December). Recom-mended as a single species stand for grazing.

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Smooth bromegrassA cool-season, perennial sod-forming grassfound on fine to moderately fine texture soils. Inwestern North Dakota it is often associated withsites that receive addition moisture. This grass isa special purpose grass used for spring grazing(early May to mid June); however, it can and hasbecome a nuisance invading plant on nativerangeland. Smooth bromegrass, when present,will increase and dominate when idled for anextend period of time. Recommended alone or incombination with other introduced grasses orlegumes for grazing and hay production.

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Tall wheatgrassA coarse, cool-season, perennial bunch-grassfound on fine to moderate textured soils. This is aspecial purpose grass used to revegetate saline/alkali soils and for conservation programs toenhance wildlife habitat. This plant, a late matur-ing cool-season grass, becomes coarse andunpalatable to livestock as it matures. Tallwheatgrass is not generally recommended forpasture. However, it may provide adequate hay ifharvested prior to seedhead development.

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AlfalfaAn introduced, cool-season perennial legumeadapted to a wide variety of soil textures. Alfalfa’sprimary use is for hay production but it is alsoincluded in varying amounts in pasture andconservation program seeding mixtures. Alfalfacan be seeded alone or in combination with cool-season grasses to provide a high quality feed forlivestock.

83

SweetcloverAn introduced, cool-season biennial legumeadapted to a wide variety of soil textures andsites. Sweet clover is primarily used in seedmixtures for conservation cover and wildlifehabitat. Sweet clover provides good quality haywhen seeded alone or in combination with othercool-season grasses. Note: sweet clover is notan efficient user of water, often depleting mois-ture and creating a drought-like affect.

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■ Range ConditionRange condition is the present state ofvegetation of an ecological site in relationto the potential natural plant communityfor the site based on kind, proportion,and amounts of plants present; suggestscurrent productivity relative to naturalproductivity potential. Range condition isa reflection of past land use and environ-mental conditions. In the past, rangecondition has been expressed in terms of“Poor,” “Fair,” “Good,” or “Excellent.” Theterm “similarity index” will be used in thefuture to indicate how similar the presentplant community is to the potential plantcommunity for a particular site.

Tip: Long-term heavy grazing bydomestic livestock or nativeungulates tends to reduce rangecondition by decreasing the higherproducing desirable plants andincreasing low producing, oftenless desirable plants.

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Tip: Long-term heavy grazingresults in shallow rooted plants,lower herbage production, reducedwater infiltration, and increasedsoil surface temperatures.This results in decreased forageproduction and subsequentstocking rates.

Tip: Long-term non-use resultsin lower plant vigor and lessplant diversity, often creatingopportunities for invasive exoticplant species (i.e., smoothbromegrass, Kentucky bluegrass,and crested wheatgrass). Lessplant diversity resulting from thisinvasion may reduce forage qualityand production.

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Both photos show a loamy (silty) ecologicalsite in central North Dakota. Neither site hadbeen grazed prior to being photographed.

The loamy site on the top was rated at 65 to75 percent of the site potential. The site isdominated by mid-statured grasses such asgreen needlegrass and western wheatgrass withlesser amounts of needle-and-thread, prairiejunegrass, blue grama and upland sedges. A

Example: a loamy ecological site in BurleighCounty, North Dakota.

Loamy site – “good” condition

Loamy site – “fair” condition

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good diversity of forbs, including several speciesof native legumes. Also present are shrubs suchas lead plant and western snowberry(buckbrush).

Total annual production for this site wasestimated at 2900 lbs/ac air dry weight. Of thistotal production, about 70 percent (approximately2000 lbs) was produced by grasses and sedgeswhile the remaining 30 percent was produced byforbs and shrubs.

The loamy site on the bottom was rated at35 to 45 percent of the site potential. This site isdominated by shorter-statured grasses andforbs. The main grass species include bluegrama, needle-and-thread and upland sedges.Fringed and green sagewort were the dominantforbs with few native legumes present in theplant community.

Total annual production for this site wasestimated at 2300 lbs/ac air dry weight. Of this2300 lbs/ac, about half was grasses or sedgeswhile the remainder was produced by forbs.

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■ Grazing ManagementThe manipulation of grazing animals toaccomplish desired results when consider-ing of animal, plant, land, or economicresponses.

1) Grazing readiness: the defined stage ofplant growth at which grazing may beginunder a specific management plan withoutpermanent damage to vegetation or soil.Grazing readiness should be monitored todetermine when grazing can begin in thespring. Grazing readiness, as it relates toplant phenology, is similar among mostgrasses; however, when it occurs can varydramatically.

Tip: The following is a guide to aidin determining when plants areready to be grazed.

Leaf Stage Development:Native grasses at the 3½ leaf stageExotic (tame) grasses at the 3 leaf stage

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Leaf Height(minimum vegetative height in inches):

4 inches: crested wheatgrass, Kentuckybluegrass, little bluestem, Russian wildrye,sideoats grama

6 inches: alfalfa, sweetclover, greenneedlegrass, slender wheatgrass, westernwheatgrass

8 inches: big bluestem, sand bluestem,creeping foxtail, Indiangrass, intermediatewheatgrass, pubescent wheatgrass, prairiesandreed, reed canarygrass, smooth brome-grass, tall wheatgrass

12 inches: switchgrass

Approximate Date(range readiness should primarily be determined byleaf stage and height, calendar dates should be usedas a guide only):

April 20 - May 1: crested wheatgrass,sweetclover

May 1- May 10: creeping foxtail, Kentuckybluegrass, reed canarygrass, Russianwildrye, slender wheatgrass, smooth brome-grass

May 10 - May 20: alfalfa, green needlegrass,intermediate wheatgrass, pubescent wheat-grass, western wheatgrass

June 20 - June 30: blue grama, prairie sandreed,sideoats grama, switchgrass

After July 1: big bluestem, little bluestem, sandbluestem

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Minimum Heights of Pasture Species forBeginning and Ending Grazing1

Begin Grazing End GrazingMinimumMinimumMinimumMinimumMinimum

Minimum & OptimumMinimum & OptimumMinimum & OptimumMinimum & OptimumMinimum & Optimum RRRRRegrowthegrowthegrowthegrowthegrowthMinimumMinimumMinimumMinimumMinimum BeforeBeforeBeforeBeforeBefore

Height ofHeight ofHeight ofHeight ofHeight of StubbleStubbleStubbleStubbleStubble KillingKillingKillingKillingKillingVVVVVegetativeegetativeegetativeegetativeegetative ApproximateApproximateApproximateApproximateApproximate HeightHeightHeightHeightHeight FrostFrostFrostFrostFrost

SpeciesSpeciesSpeciesSpeciesSpecies Growth in InchesGrowth in InchesGrowth in InchesGrowth in InchesGrowth in Inches DateDateDateDateDate in Inchesin Inchesin Inchesin Inchesin Inches in Inchesin Inchesin Inchesin Inchesin Inches

Alfalfa 6 – 10 May 15 3 8Sweetclover 6 – 10 May 1 2 -Big bluestem 8 – 14 July 1 6 6Crested wheatgrass 4 – 6 April 20 3 4Green needlegrass 6 – 8 May 15 3 5Indiangrass 8 – 14 July 1 6 6Intermediate wheatgrass 8 – 14 May 15 4 6Kentucky bluegrass 4 – 6 May 7 2 4Little bluestem 4 – 6 July 1 3 4Pubescent wheatgrass 8 – 14 May 15 4 6Prairie sandreed 8 – 14 June 20 4 6Reed canarygrass 8 – 8 May 7 4 6Russian wildrye 4 – 4 May 7 3 4Sideoats grama 4 – 6 June 20 2 4Slender wheatgrass 6 – 12 May 7 3 6Smooth bromegrass 8 – 14 May 7 4 6Switchgrass 12 – 20 June 20 8 10Tall wheatgrass 8 – 14 May 7 4 6Western wheatgrass 6 – 10 May 15 4 5

*Grass and legume mixtures should be grazed in a manner that favors thedominant desired species.

*Height is the average height when leaves are lifted to a vertical position.

*To get the highest return from smooth bromegrass, intermediatewheatgrass and pubescent wheatgrass, start grazing when the plant is inthe early boot stage. Clip high prior to seed set to trigger regrowth of basalsprouts.

*The last harvest of alfalfa for pasture for hay should generally be made35 to 45 days prior to the time when the first hard freeze normally occurs.

*Minimum regrowth is critical if stand is to be maintained. On pasturegrazed only during the dormant season stubble height at the end of thegrazing period is applicable.

*Approximate date is for continuous grazing. Rotation grazing can usuallybegin three to seven days earlier.1NRCS Field Office Technical Guide, April 1998

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2) Rotational grazing: a system of grazingrequiring two or more pasture units betweenwhich grazing animals are moved in se-quence, thereby resulting in grazing periodsbeing followed by non-grazing periods.Rotational grazing is a management strategythat is HIGHLY RECOMMENDED.

NOTE: It is highly recommended that beforeimplementing a rotational grazing system aresource inventory be completed to help developthe proper rotational sequence based on goalsand available labor of the land manager. Forassistance in completing a resource inventory,see the technical assistance section of thisguide.

Tip: The number of pastures withina rotation should be based on theproducer’s goals, managementabilities, available labor, terrainand water availability. The numberof pastures influences the lengthof time a pasture will be grazedand the length of time a pasturewill be rested after grazing. Threepastures are probably the minimumnumber of pastures needed for arotation to be effective. However,without proper grazing manage-ment, the number of pasturesbecomes inconsequential andhigher pasture numbers mayactually be detrimental.

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Tip: Plant health and growingconditions will influence thenumber of days a plant needs torecover from grazing. A generalrule is to plan for a minimum of 30days of rest in western Minnesotaand eastern North Dakota and 45days of rest in western NorthDakota under good growing condi-tions (fast growth). As plantgrowth slows, rest periods need tobe extended to permit proper plantrecovery after grazing. Rest peri-ods of at least 45 days in westernMinnesota and eastern NorthDakota and 65 days in westernNorth Dakota are probably re-quired. Under drought conditions,longer rest periods may be neededto ensure grazed plants recoveradequate leaf area prior to nextgrazing.

Monitoring plant growth and adjusting theserest periods during the grazing season to reflectactual growing conditions is recommended.

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Tip: A proper rotation shouldconsider impacts on both the plantand grazing animal. Grazing pas-tures once during the grazingseason may reduce nutritionalvalue of the pastures grazed laterin the growing season due to ahigh degree of mature plants beingutilized. Grazing a pasture twice inthe same growing season mayimprove plant vigor while poten-tially increasing nutritional valueof the grazed plants.

Tip: For native pastures (range-land), alternate grazing periodsfrom year to year so that a pastureis not grazed during the same timeof the growing season two years ina row. For example, eliminate the“classic” spring pasture, summerpasture and fall pasture rotationschedule.

Tip: For tame pastures(pastureland) grazing periods neednot be altered from year to yearprovided proper grazing manage-ment and soil fertility are main-tained. For example, a crestedwheatgrass pasture would begrazed first in the spring each year.

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3) Degree of utilization: the proportion ofcurrent year’s forage production that isconsumed and/or destroyed by grazinganimals. May refer to a single plant species orto a portion or all the vegetation.

Tip: Proper utilization varies byplant species. However, mostplants do not tolerate overgrazing(overuse of a plant for consecutiveyears). Grazing utilization is classi-fied as slight, moderate, full, close,and severe use (see followingtable for description of eachgrazing use category). Properutilization should be monitoredusing those grasses that aredesired by the type of livestockbeing grazed and meet your man-agement objectives. For example,needle-and-thread versus sanddropseed, or green needlegrassversus upland sedges. If you aremanaging your rangeland forforage production, you would wantto monitor the level of use ongreen needlegrass since greenneedlegrass is a more desirableforage species than uplandsedges.

Tip: General rule of thumb wouldbe proper utilization is moderateto full use, depending on plantspecies.

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Utilization Level % Use1 Description1

Slight 0 – 20 Appears practically undisturbedwhen viewed obliquely. Onlychoice areas and forage grazed.

Moderate 20 – 40 Most all of accessible range showsgrazing. Little or no use of poorforage. Little evidence of trailingto grazing.

Full 40 – 60 All fully accessible areas aregrazed. The major sites have keyforage species properly utilized(about half taken and half left).Points of concentration withoveruse limited to 5 to 10 percentof accessible area.

Close 60 – 80 All accessible range plainly showsuse and major sections closelycropped. Livestock forced to usemuch poor forage consideringseasonal preference.

Severe > 80 Key forage species completely used.Low value forage carrying grazingload.

1E. J. Dyktserhuis. 1951

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Figures 2,3 and 4 show different grasses andthe relationship between plant height and weight.Because most of the weight of a grass plant isnear the base, 50% use by weight is not thesame level as 50% use by height.

Figure 2. Percent weight of western wheatgrassutilized at different stubble heights1

Height(inches)

80605030100

1.52.

53.5

5.5

12

14

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Figure 3. Percent weight of needle-and-threadutilized at different stubble heights1

Height(inches)

80605030100

1.62.53.

5

5.5

12

26

99

Figure 4. Percent weight of green needlegrassutilized at different stubble heights1

1Montana State University. 1999.

80605030100

1.62.53.55.

5

10

26

Height(inches)

100

Tip: Degree of utilization is ameasure of grazing intensity.A proper utilization level helpsensure that the grazed plantmaintains adequate leaf areafor photosynthesis and a deep,healthy root system. It alsoensures that some plant materialremains in the pasture for groundcover.

Tip: No use, over an extendedperiod of time, will be detrimentalto plant vigor, plant diversity andoverall rangeland health.

The amount of leaf material removed duringthe growing season also affects how rapidly agrazed plant will recover from a grazing event(Figure 5). The following table from “Grass: Astockman’s crop and how to harvest more ofit” (Harland E. Dietz) illustrates the impact ofleaf removal on plant growth.

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Percent leaf Percent ofof volume root growthremoved stoppage

10% 0%20% 0%30% 0%40% 0%50% 2 - 4%60% 50%70% 78%80% 100%90% 100%

Tip: The more leaf area that isremoved from a plant during eachgrazing event, the more time thegrazed plant(s) will need to re-cover. Pastures within a rotationthat are grazed short (more than50 percent of the leaf area re-moved) will need to be given morerecovery/rest time. This is espe-cially important during periods ofless than ideal growing conditions.

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Before After 5 days 10 days 15 daysgrazing grazing recovery recovery recovery

Figure 5. Plant regrowth rates depend on theamount of leaf removed at a grazing. Plant 2regrows more quickly because it can fix moreenergy through photosynthesis than Plant 1,which must draw on its root reserves for energyto regrow. (Reprinted with permission from “PastureVegetation – The Monitoring Tool Box” LandStewardship Project. June 2000.)

Tip: For monitoring degree of useinformation, see “Monitoring”section, Tab 19.

1

2

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■ Stocking Rate andCarrying CapacityStocking rate: defined as the number ofspecific kinds and classes of animals grazing orutilizing a unit of land for a specified time period,commonly expressed as animal units per acre.An animal unit is considered to be one maturecow of approximately 1,000 pounds with a calf ofup to six months of age (see animal unit equiva-lent guide for proper conversions for otherclasses or kinds of grazing animals). Stockingrate is typically expressed as the number ofanimal units grazed for a specific time period(days, months) in a given pasture or unit.

Carrying capacity: defined as the maximumstocking rate possible that is consistent withmaintaining or improving vegetation or relatedresources. It may vary from year to year on thesame area due to fluctuating forage production.Carrying capacity is usually expressed as thenumber of animal units that can be grazed for aspecified time period. In short, carrying capacityis the amount of forage available for grazinganimals and expressed as the number of avail-able animal unit months (AUMs), or number ofanimal units grazed for one month.

Tip: Stocking rate should equalcarry capacity for proper resourcemanagement.

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Methods to estimate carrying capacity:Carrying capacity or estimating forage quantitycan be estimated in several ways. Two commontechniques used in the field include clip andweigh, and interpreting forage production basedupon a range condition evaluation. Clip andweigh method requires actual harvesting ofstanding forage at a given time to predict avail-able forage. A range condition evaluation esti-mates baseline species composition and re-quires interpretation to arrive at a recommendedstocking rate using the NRCS guidelines for aspecific range site and region.

Clip and Weigh: The most accurate methodto assess the amount of forage in a pastureis to clip 5 to 15 samples of a 2 square footarea, dry and weigh (using a gram scale)each sample. The average amount of forageavailable is equal to the dry weight of allsamples collected divided by the number ofsamples multiplied by 50 to calculate theweight in pounds per acre. It is important toclip several samples and to be sure thesesamples represent the variation within thepasture. The number of samples necessarydepends on the uniformity of the pasture.The more variable the forage growth, thegreater the number of samples necessary.

Once forage production for the pastureis determined, actual stocking rate will becalculated using a harvest efficiency multi-plier. Harvest efficiency usually varies from25 to 35% on native rangeland dependingupon level of grazing management and 35

105

to 50% on tame pasture depending upongrazing management.

Example: If calculated herbage produc-tion is 2000 pounds per acre on nativerangeland being managed using seasonlonggrazing, available forage would be 500pounds per acre (2000 lb./ac X 0.25 = 500lb./ac). The 500 lb./ac would then be dividedby the forage consumed in pounds permonth by kind or class of animal. See AnimalUnit Equivalent Guide on page 106 formonthly forage intake amounts. For example,if grazing a 1000 pound cow with calf, forageconsumption would be 790 pounds permonth. Since available forage in our exampleis 500 pounds per acre, the stocking ratewould be 0.63 Animal Unit Months per acre(500 lb./ac divided by 790 lb./month = 0.63animal unit months/acre).

Range Condition Analysis: To estimatestocking rate based upon a range conditionevaluation, consult your local County Exten-sion Agent or NRCS office. See rangecondition section on page 85 for furtherinformation on range condition evaluation.

Tip: Estimated stocking ratecould be based on local knowledgeand past stocking rates if rangecondition, health and trend havemet the producers objectiveswithout degrading the resource.

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Animal unit equivalents guide1

Forage consumed inAnimal Unit Pounds (air dry)

Kinds/classes of animals Equivalent (AUE) Day Month

1000 lb. cow, dry 0.92 24 7271000 lb. Cow, with calf 1.0 26 7901200 lb. cow with calf 1.15 30 9091400 lb. cow with calf 1.29 33.5 1022Bison cow mature 1.00 26 790Bison bull mature 1.50 39 1182Horse, mature 1.25 32.5 988Sheep, mature 0.20 5.2 158Goat, mature 0.15 3.9 118Deer, white-tailed, mature 0.15 3.9 118Deer, mule, mature 0.20 5.2 158Elk, mature 0.60 15.6 474Antelope, mature 0.20 5.2 158Sheep, bighorn, mature 0.20 5.2 158Jackrabbit, white-tailed 0.02 0.5 15Prairie dog 0.004 0.1 31NRCS National Range and Pasture Handbook (1997) and MontanaState University Range and Pasture Records (1993).

The animal unit is a convenient denominatorfor use in calculating relative grazing impact ofdifferent kinds and classes of domestic livestockand common wildlife species. An animal unit(AU) is generally one mature cow of approxi-mately 1000 pounds and a calf as old as 6months, or their equivalent (AUE). An animal unitmonth (AUM) is the amount of forage required byan animal unit for one month.

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■ Hayland andHaying ManagementThe amount of hay and the quality of hayneeded to properly winter livestock inNorth Dakota and western Minnesotavaries with location, type of operation andgoals of the rancher. Due to theunpredictability of the winters, both inlength and severity, it is difficult to accu-rately predict the amount of hay neededeach year.

Tip: Generally, each ton of hay willprovide 2.5 to 3 animal unit months(AUM) of forage for winteringlivestock. Hay production will havea year to year variability basedupon environmental factors (rain-fall and temperature).

Management: Balancing quality and quantitywill depend on species mixture, plant stage attime of harvest, soil fertility and storage method.Maximum quantity will not generally give youmaximum quality. Hay harvest management is amatter of timing. Remember, wintering stockcows will not need as high of quality of hay asmilk cows.

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MinimumStubbleHeight

Species Groupings When to cut Inches

1) Beardless wildrye 1st cutting – medium to 3Creeping foxtail full headIntermediate wheatgrassPubescent wheatgrass 2nd and succeedingMeadow bromegrass cuttings when newSmooth bromegrass basal sprouts appearTall wheatgrassWestern wheatgrass

2) Crested wheatgrass Boot to early heading 3Green needlegrass

3) Reed canarygrass 1st cutting – early boot 3Later cuttings – whenbasal sprouts appear

4) Big bluestem Early boot to late boot 3Indiangrass stagePrairie sandreedSwitchgrass

5) Alfalfa 1st cutting – bud to 2early bloomLast cutting – Early bloomto 25 percent stand flowering

6) Sweetclover Bud to early flower 3

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Tip: Tame hayland and nativehayland on sites that have a watertable throughout the growingseason or receive additionalmoisture throughout a majorportion of the growing season maybe harvested once per year andsome years more than once agrowing season. To optimize bothquality and quantity, harvestingshould take place when the majorspecies is in the late boot or earlyheading stage. Tame hayland ineastern North Dakota and westernMinnesota may allow for multiplecuttings when moisture conditionsare good.

Tip: Native hayland on ecologicalsites that do not have a watertable or do not receive additionalrun-on moisture harvesting for hayis limited to one harvest every twoyears. To allow adequate recoveryafter hay harvest, grazing is lim-ited to the dormant season (usu-ally October 15 to April 15). Tooptimize both quality and quantity,harvesting should take place whenthe major species is in the lateboot or early heading stage.

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Tip: Grazing hayland following theremoval of a hay crop is generallynot recommended due to thepotential for decreasing subse-quent yields and long-term viabilityof the stand. Under a high level ofmanagement, which includescareful monitoring of plant re-growth and soil fertility levels,double use can be successfullyaccomplished during years ofabundant production. Grazingintensity level should be light tomoderate to maintain adequategrowth prior to fall dormancy.

Tip: Hayland comprised of intro-duced species (i.e., smooth brome-grass, alfalfa, crested wheatgrass)becomes deficient in nitrogen (N)approximately four to five yearsafter establishment, requiringfertilization to maintain maximumyields. A general rule-of-thumb isto fertilize with 40 to 90 pounds/acre of actual N per year withlighter rates occurring in westernNorth Dakota and heavier rates inwestern Minnesota. Research hasindicated that applying 60 to 135pounds/acres of actual N everyother year produces similar yieldsas yearly applications at thepreviously discussed rate with lessoverall cost per acre.

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Tip: Soil testing for phosphorusdeficiencies is highly recom-mended before applying as afertilizer.

For management of annual forages forhayland, see “Annual Forage” section.

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■ Pasture DevelopmentWhen developing a pasture, one must firstdecide on the intended season of use forthe pasture (i.e. spring grazing, summergrazing, full season grazing) and the soiltype you are dealing with. Once you havefully recognized your objectives for theland being developed and classified thesoil type, see the section “Forage Suitabil-ity Groups” for recommended alternativesfor plant species to seed. The followingguidelines are suggested for spring pas-ture, summer pasture, fall pasture, andfull-grazing season pasture.

Spring Pasture DevelopmentSpring pasture will normally comprise exotic

(tame) cool-season grasses that reach grazingreadiness by early to mid May. See the “ForageSuitability Group” section on those species thatcan be grown on the soil type in your area.Recommended cool-season grasses include:crested wheatgrass (early May), intermediate orpubescent wheatgrass (mid May), meadowbromegrass (early to mid May), and smoothbromegrass (early to mid May). Legumes (alfalfa,clover) may be added for potential improvementof diet quality, soil fertility, and overall long-termproductivity of the stand.

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Summer Pasture DevelopmentSummer pasture will normally comprise

native warm-season grasses or a mixture ofnative warm and cool-season grasses forsummer use (June-September). This section willconcentrate on warm-season grass options. Seethe section that follows for a detail description offull-grazing season pasture options that includesmixtures of both warm and cool-season plants.Grazing readiness for warm-season grassesusually occurs during the second to third week ofJune. See the “Forage Suitability Group” sectionon those species that can be grown on the soiltype in your area. Recommended warm-seasongrasses include: big bluestem (can be eitherseeded alone or with a mixture of other warm-season grasses), side-oats grama (recom-mended as a part of a warm-season grassmixture), and switchgrass (recommended to beseeded alone).

Fall Pasture DevelopmentFall pasture will normally comprise exotic

(tame) cool-season grasses for fall use (October-December). See the “Forage Suitability Group”section on those species that can be grown onthe soil type in your area. Recommended cool-season grasses include: altai wildrye (seededalone, October-mid November) and Russianwildryre (seeded alone, October-December).Note: Altai wildrye is usually 50 to 100 percentmore productive than Russian wildrye; however,Russian wildrye has a 2 to 3 percent highercrude protein content than altai wildrye inNovember and December. Neither grass will

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support sufficient nutritional quality for a lactatingcow after mid October.

Full-grazing Season Pasture DevelopmentThe first step a rancher must decide is

whether to plant a native or exotic (tame) grass/legume mixture. It is recommended NOT to mixnative and exotic grasses together due topalatability (taste) differences, highly competitivenature of exotic grasses, and the difficulty ofproperly managing these native/exotic mixtures.

Full-grazing season pastures will normallycomprise either: 1) a native cool- and warm-season grass mixture or 2) an exotic cool-season grass/legume mixture using a properrotational grazing system (June-October).Grazing readiness for cool- and warm-seasongrass mixtures usually occurs in late May toearly June. See the “Forage Suitability Group”section on those species that can be grown onthe soil type in your area.

Recommended cool- and warm-seasongrass options for a full-season seed mixtureinclude a combination of the following: bigbluestem, side-oats grama, blue grama, prairiesandreed, and switchgrass for warm-seasongrasses; and western wheatgrass and greenneedlegrass as cool-season grasses. Therancher should try to achieve a balanced mixtureof warm- and cool-season grasses to maintainthe full season of grazing. Legumes that could beadded to the mixture include: purple and whiteprairie clover, cicer milkvetch (light rate), andcrown milkvetch.

Recommended cool-season exotic grassesand legume options for a full-season seed

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mixture include the following: smooth brome-grass and alfalfa, meadow bromegrass andalfalfa, smooth and meadow bromegrass andalfalfa, and intermediate/pubescent wheatgrassand alfalfa. Sweetclover can be added to allmixtures at 5 percent if desired. Note: bloat (adeadly condition associated with ruminantanimals) must be addressed before grazingpasture with over 30 percent alfalfa. Ranchersmust learn how and when to graze alfalfa,particular with animals unaccustomed to grazingalfalfa. Once ranchers gain experience in manag-ing grazing animals on alfalfa safely, the risk ofbloat is reduced and potential returns from higherlivestock performance achieved.

Guidelines for seedingSeedbed preparation:

The seedbed must be essentially free ofcompeting vegetation, firm enough to permitseed placement at the desired depth, andprotected against erosion. A firm seedbed shouldhardly reveal adult footprints. Seeding may bedone into standing stubble from the previouscrop provided that weeds and volunteers of theprevious crop are properly controlled, and anappropriate seeding drill is used that can prop-erly penetrate the crop residue and place theseed at the proper depth while achieving goodseed-soil contact.

Seeding equipment:A drill designed to seed grass is highly

recommended. These drills have agitators andfeeder mechanisms to provide a uniform flow of

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seed at the desired rate. They are equipped withdouble disc furrow openers with depth bands orother depth control devices.

Grain drills may be used to seed most of thetame grass species, legumes and some nativegrasses. Having a properly prepared, firmlypacked seedbed is critical to achieving success-ful stands when using a grain drill.

Seeding dates:Southern 1/3 of ND Southern 2/3 of MNNorthern 2/3 of ND Northern 1/3 of MN

■ Cool-season grassesSpring Before May 10 Before May 20Late summer Aug. 10 to Sept. 15 Aug. 10 to Sept. 1Late fall (dormant)1 After Nov. 1 After Oct. 20

■ Warm-season grassesSpring May 10 to June 15 May 10 to June 15

■ LegumesSpring Before May 10 Before May 20Late summer Aug. 10 to Aug. 25 Aug. 10 to Aug. 25Late fall (dormant)1 After Nov. 1 After Oct. 201Soil temperatures should be below 40 degrees F for three consecutive days tominimize risk of seed germination.

Seeding rates:Most grass species in North Dakota and

western Minnesota are seeded at a rate of 25 to30 seeds per square foot. The lower rates aregenerally recommended in western North Dakotaor on drier sites. The higher rates are generallyrecommended in eastern areas on sites withmore favorable moisture conditions. Adjustmentsare made for some species based on seed size,

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seedling vigor, and seed conditioning. Theserates are for drill planting with a row spacing of12 inches or less, the recommended row spacingfor most grass planting purposes. Seeding ratesare shown in pure live seed (PLS) pounds peracre.

Species/Variety lb/ac PLS

■ Introduced GrassesBromegrass

Meadow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 - 16.5Smooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 - 8.0

FescueHard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 - 4.0

FoxtailCreeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5

WheatgrassBluebunch/Quackgrass Hybrid . . . . . 10.0 - 14.0Crested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 - 7.0Intermediate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 -10.0Pubescent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 -10.0Siberian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 - 7.5Tall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.0 -13.5

WildryeAltai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.0 -19.0Dahurian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 - 10.0Mammoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.0 - 24.0Russian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 - 7.5

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Species/Variety lb/ac PLS

■ Native Cool-Season GrassesCanarygrass

Reed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Needlegrass

Green . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 - 7.5Wheatgrass

Bluebunch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.0 - 9.5Slender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0 - 5.5Streambank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 - 8.5Thickspike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 - 8.5Western . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.0 -10.0

WildryeBasin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.0Beardless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 - 8.5Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 - 7.5

■ Native Warm-Season GrassesBluestem

Big . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 - 7.5Little . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 - 4.5Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 -12.0

Buffalograss(bur) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.0 - 26.0

CordgrassPrairie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0

GramaBlue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 - 2.5Sideoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 - 7.5

Indiangrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 - 7.0Sandreed

Prairie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 - 5.0Switchgrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 - 4.5

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Tip: Legumes seeded during thelate fall (dormant) seeding periodmay be subject to injury if earlygermination occurs followed by alate spring freeze, reducing standestablishment.

Tip: If cool and warm-seasongrasses are mixed, use therecommended seeding dates thatcorrespond to the dominant grasstype.

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■ Annual ForagesAnnual crops can be used for mid to late summerforage production providing good options forpasture or hay land. When selecting an annualcrop, the rancher should decide on the intendeduse (grazing, hay, or both). Some annual forageprovides good hay but lacks sufficient rootstructure to support grazing, while others arerecommended for pasture use only. Many annualforage crops can be hayed or grazed and oftenused for both in the same year. A commonpractice would be to plant a forage crop for hayand graze the regrowth in late summer or earlyfall (regrowth is very dependent on late summermoisture conditions and a risk exists if you’redependant on that regrowth for grazing). Recom-mended annual forages for hay land, pasturelandor double cropping of hayland followed withgrazing include:

Hay and PastureHay Type Only1 Pasture Type Only Type

Siberian foxtail millet Annual ryegrass SudangrassCommon foxtail millet OatsGerman foxtail millet Forage barley

Sorghum-sudangrassPearl milletTriticale

1Foxtail millet can be used for pasture if allowed to reach boot stage or later prior to grazing.

Tip: Peas may be added with oats,forage barley, and triticale for hayor pasture mixtures. This mayimprove overall nutritional qualityand soil fertility.

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Tip: All forage crops can beplanted throughout North Dakotaand western Minnesota, exceptGerman foxtail millet and pearlmillet are NOT recommended inthe western half of North Dakota.

Tip: Sudangrass and sorghum-sudangrass forages have potentialfor PRUSSIC ACID POISONING andshould not be grazed until 18inches tall for sheep and 24 inchestall for cattle. Newer sudangrassvarieties have a much lower risk ofprussic acid poisoning. Prussicacid toxicity also increases whenplants are stressed by droughtconditions or after a frost. SeeNDSU Extension Service CircularV1150, “Prussic Acid Poisoning,”for more information.

Tip: NITRATE POISONING canoccur in oats, forage barley, triti-cale, pearl millet, sudangrass, andsorghum under drought-stressconditions or in the early stages ofplant development. The risk ofnitrate poisoning also increaseswith the amount of nitrogen fertil-izer used to start the crop. SeeNDSU Extension Service CircularV839, “Nitrate Poisoning of Live-stock,” for more information.

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■ Expired CRP Lands

Evaluation for productivity of expiring CRPstands

Once the rancher evaluates the existingstand for noxious or perennial weed problems,vigor, and overall stand viability, proper renova-tion techniques may be implemented to improvethe stand quality and quantity.

RenovationBurning, fertilization, heavy harrowing,

interseeding or complete re-establishment maybe needed to produce a healthy, productivestand for use as pastureland, hayland or otherconservation uses (i.e. wildlife habitat).

Prescribed burning would be primarily usedto remove old plant residues, increase theamount sunlight for new plant growth and releasetied-up nutrients.

A prescribed burn plan is recommended toensure the burn accomplishes the objectives in asafe manner.

Fertilization with N may be needed torejuvenate CRP stands, especially if the legumecomponent of the stand has become limited. Theamount of nitrogen needed will vary from 40 to90 pounds of actual N depending on soils andrainfall (higher rainfall areas and sandier soils willrequire the higher rates). Phosphorus may alsobe limiting. A soil test is recommended beforefertilizing with phosphorus to determine if theneed exists.

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Heavy harrowing using two to four passeswill remove standing litter, disturb low vigorplants, and minimize pocket gopher mounds. Amore robust regrowth with greater vigor is oftenachieved using this technique.

Interseeding may be an option if the existingstand is weak (bare ground) or one or moredesired plant species is missing from the stand.If bare ground exists, interseed with the one ormore species that have management require-ments similar to the existing stand. If the objec-tive of the interseeding is to introduce one ormore new plant species into the existing grassstand, interseeding with a legume has proven themost effective. Suppression of the existingvegetation with an herbicide is recommendedwhen adding legumes to the stand to reducecompetition and enhance seedling establish-ment.

In either case, without conventional seedbedpreparation, a drill that can penetrate the plantresidues, place the seed at the proper depth andfirm the soil around the seed is critical. A dor-mant seeding is recommended but springseeding may also be used if moisture conditionsare favorable.

Grazing management(see grazing management section)

Haying management(see haying management section)

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■ Fencing OptionsThe goal of fencing is to facilitate the man-

agement of the livestock herd. The type anddesign of a fencing system will vary with the typeof animal and the level of management. Bound-ary fences should be constructed to a higherstandard to minimize liability concerns associ-ated with livestock leaving the property. Althoughcross fences should be designed to properlycontain livestock to the prescribed pasture, theymay be constructed to a more economical level(i.e. one to two strand electric fence vs. fourstrand barbed wire).

Options for fencing include barbed wire, twostrand smooth wire, single strand smooth wire(energized or non-energized), temporary orpermanent electric (energized) fence, wovenwire and electric mesh. Choice of fencing willdepend on the animal type and/or class of animalto be controlled and the producer’s objectives orcomfort level.

Corner bracingProperly installed corner brace assemblies

are the cornerstone of any fence. Fences with

Horizontal brace (compression member)

Direction of fence pull

Brace postB

C

1o lean

Twist stick

Brace wire (tension member)

Anchorpost

A

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poor corners generally require more mainte-nance and have a shorter life span than thosewith well designed and installed corner braces.

The key to properly installed corners lies inunderstanding the relationship between thelength of the cross brace (A), the height at whichthe cross brace is installed (B) and the resultingangle formed between the brace wire and theground (C). To be effective, the length of thecross brace (A) must be at least twice thedistance at which it is installed from the ground(B). Maintaining this relationship will ensure thatthe angle between the brace wire and the ground(C) will be 30 degrees or less. If this angle isgreater than 30 degrees, the pull from the fencewires will tend to lift the back post out of theground.

Tip: Experience and researchindicates that a corner braceassembly with a brace post atleast 8 feet long mounted approxi-mately 4 feet off the ground is theminimum design criteria for aneffective corner assembly. For astronger corner, one fencingcontractor recommends installinga brace post that is at least 2.5times as long as the top wire isfrom the ground. For example, ifthe top wire is installed at 48inches, the brace post would needto be at least 120 inches long.

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Energizers (fence chargers)

Low impedance vs. high impedance energizersImpedance refers to the amount of restriction

manufacturers place on the flow of electricity(amperage) exiting the energizer. Energizers witha long spark duration and high amperage havethe potential to start grass fires and injure orpossibly kill anything caught in the wire. There-fore manufacturers install resistors into thesetypes of energizers to reduce the amperagethereby reducing the potential damage. Thesetypes of energizers are termed “high impedance.”

High impedance chargers tend to short outeasily because their amperage has been re-duced.

Low impedance energizers have beendesigned with a much shorter spark duration.This shorter spark duration eliminates the needfor reducing the amperage with resistors, hencethe term “low impedance.” Because thesechargers operate with a higher amperage, theyare less likely to short out on weeds or otheritems that may come in contact with the fence.They are safe to operate with this high amperagebecause the spark is extremely short in duration(usually around 0.0003 seconds).

Tip: For most animals, the gener-ally accepted optimal voltagerange is between 2,000 and 6,000volts. The more or thicker the hairon the animal, the greater therequired voltage for control.

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Comparing energizersMost companies rate their energizers by the

“Miles of Fence” standard (Minding Your Fences.March 1977. Thomas K. Cadwallader. PastureProphet. Vol.5, No. 1. Grazing Lands TechnologyInstitute). Energizer A will charge 10 miles offence versus energizer B which will charge 15miles of fence. However, this standard does nottake into consideration the weed loading or theelectromagnetic resistance that occurs inmultiple wire fences. To obtain an accuratecomparison of energizers, you need to determinethe amount of amperes (amps) that each ener-gizer is generating. To do this, you need a basicunderstanding of the following electrical terminol-ogy and how to use this information to computethe amps each energizer generates.

Tip: Amps (Amperes) are a mea-sure of the “amount” of electricitythat flows through the circuit. It isthe amperage, not the voltage thatcauses the greatest amount ofnumbing pain and potential dam-age when anything receives ashock.

Tip: Watts are a measure of theelectrical rate of doing work. It is aunit of electrical power that issimilar to horsepower. It is calcu-lated by: Amps x Volts = Watts

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Tip: A joule is a unit of electricalenergy equaling the amount ofenergy required to produce onewatt for one second. Joules arecalculated by: Watts x Seconds =Joules

Tip: Pulse time is the length oftime the fence is “on.” May also bereferred to as “spark duration.”

Tip: An example to evaluate ener-gizers: We can evaluate energizerA and B using variations in theabove formulas.

Energizer A is listed as a 4.5 joule unit thatcan maintain 5,000 volts under low weed pres-sure. If energizer A’s pulse time is 0.0003seconds, then we can make the followingcalculations:

4.5 joules/0.0003 seconds = 15,000 watts15,000 watts / 5000 volts = 3 amps

Energizer B is also a 4.5 joule unit that canmaintain 5,000 volts but has a pulse time of0.0006 seconds:

4.5 joules/0.0006 seconds = 7,500 watts7,500 watts/5,000 volts = 1.5 amps

As you can see in this example, energizer Bproduces only one half the amps of energizer A

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due to the difference in pulse duration. EnergizerB is actually only a 2.25 joule energizer.

Energizer groundingLack of an adequate grounding system on

electric fences is one of the most commoncauses of ineffective animal control. Follow theenergizer manufacturer’s recommendations forproper grounding. Generally, proper groundingrequires at least two; half-inch galvanized rods atleast 6 feet in length driven entirely into the earth.Grounding wire from the energizer should besecurely attached to these rods using the properfastener.

To check the adequacy of your groundsystem, you will need a digital volt meter (DVM).

Testing the ground systemBefore testing your fence’s grounding

system, you will need to place the fence under aheavy load. You can do this by resting severalsteel stakes (steel fence posts work well) on thelive wire(s) of the fence at least 330 feet awayfrom the energizer. Keep adding stakes until thefence voltage is reduced to 2 kV or less.

Using the DVM, measure the voltage be-tween the energizer’s ground wire (the wireattached to the negative post on the energizer)and an independent grounding rod placed atleast three feet from the energizer’s groundingrods. If the reading on the DVM is greater than200 volts, then more grounding rods are needed.Add permanent ground rods to the energizer’sgrounding system and repeat measurementsuntil proper reading is obtained.

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■ Water Options

Tank sizeThe minimum livestock storage tank capacity

should be enough to meet the minimum waterrequirements for the number of animals beinggrazed per day. The water tank should supplyadequate water for two to three days using anelectric (hard wired) pump or three to seven daysusing wind or solar type pump.

Tip: Use the following formulawhen calculating storagerequirements:

Number Days Totalof X storage X Requirements = gallons

Livestock required gallons/head/day needed

For example:

50 cow/calf pairs X 4 days X 13 gallons/head/day= 2,600 gallons

Tip: Use the following formulawhen calculating tank storagecapacity:

Capacity = 23.5 X r2 X d;where r = diameter of tank / 2 and d = depth of tank

For example:

Diameter of tank = 15 ft, depth = 2 ft23.5 X (15 / 2)2 X 2 = 2,644 gallons

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Tip: Quick reference:

Tank diameter Capacity @(in feet) Depth of 2 feet

8.0 752 gallons9.0 952 gallons

10.0 1,175 gallons11.0 1,422 gallons15.0 2,644 gallons20.0 4,700 gallons30.0 10,575 gallons

Tip: The EXPECTED waterconsumption per head per day(low requirements reflect coolertemperatures and higher require-ments reflect high temperaturesand dry conditions).

Beef cattle: 6 to 18 gallons/head/dayDairy cattle: 10 to 30 gallons/head/daySheep and goats: 1 to 4 gallons/head/dayHorses: 8 to 12 gallons/head/day

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Water quality

Tip: Studies in Montana andAlberta, Canada show a5-30 percent weight advantage incalves and yearlings that hadaccess to higher quality waterin tanks.

Tip: Water sources that providehigher quality water include: Wells,wells with pipelines, and fenceddugouts or dams where water ispumped from the dugout or daminto a tank.

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■ Range NutritionThe key to range nutrition is matchingthe needs of the grazing animal with theavailable forage. The needs of the animalwill vary with age of animal, if mature;stage of pregnancy, if lactating; and ageof nursing offspring. Nutritional value offorage will vary with stage of plant devel-opment and environmental conditions.

Tip: Nutritional quality of rangeplants is highest in the springwhen they are actively growing,often becoming deficient uponmaturity (latter half of the growingseason). Grazing management canpossibly enhance diet qualityduring the later portion of thegrazing season.

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Figure 6. Crude protein content (%) of cool- andwarm-season grasses and typical native range

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■ Noxious WeedsNoxious plants are undesirable in lightof planned land use or unhealthy to rangeor pasturelands. Noxious plants arecategorized by the State Department ofAgriculture and will vary from state tostate.

Absinth wormwood.Introduced perennial forb which is found ondry soils, in overgrazed pasture and rangeland,disturbed areas, Conservation Reserve Program(CRP) fields and roadsides. Absinth wormwoodis easily recognized by its grey color and strongsage odor. Absinth is a prolific seed producerthat can also spread by short roots. This plant isunpalatable to most classes of livestock, causingeconomic losses by reducing available forage.

Tip: The presence of absinthwormwood is a symptom of anunhealthy plant community charac-terized by bare ground and lowplant vigor.

Tip: Herbicides should be appliedwhen the plant is at least 12inches tall and actively growing(late June to mid August).

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Tip: Herbicides are the mostfrequently used control technique.The NDSU publication W-838,“Absinth Wormwood Control,” liststhe most affective herbicides tocontrol absinth wormwood, includ-ing clopyralid (Stinger or Curttail),dicamba (Banvil), 2,4-D and piclo-ram (Tordon). See table for resultsfrom experiments conducted inNorth Dakota (Lym et al. 1994).

Months aftertreatment

Herbicide Rates 3 12 15(lb/ac) (% control)

dicamba 0.5 20 70 75dicamba 1.0 60 90 1002,4-D 1.0 15 75 752,4-D 2.0 50 85 95picloram 0.13 35 90 100picloram 0.19 60 100 100picloram 0.25 90 100 100clopyralid 0.19 50 90 90clopyralid 0.25 75 100 95clopyralid + 2,4-D 0.19 + 0.75 85 100 95

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Canada thistle.Introduced perennial forb found on moist sites,in overgrazed pasture and rangeland, disturbedareas, Conservation Reserve Program (CRP)fields, and roadsides. Canada thistle usuallygrows two to three feet tall and has alternatedark green leaves that vary in size. Canadathistle has small, compacted flower heads thatappear on the upper stems and range in colorfrom lavender to pink or white. This plant isunpalatable to most classes of livestock, causingeconomic losses by reducing available forage.Sometimes flowers are consumed by calves,yearling cattle and horses.

Tip: Canada thistle is less of aproblem in healthy plant communi-ties. The plant becomes anaggressive invader in areas withbare ground and low plant vigorresulting from excessive overgrazing or over rest.

Tip: Prevention is the best controlmethod. Since thistle ofteninvades overused or disturbedland, the best preventive measureis to reseed the disturbed areawith a desirable species as soonas possible. Proper grazing man-agement and rotational grazingpractices should be establishedand maintained.

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Tip: Herbicides are the mostfrequently used control technique.The NDSU publication W-799,“Perennial and Biennial ThistleControl,” lists the most effectiveherbicides to control Canadathistle, including 2,4-D, clopyralid(Stinger or Curttail), dicamba(Banvil), and picloram (Tordon).See table for results from experi-ments conducted in North Dakota(Lym and Zollinger 1995).

Tip: Control is greatest whenapplied at the early bud growthstage (early summer) or in the fallto plants in the rosette form.

Herbicide Rates Commentsa

(lb/ac)dicamba 0.5 to 4.0 use surfactant high rate

for patch treatment2,4-D 1.5 to 2.0 suppression onlypicloram 0.25 to 1.0 restricted use high rate

for patch treatmentpicloram + 2,4-D 0.125 to 0.5 + 1.0 restricted useclopyralid 0.25 to 0.5 expensive but very

effectiveclopyralid + 2,4-D 0.3 + 1.5 cost-affective for large

infestationsaConsult the specific label for use and grazing restriction, surfactant requirements, andspecific application rate.

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Leafy spurge.Introduced perennial forb widely established inNorth Dakota and western Minnesota on avariety of soils and sites. Leafy spurge normallygrows 2 to 3 feet tall from a woody crown that isbelow the soil surface. This plant produces a flat-topped cluster of showy yellowish-green bractswhich bear small and green flowers. The rootsystem is extensive and consists of numerouscoarse and fine roots which occupy a largevolume of soil and can extend to a depth of 15feet or more.

Leafy spurge contains a toxic substance thatwhen consumed by most livestock and wildlife isirritant and purgative. However, sheep and goatswill graze leafy spurge and can provide a form ofcultural control.

Tip: Leafy spurge will invadepasture and rangeland regardlessof management practices.However, proper land managementwill minimize the rate of spread.

Tip: Early detection and treatmentof new infestations is criticalto provide effective control andminimize economic losses.

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Tip: Best control techniquesinclude a combination of herbicide,biological and cultural tools.Biological control includes insectswhich are available from the NorthDakota Department of Agriculture.Cultural control includes managedgrazing by sheep and goats aloneor in combination with cattle (seeNDSU Extension Service circularR-1093, “Controlling Leafy SpurgeUsing Goats and Sheep”).

Herbicide treatments include picloram(Tordon), dicamba (Banvil), 2,4-D, picloram +2,4-D, glyphosate + 2,4-D (Landmaster BW) andimazapic + MSO (Plateau). See NDSU ExtensionService circular W-765, “Leafy Spurge Identifica-tion and Control,” for detailed recommendations.

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Musk thistle.Introduced biennial forb found in dry upland andsandy soils, occurring in overgrazed pasturesand disturbed sites. Musk thistle often grows inexcess of 6 feet, has very large flowers that tendto droop, and flower has very characteristicbrown bracts that resemble pine cones. Flowersare usually deep rose colored, solitary, and verylarge, producing in excess of 10,000 seeds perplant.

Tip: Prevention is the best controlmethod. Proper grazing manage-ment and rotational grazingpractices should be establishedand maintained.

Tip: Control techniques includeherbicides and biological. Weevilshave been introduced to controlmusk thistle with limited success.Herbicides commonly used tocontrol musk thistle include 2,4-D,clopyralid (Stinger or Curttail),dicamba (Banvil), and picloram(Tordon). See table for results fromexperiments conducted in NorthDakota (Lym and Zollinger 1995).

Tip: Control is greatest whenherbicides are applied in the fallbut prior to a killing frost.

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Herbicide Rates Commentsa

(lb/ac)dicamba 0.5 to 1.0 use surfactant high rate

for patch treatment2,4-D 1.5 to 2.0 suppression onlypicloram 0.125 to 0.5 restricted use high rate

for patch treatmentpicloram + 2,4-D 0.125 + 1.0 restricted useclopyralid 0.125 to 0.5 expensive but very

effectiveclopyralid + 2,4-D 0.2 to 0.3 + 1.5 cost-affective for large

infestationsa Consult the specific label for use and grazing restriction, surfactant requirements, andspecific application rate.

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Spotted knapweed.Introduced perennial forb that rapidly invadespasture and rangeland causing serious declinein forage production. Spotted knapweed is foundon a wide variety of soils and sites. It is a prolificseed producer, producing up to 1000 seedsper plant. Seed remains viable in the soil for fiveyears or more so infestations may occur anumber of years after vegetative plants havebeen eliminated. Spotted knapweed releases atoxin that reduces growth of neighboring plants.

Tip: Prevention is the best controlfor spotted knapweed. People arethe major cause of spotted knap-weed spread. The weed is spreadreadily in hay and on vehicleundercarriages. Avoid drivingthrough patches of spotted knap-weed and do not transport haycontaining this weed.

Tip: The plant generally is easy tocontrol with herbicides but thearea must be monitored for severalyears and retreated as necessary.

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Tip: Herbicides should be appliedwhen the plant is in the rosettegrowth stage in the fall or in thebud to bloom stage in the spring.Herbicides commonly used tocontrol spotted knapweed includeclopyralid + 2,4-D (Curttail),dicamba (Banvil), and picloram(Tordon). See NDSU ExtensionService circular W-842 “SpottedKnapweed,” for recommendedcontrol guidelines (Lym andZollinger 1992).

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■ Poisonous PlantsPoisonous plants are those that producepoisonous substances that harm livestock.Depending on the poison and the amountof plant material eaten, an animal may die,may be disabled permanently or mayrecover completely. Although poisonousplants do occur in North Dakota andwestern Minnesota, they are generally nota problem. If they do become a problem,it is generally a symptom of inadequateforage production resulting from low rangecondition, drought or a combination of thetwo.

Listed are the more common poison-ous plants found in North Dakota andwestern Minnesota.

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Arrowgrass.Perennial plant found in wet meadow andwetland and saline lowland ecological sites. Aslong as arrowgrass has adequate moisture, itdoes not cause poisoning; however, when growthis stunted from lack of moisture or early frost,plants quickly become toxic due to high level ofhydrocyanic or prussic acid.

Affected livestock: cattle, sheep, bison, elkand goats

Symptoms of poisoning:- nervousness- abnormal breathing, either rapid or slow

and deep- trembling or jerking muscles- blue coloration of the lining of the mouth- spasms or convulsions continuing at short

intervals until respiratory failure causingdeath

Tip: Arrowgrass will be presenteven in high condition rangelandbut seldom grazed if adequateforage is available.

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Blue Green Algae (Cyanobacteria).Found in stagnate sloughs, dugouts and dams,sometimes causing poisoning, usually whenanimals drink stagnant water during hot weatherin mid to late summer. Toxic cyanobacterialblooms occur because of favorable conditionsincluding hot, sunny days and warm, nutrient-richwater. Algae blooms usually do not last long;however, affected animals rarely range far fromthe water source.

Affected livestock: All classes of domesticlivestock, dogs, and some small wildanimals.

Symptoms of poisoning:- nervous derangement- staggering- tremors- severe abdominal pain

Tip: Animals intoxicated withcyanobacteria are characterizedby convulsions, incoordination,bloody diarrhea and sudden death.

Tip: There are a number of ways todetermine the presence ofcyanobacteria. If concentrations ofcyanobacteria are suspected in awater body, walk around to theleeward side of the water body. Ifany dead animals such as mice,muskrats, birds, snake or fish arepresent, assume a poisonouscondition exists.

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Larkspur.Perennial plant found on upland prairie ecologicalsites. All plant parts, especially the leaves, arepoisonous. In North Dakota, cattle rarely feed onlarkspur when good forage is available. The toxicsubstance is an allkaloid.

Affected livestock: Cattle, rarely sheep orhorses.

Symptoms of poisoning:- nervousness- staggering and falling- nausea- excessive salivation- frequent swallowing- twitching of muscles- rapid, irregular heart action- respiratory paralysis

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Locoweed and milkvetch.Perennial plants generally found on the drierupland ecological sites. These plants are poison-ous during all stages of growth and may bedangerous throughout the year. All plant partsare toxic due to an alkaloid named swainsonine.Usually, an animal must eat large amounts ofplant material for two to five weeks before deathoccurs. In cows and ewes with acute poisoningabortion frequently occurs.

Common species include Lambert’s crazy-weed, two-grooved milkvetch, and tine-leafmilkvetch.

Affected livestock: cattle, horses, sheep andgoats.

Symptoms of poisoning:- loss of flesh- irregular gait- loss sense of direction- nervousness- weakness- withdrawal from other animals- lack of muscular control- violent actions when disturbed

Tip: Animals ordinarily will not eatlocoweed unless feed is scarce.But, some animals may preferlocoweed to good forage.

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Oak.Perennial tree found on dry uplands, woodydraws and some riparian zones. Poisoning iscaused by consuming young trees, maturefoliage, acorns and fallen leaves. Toxic sub-stances are oak tannins.

Affected livestock: cattle, bison, and horses

Symptoms of poisoning:- gaunt, tucked-up appearance- constipation, frequently followed by

profuse diarrhea- weakness- tendency to remain near water- reluctance to follow the herd- emaciation- mucus in droppings- dark-colored urine- collapse

Tip: Oak is most dangerous in thebudding and leafing stages.

Tip: A diet containing more than 50percent oak browse will causesickness, with more than 75percent of the affected animalsdying.

Tip: Make sure animals are notsuffering from a depraved appetitebecause of a lack of phosphorus.

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Russian thistle, kocha, pigweedand goosefoot.Annual introduced plants found on disturbedsites, bare areas and on areas of low range andpasture condition. These plants are potassiumnitrate accumulators. Nitrate toxicity occurs atelevated levels and greatest when plants areyoung or stressed due to drought or frost.

Affected livestock: cattle, horses, sheep,goats and bison.

Symptoms of poisoning:- bluish/chocolate brown mucous mem-

branes- rapid, difficult breathing- noisy breathing- rapid pulse- salivation, bloat, tremors, staggering- weakness, coma, death- dark “chocolate-colored” blood

Tip: See NDSU Extension Servicepublication V-839, “Nitrate Poison-ing of Livestock.”

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Water hemlock.Perennial plant generally found in wet meadowand wetland ecological sites and along creekbottoms. Water hemlock is probably the mostpoisonous plant that grows in the United States.The toxic substance is cicutoxin, a highly poison-ous unsaturated alcohol. The most toxic part ofthe plant is the root, followed by young growth.

Affected livestock: all animals and humans.

Symptoms of poisoning:- muscle twitching- rapid pulse- rapid breathing- tremors- convulsions- dilation of pupils- excessive salivation- frothing at the mouth- coma

Tip: Roots are exposed by grazinglivestock and/or haying equipmentpulling plants from the ground.

Tip: Animals seldom eat waterhemlock if good forage is avail-able.

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■ MonitoringThere are very good reasons to monitor.Monitoring helps you make decisions,provides trends so a manager can plan forthe future, confirms good managementpractices, reveals potential problems early,and teaches about relationships in nature.We need to monitor to help us makebetter decisions in managing ournatural resources for the future.

At the most basic level, monitoring is justwatching what is happening, then adjusting yourmanagement to make sure you will meet yourgoals. The only problem is, you have to watchthose things that will help you decide what yourmanagement has done, or will do, to yourresources in meeting those goals.

Before you implement a monitoring program,you should set your goals and objectives. Yourgoals and objectives will help you determine thelevel of detail you need in your monitoringprogram.

Vegetation can be monitored using structure,species composition, frequency, density, produc-tion, cover and various combinations. Eachmethod provides unique types of information thatcan be used to describe a plant community andeach has different limitations.

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Tip: Many people wonder whetherit is necessary to monitor the landwhen they are already monitoringlivestock weights. Although track-ing animal performance is defi-nitely worthwhile, these recordsdo not tell much about the healthof the land. The principal reason isthat a time lag exists betweenwhen the land deteriorates andwhen the degradation is reflectedin animal performance. The landdeteriorates first and may degradeappreciably before the animalsshow any effect. This is becausethe animals can initially compen-sate by feeding on less preferredforage plants and by using energyand nutrients stored in their bod-ies. By the time animal perfor-mance declines, the land may havebeen degraded to the point whereit will require decades to recover.

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Many techniques have been developed byvarious agencies and universities to help ranch-ers and land managers monitor their resources.Select a monitoring program that fits yourobjectives, resources, labor and time. Becauseeach operation varies by resources and goals,we can not recommend one monitoring tech-nique over another. Potential sources of informa-tion on monitoring include:

“Monitoring Montana Rangeland.” MontanaState University Extension Service Bulletin369. 1994.

“Monitoring for Success.” Montana StateUniversity Extension Service. 1999.

“The Monitoring Tool Box” Land StewardshipProject. 2000. http://landstewardshipproject.org

For assistance in developing a monitoringprogram that fits you and your operation,see the “Technical Assistance” section.

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■ Record KeepingKeeping accurate records on how manylivestock are in a pasture(s), how longthey are in a pasture(s), growing condi-tions and some general notes on pasturecondition are all part of a monitoringsystem. This information is valuable inanalyzing changes that may occur dueto grazing patterns and environmentalconditions.

This can be as simple as a pocketnotebook or a detailed record keepingprogram. This document contains a rangeand pasture record keeping system foryour use. It allows you document pastureturn-in dates, rotation dates, livestocknumbers and weather.

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■ Technical AssistanceOn-site technical assistance may beavailable from the following agencies.

NDSU Extension Servicehttp://www.ext.nodak.edu/

Natural Resources Conservation Servicehttp://www.nd.nrcs.usda.gov/http://www.mn.nrcs.usda.gov/

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service – PrivateLands Coordinator

http://offices.fws.gov/directory/OfficeDetail.cfm?OrgCode=62440

N.D. State Land Department(State School Lands)

U.S. Forest Service (National Grasslands)http://www.fs.fed.us/r1/dakotaprairie/

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