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Research Highlights 97
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT(Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India)
RAJENDRANAGAR, HYDERABAD- 500 030.
2010-11
RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS
© National Institute of Rural Development
March, 2012
Published byNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT(Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India)Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030. IndiaTelephone : 040 - 24008473www.nird.org.in
Printed at : VAISHNAVI LASER GRAPHICS, Ph. 040 - 27552178
It gives me immense pleasure to present the ResearchHighlights for the year 2010-11 to the discerning readers. NationalInstitute of Rural Development, as part of its mandate, takes upresearch studies on various aspects of rural development andpoverty alleviation. The purpose of research is to gain firsthandinsights about the needs and priorities of the rural people, theprocess of rural transformation and the factors affecting theimplementation of all flagship programmes of Government ofIndia. The findings of these studies are useful for the policy-makers, academicians and rural development functionaries tounderstand the ground realities.
In order to facilitate wider dissemination of the findings ofthe studies, the annual publication of the Research Highlightsis brought out by the Institute. I trust that the publication willprovide adequate glimpses of the research conducted by theInstitute.
(M.V.RAO)
Dr. M.V.RAO, IASDirector GeneralNational Institute of Rural Development
Hyderabad.
FOREWORD
S.No. Project Title Project Page.Team No.
1. Dynamics of Participatory Watershed U.Hemantha Kumar 1
Management : A Case Study of ChittoorDistrict Watershed in Andhra Pradesh
2. Economic Improvement of SHG Dr. Shankar Chatterjee 7
members after Forming Federations :A Study across Two States of India
3. Study of Variations in Social Audit Dr. V. Annamalai 11Processes Across certain States Dr. R.R. Prasad
in India
4. Impact of Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) Dr. R.Chinnadurai 18
on the Food Security of the Poorest
of the Poor in Rural Areas
5. Factors Facilitating Participation of Dr. C. Dheeraja 25
Women in Mahatma Gandhi NREGS Dr. N.V. Madhuri
6. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Dr. K.P. Kumaran 31
Employment Guarantee Schemeand inclusion of People with
Disabilities
7. Role of Exclusive Credit Linkage Dr. T.G. Ramaiah 34
Programme for Occupational Dr. G. Rajanikanth
Dynamics among Fisherwomen
8. Training and Capacity Needs Dr. B.Uday Kumar Reddy 41
Analysis for MGNREGS’ Functionaries Dr. Gyanmudraand Officials Dr. C. Dheeraja
9. Effect of Financial Inclusion on Saving Dr. B.C. Das 47and Expenditure Pattern of ST Wage Dr. P.K. Nath
Seekers in MGNREGS
CONTENTS
10. Problems and perception of Women Dr. G. Valentina 55
Elected Representatives on Planningand Implementation of Rural
Development Programmes at the
Grassroots Level
11. Study on “Impact of MGNREGS Ms. P. Leelavathi 59
on Migration” Dr. G. Valentina
12. Study on Indira Awaas YoJana (IAY) : Dr. Y. Gangi Reddy 66
Integration of felt needs of Tribals Dr. P. SivaRamDr. S. Venkatadri
13. Sustainability of Total Sanitation Dr. P.SivaRam 74Campaign (TSC) in Nirmal Gram Dr. Y. Gangi Reddy
Puraskar (NGP) Awarded Gram Dr. S. Venkatadri
Panchayats in Sikkim
14. Empowerment of Disadvantaged Dr. Y. Bhaskar Rao 80
Groups Through the Initiativesof PRIs : A Study in Orissa and
Jharkhand
15. Effect of MGNREGS on School Dr. T. Vijaya Kumar 87
Enrolment and Attendance Among
the Children of Below Poverty Line(BPL) Families
16. District Planning Committees : Dr. K. Jayalakshmi 92Performance in BRGF and Non -
BRGF Districts
S.No. Project Title Project Page.Team No.
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Research Highlights 1
DYNAMICS OF PARTICIPATORY WATERSHEDMANAGEMENT : A CASE STUDY OF CHITTOORDISTRICT WATERSHED IN ANDHRA PRADESH
U. Hemantha Kumar
Introduction
Increasing regional imbalances on account of
unprecedented development in resource endowed areas and
low profile of tapping full potential in rainfed areas is an
anthropological phenomenon across the globe. Development in
rainfed areas has been receiving considerable priority through
several initiations in recent past. It has been receiving priority
attention since mid-eighties (DPAP, DDP and IWDP). These
interventions with regard to natural resource based activities
showed promising performance during project and post-project
period to some extent. Keeping in view the above developmental
interventions, the importance of the study is as follows.
* The important dynamic intervention in watershed is dealing
with people. People who depend upon the resources are
important. Many of watershed initiations during the project
and post-project periods, the sustainability of interventions
was however low in majority of cases. This was essentially
due to improper adoption methods right from selection of
watersheds, PIA and without the knowledge of different
sections of people and their dynamics (homogeneous/
heterogeneous groups and their socio-economic profiles)
in different villages in the watershed area.
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* The watershed villages across India have different
dynamics of highly complex resource dependability (over-
exploitation of groundwater), dominance of power
structures/pressure groups, poor negotiation norms,
networks and risk prone areas of scanty rainfall, geo-
morphological differences.
The participatory watershed approaches right from 1994-
95 initiated by MoRD, MoA (2000) and other funding agencies
adopted similar approaches where during project and post-
project sustainability of interventions is not up to the mark. The
variations in project processes, technological interventions and
poverty initiatives, all these concerns were not dealt properly.
Recent studies showed that the sustainable aspect of watershed
intervention is hardly noticed barring a few watersheds in India.
The mainstream implementation of watersheds lacks proper
mechanisms for institutional arrangements and dealing its
dynamic attitudes either power structures or homogeneous/
heterogeneous nature of communities and their actions in tune
with natural resources management and livelihoods in the
watershed areas.
Prime Objective
The main objective of the case study is to know the
participatory watershed approach adopted by different agencies
and to prepare a case study of success/failure participatory
management of watersheds.
Methodology and Study Area
The methodology for preparation of case study is selecting
two watersheds spread across the district of Chittoor (one is
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Research Highlights 3
successful implementation and management of watershed -
Sanganapally and another one is failure watershed-Jagamarla)
in Andhra Pradesh. The sample includes the Watershed
Committee, User Groups, Self-help Groups, Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRI), Project Implementation Agency (PIA)-
Watershed Development Team (WDT), district officials and 5
households each from size class-wise farmers and social class-
wise villagers, labourers (landless also) and women.
Important Findings
a. Maintenance of Watershed Development Fund : There is
no clear cut norm over management and utilisation of
Watershed Development Fund (WDF). The withdrawal
strategies were very weak in the watershed. Due to
inefficiency over maintenance of WDF, this fund still
remains unutilised and Project Director at the district keeps
without any proper arrangements. The withdrawal
strategies were very weak in the watershed.
b. Intensive Cultivation : Paddy is being cultivated intensively
by the farmers in the watershed area. Due to recharge of
groundwater (construction of checkdams, series of farm
ponds, and percolation tanks over ridge to valley approach
in the watershed area) water is available to second crop,
where farmers are cultivating the paddy crop regularly.
This causes conflicts between the upper reach and down
reach farmers. This indicates that there is a need for
collective action arrangements and negotiation norms are
required while implementing watershed.
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c. Competition among women members : At the time of
watershed initiations and formation of Watershed
Committee (WC), User Group (UG) and Self-help Groups
(SHGs), there was a competition among the villagers
(Sanganapalle and Burugulapalle) as well as among the
women members. This caused absence of initial meetings
for several months. Some of the women members
dominated the groups and each member wanted president
post.
Despite the above conflicts, the impact of watershed
project was visible in the watershed villages of Sanganapalle
and Burugulapalle. Impact is visible and positive in the case of
economic as well as social indicators when we compare before
and after scenarios. Groundwater recharge has improved (both
borewell as well as open wells). The newly emerged dairy
development (improvement of livestock population and fodder
availability) (100 per cent increase in milk production), floriculture
and vegetable cultivation and thrift activities (through SHGs) some
of the households strengthened economically and socially.
MGNREGS vs. Watersheds Impact
Interestingly, the implementation of MGNREGS is followed
after completion of the watershed projects in the village. It gives
upgradation of the watershed initiations. Since in the watershed
area most of the geophysical condition are not favoured (the
type of the soil and nature of soil texture is gravel and sand), the
NREGS works have strengthened the watershed works in the
sample villages. The works under NREGS and Comprehensive
Land Development Programmes (CLDP) have contributed a lot
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Research Highlights 5
in the watershed area. However, from administration (scheme
implementation) and labour point of view, the NREGS is so
flexible when compared to watershed programme with regard
to the programme implementation. The following are some of
the facts generated during interaction with the officials and the
group of labour.
Conclusion and Suggestions
The findings of the study reveal that any development
initiative needs proper mix of involvement, commitment and
collective action mechanisms at different levels of the
programme. Dynamics of participatory watershed management
has to be implemented in certain lines such as proper institutional
mechanism, dedicated PIA, delivery mechanisms, proper
assignment of rights, norms and negotiations and finally
addressing the issues of social and political dominance in the
watershed area. The two sample watersheds in Chittoor district
of Andhra Pradesh reveal two different dimensions.
* Proper Institutional Mechanism: Though there were conflicts
initially in Sanganapalle watershed, these conflicts have
been minimised due to the stringent steps taken by the
PIA and WDT members.
* Collective action is needed: The villagers (heterogeneous
group) realised the full benefits of the watershed through
a series of negotiations as well as collective action
mechanisms.
* Withdrawal mechanisms need to be addressed properly.
The WDF maintenance and rights over asset creation
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and maintenance are not clear. Due to the failure of delivery
mechanism and proper assignment of rights, some of the
conflicts over use of resources still exist in both the
successful as well as failure watershed areas.
* When it comes to the Jagamarla watershed (failure
watershed), despite the initial efforts made by the Project
Director, due to dominance of group politics and continuous
changes of PIA, the implementation of watershed has not
materialised.
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Research Highlights 7
ECONOMIC IMPROVEMENT OF SHG MEMBERSAFTER FORMING FEDERATIONS : A STUDY
ACROSS TWO STATES OF INDIA
Dr. Shankar Chatterjee
Introduction
The study was conducted among SHG members who
were federated as a single unit for effective utilisation of
resources.
Objectives
i) To study levels of living of SHG members before joining
and after joining Federations.
ii) To assess improvement in the income level of SHGs/BPL
families after joining Federations.
iii) To analyse strengths and weaknesses of SHG members
after joining Federations.
Methodology and Data Sources
Methodology for the study includes data of both
secondary and primary sources. For secondary data, annual
reports published by the MoRD, GoI, state government’s
publications and other publications were consulted. As primary
study, Federation members and SHG members of the Federation
were visited and data were collected by framing structured
schedule.
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From Howrah, 1 block and 4 villages were visited for the
study. On the other hand in Krishnagiri, 4 blocks and 7 villages
were studied. Although from village federation(s), as per proposal
50 SHG members from each State (thus totaling to 100
members) were planned to be covered for the study but in the
field 58 members, from Tamil Nadu, in West Bengal 51 SHG
members who were part of Federation were contacted for the
study. Thus, 109 SHG members (58+51) were covered under
the study.
Study Area
The study was carried out in Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.
In Tamil Nadu, Krishnagiri district was visited where MYRADA
promoted SHG federations whereas in West Bengal federations
promoted by State Government in Howrah district were taken
up for the study.
Principal Findings
a) All the beneficiaries under the study in both the districts
were women.
b) In Howrah district under this study SCs and STs constituted
54.9 per cent of the swarojgaris (only SC, no ST) and
whereas minority were 40 per cent. SC & ST together
constituted little more than 30 per cent of the beneficiaries
in Krishnagiri district with no minority beneficiary.
c) Most of the beneficiaries in both the districts joined the
SHGs on or before 2005.
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Research Highlights 9
d) In Howrah district most of the beneficiaries were mainly
involved with various types of trades /business which
before project and after project they continued. Only one
was eking out her (family) livelihood through agriculture
and animal husbandry. No beneficiary in Krishnagiri was
fully involved with agriculture after extended bank loan.
Along with agriculture they were rearing various livestock,
although 18 (31 per cent) beneficiaries prior to getting
bank loan i.e. before joining CMRC, were eking out their
livelihood mainly through agriculture (animal husbandry
was in small way).
e) Income statistics reveal that prior to assistance average
income of each beneficiary from agriculture, animal
husbandry and poultry was almost ` 1847 in Krishnagiri
district, after the assistance in Krishnagiri district income
of the beneficiaries has gone up almost by three times. In
case of trade and business, initial average income level
was ` 2300 per month which has increased to more than
double as average income for beneficiary comes to around
` 4900 per month. Impact on income prior to assistance
and post-assistance in Howrah district reveals that
agricultural and allied activities which were major activities
of one beneficiary increased by four times from ` 500 to
` 2000. In Howrah, average income from trade and
business, which prior to assistance was ` 1013, increased
by nearly 2½ times to ` 2423.
An attempt was made to get an idea about the impact of
income prior to assistance and after assistance. For this t-value
was tested and found that the t-value for Krishanagiri district is
19.4 and same for Howrah district is 17.8. Thus it is evident that
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at 1 per cent level it is significant. In other words, beneficiaries
benefited after the assistance/bank loan in both the study areas
by way of increase in income significantly.
Suggestions
i. All the beneficiaries should be provided with the monitoring
card and same should be up-dated from time to time.
ii. In Howrah district, Swarojgaris may be extended second
cycle of loan who deserves for expanding their business.
iii. Marketing arrangement of ‘jari’ clothes may be made in
Howrah district.
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Research Highlights 11
STUDY OF VARIATIONS IN SOCIAL AUDITPROCESSES ACROSS CERTAIN STATES IN INDIA
Dr. V. Annamalai
Dr. R.R. Prasad
Introduction
Social audit in India is part of an international trend
towards greater accountability in all fields. Social auditing is a
process by which organisations can account for, report on, and
improve their social performance. It indicates and quantifies the
social impact and ethical behaviour of an organisation in
relation to its aims and those of its stakeholders. To put
it precisely, social auditing is a process by which an organisation
accounts for its social performance to its stakeholders and seeks
to improve its future social performance.
To ensure continuous public vigilance, Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)
through Social Audit (SA) involves the potential beneficiaries
and other stakeholders of an activity or project at every stage:
planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. This
process is to ensure that a project is designed and implemented
to suit local conditions, reflecting priorities and thus effectively
serving the public interest. Under the scheme, there are certain
standard procedures and process of social audit is to be adopted
by all the states. This research study was carried out broadly
to find how various states responded to the mandatory social
audit process in MGNREGS as now the scheme acquired
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enormous experience in the process of social audit. It would be
also necessary to look at how other agencies are adopting social
audit process in improving their organisational performance.
The issues involved in the study are, firstly, to what extent
different organisations could adopt the process? What are the
difficulties in following social audit process? Could it help in
improving the performance of MGNREGS? How do the
grassroots institutions responded in terms of participation and
support? Does it improve local governance and transparency?
Whether these practices follow the principles as enunciated
above viz: multi-perspective, comprehensive, comparative,
regular, verifiable, widely disclosed to community and ultimately
improves organisational performance.
Objectives
1. To study the state-specific variations with regard to
processes and steps followed in conducting social audit
2. To study the nature of involvement of Civil Society
Organisations (CSOs) in facilitating social audit process
3. To study the follow-up action on the findings of social audit
Methodology
Since this research study is primarily based on the
secondary data, efforts have been made to collect and compile
various government orders issued by the various state
governments regarding conduct of the social audit, its frequency
in a year, processes involved, facilitating agency, and the role of
the NGOs and CSOs in facilitating social audit. Findings of the
social audit are compiled and efforts have been made to
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ascertain whether any follow-up action was made on the social
audit findings. The study also looked into whether social audit
has been conducted for programmes other than the MGNREGS.
Attempts are also made to ascertain whether the cost and time
involved in the conduct of social audit are factored in the
programme budget.
The study mainly relied on secondary data including
circulars, documents, case studies as documented by these
agencies, publicity materials and any other relevant documents
from various agencies. Published practices, content analysis of
social audit reports of MGNREGS, recorded or published
practices were also collected during the fieldwork for analysis.
Stakeholders have been contacted in the States of Andhra
Pradesh and Rajasthan for their views on strength and weakness
of social audit through methods of Focus Group Discussion
(FGD) and interviews.
The process of other organisations using social audit
was also studied for comparison with MGNREGS Social Audit.
Study Area
The research study is carried out in the States of Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
Findings
The concept of social audit as envisaged by MGNREGS
has been adopted and developed in its own way by Andhra
Pradesh. It developed mechanisms like “Society for Social Audit,
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Accountability and Transparency” (SSAAT) for elaborate and
systematic process of social auditing through formation of a
series of rules and changed the rules and regulations based on
its experience in evolving social audit mechanisms. The case of
AP shows the enormous magnitude of SA in MGNREGS. There
are reports of other states like Rajasthan also introducing
separate directorate/wing for social audit. It is necessary to
mention here that it took many years since NRGES came into
being to develop such social audit mechanisms and process. It
remains to be seen that the evolved system of social audit is
able to meet the goals of accountability and transparency in all
the villages in AP.
Kerala social audit process is unique as it adopted the
concept of social audit during people’s planning stage and
incorporated in the Kerala Panchayat Act itself. These include
Citizen’s Charter, Right to Information about the developmental
activities of Panchayats, Notice Boards, Social Audit, presentation
of Performance Audit Report in Gram Sabha, and convening of
four Gram Sabha meetings a year. Kerala Panchayat Raj aims
to attain efficient governance by ensuring people’s participation
and transparency in governance. Many Panchayats have initiated
innovative experiments in this respect over the last 10 years.
Based on these experiences, steps to develop more transparent
governance of Panchayats in Kerala have been underway during
the 11th Five Year Plan.
Initially, Kerala has carried out social audit process under
NREGS in two districts. Based on these experiences it developed
social audit manual for carrying out social audit in all the districts,
Its experience is unique as Kerala panchayat act itself provides
provision for social audit by Gram Sabha. As per the KPR Act,
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Gram Sabha is the forum for social audit. Panchayats are bound
to conduct social audit of their developmental activities in Gram
Sabha. The Gram Panchayat is responsible for creating
conducive environment by providing necessary information and
records for conducting social audit in Gram Sabha. Kerala is
planning to expand to other districts of Kerala based on the
social audit manual. Interestingly, other departments like finance,
pensions and roads also adopted and carried out social audit.
Efforts have been made to describe the process of social
audit in Madhya Pradesh. It may prima facie appear that social
audit in the State is not being organised in the manner it is
desired by the act conforming norms of “transparency and
accountability.” State endeavour is to organise social audit in
regular interval. Looking at the concern of state government it
should be hoped that process will improve gradually. It appears
from the instructions that concept, guidelines, circulars and
instruction issued by the State are clear. It is to be monitored
as to what extent they are being understood and followed at the
field level.
Gujarat evolved its own mechanism and process of social
audit notably with major involvement of an NGO called Unnati.The involvement of Unnati is beginning with the formation of
social guidelines and actual facilitating of social audit at gram
sabha level. Its social audit reports are submitted to relevant
levels of government to follow-up action. Acccording to Dr Binoy
Acharya, from Unnati, state government sent immediate actions
on the reports submitted by his organisation. Gujarat interestingly
involved colleges and universities as neutral observers and
involved in the documentation of the social audit done under
NREGS.
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Recently, Himachal Pradesh brought out social audit
guidelines with assistance from GTZ-German Agency working
in HP on social accountability mechanism in rural development
sector particularly on drinking water. However, it is not clear
whether these guidelines are superseding the earlier rules on
social audit. To sum up, there has been delay in developing full-
fledged social audit mechanism as of now in HP.
The State of Rajasthan is known for pioneering right to
information and social audit. However, it is yet to develop
mechanism and process as envisaged under the operational
guidelines of MGNREGS of 2008. There have been severe
backlashes particularly opposition from sarpanches against social
audit.
Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN) built up over a period
of time social audit mechanism and process in the
implementation. It used the experience in Community Resource
Persons (CPRs) available in Mahalir Thittam (MT) and
Community Professionals (CPs) of Vazhndhu Kattuvom Project
(VKP) for capacity building of social audit committee members.
In the implementation of VKP, it has developed participatory and
transparent mechanism and adopted the practices of social
audit. However, it acts in extreme caution in selecting social
audit committee members and relies extensively on local
bureaucracy.
Conclusions
There are certain fundamental things as mandated by
NREGS act adopted by all the states like conducting of social
audit by gram sabha. It is interesting to note that the act has not
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adopted any definition of social audit. The supposed framework
of social audit process mandated and suggested is not time-
bound so that the intended aims of transparency and
accountability of NREGS scheme can be achieved within a
particular period. Variations can be seen despite certain
fundamental principles and practices to be adopted by various
state governments.
All the state governments adopted the mandatory
provisions like conducting of social audit by gram sabha and
disclosure of information. However, the variations are shown in
selected states when the operational guidelines are to be followed
and to achieve overarching principles of transparency and
accountability. Broad dimension of social audit process as it
emerged now could be seen in States like Andhra Pradesh,
Kerala, Gujarat and Rajasthan. It is not to discount that other
states in the study not performed well. They are in the process
of evolving social audit mechanisms
The selected states for the study adopted different
approaches for facilitating social audit. States like AP adopted
the approach of synergising the government machinery with
Civil Society Organisations (CSOs). It also exclusively and
intensely focused on social audit process by having SSAAT with
the people having background of community mobilisation. States
like Gujarat, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh partnered with
CSOs to develop and implement social audit mechanisms and
process. Many states mainly involve administration to carry out
social audit activities.
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IMPACT OF ANTYODAYA ANNA YOJANA (AAY) ONTHE FOOD SECURITY OF THE POOREST OF THE
POOR IN RURAL AREAS
Dr R. Chinnadurai
Introduction
Antyodaya Anna Yojana was launched on 25 December,
2000. This scheme reflects the commitment of the
Government of India to ensure food security, to create a hunger
free India and to reform and improve the Public Distribution
System so as to serve the poorest of the poor in rural and
urban areas. It is estimated that 5 per cent of population are
unable to get two square meals a day on a sustained basis
throughout the year. Their purchasing power is so low that
they are not in a position to buy foodgrains round the year even
at BPL rates. It is this 5 per cent of population (5 crores of
people or 1 crore families) who constitute the target group of
Antyodaya Anna Yojana. From the inception, the scheme was
expanded to three times and at present, the target group has
been increased to 2.5 crores families. Identification of 2.5 crore
families out of the number of BPL families is the responsibility
of the state governments and they would be provided foodgrains
at the rate of 35 kg per family per month. The foodgrains have
to be issued by the Government of India @ ` 2 per kg for wheat
and ` 3 per kg for rice. The Government of India suggests that
in view of abject poverty of this group of beneficiaries, the State
Government may ensure that the end retail price is retained at
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` 2 per kg for wheat and ` 3 per kg. for rice. The criticism of
various civil society organisations and reports of press on the
status of implementation of the scheme by the different states
brings out a number of problems at the identification of
beneficiaries and distribution of benefits. In this context a study
on the impact of the AAY programme on the food security of the
poorest of the poor was conducted to bring out various untouched
issues on the status of implementation, ability of the distributing
agencies, problems faced by the implementing agencies and
beneficiaries.
Objectives
* To analyse the impact of AAY in the light of increased
number of BPL card holders.
* To analyse overall impact of AAY on the food security of
poorest of the poor in the rural areas.
* To identify successful factors for strengthening of
programme delivery.
Methodology
The study was conducted in three States namely
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand. Purposive sampling
technique was used to identify the study districts and below
study units. In each state one district was selected on random
and two blocks from each district were selected. In order to
carry out in-depth impact analysis, from each block two to three
AAY distribution centres were selected. A minimum of 10 per
cent and maximum of 100 beneficiaries were selected by using
systematic random sampling technique. List of AAY beneficiaries
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in each PDS distribution centre was collected, based on the
number of beneficiaries in each centre maximum of 100
respondents were selected. For example, in Maharashtra five
centres were studied, each centre was having AAY beneficiaries
ranging from 150 to 200, around 20 beneficiaries were selected
for interview. Only Antyodaya BPL card beneficiaries were studied.
The selection of respondents was from the pool of entry of last
5 years, 4 per cent of the beneficiaries from each year were
covered to constitute the expected 10 per cent. Suitable interview
schedule of questions covering all the issues mentioned above
was developed for the study. Adequate care was taken while
preparing the study tool with focus to collect required data to
fulfil the objectives. Interview schedule was administered with
adequate pre-tests. Data were also collected from the officials
of programme implementing agency, NGOs and CBOs etc.
Direct interview was conducted with the beneficiaries, focus
group discussions and observational techniques were also used.
People’s responses regarding awareness on their entitlements
and other provisions of the schemes were enquired. Eligible
non-beneficiaries were also contacted for their views on their
difficulties in getting or not getting the BPL cards and scheme
benefits.
Study Area
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand.
Findings
Among the study respondents, 79.6 per cent are males.
In all the three States majority respondents are males only.
There were 35.3 per cent in the age group of 36-45, followed
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by 28.3 per cent above the age of 46. Another 27 per cent
belong to the age between 26-35. Since the AAY focused to
cover aged, widows and single member families and majority
respondents belong to the age group of 40s and 50s.
There is high level of illiteracy among study population,
it is around 63 per cent, among the literates majority studied
only primary education. The occupational status reveals that
around 83 are agriculture casual labourers. They earn adequate
livelihood only during peak agriculture season. Annual family
income of the study area reflects that 33.6 per cent have income
between ` 12000-15000, followed by 32.6 per cent having income
between ` 9000-12000. Family annual expenditure of whole study
population is in the range of ` 6001 to less than 15000. But sub-
classification shows 32.6 per cent families had expenditure
between ` 12001 to 15000, another 30.6 per cent had family
annual expenditure ` 9001 to 12000. Eighty three per cent
respondents agreed on payment of money for obtaining ration
cards and they paid to the officials of the revenue department.
Around 80 per cent of respondents have access of distribution
centre in their own habitations; only 20 per cent respondents
have to move to nearby main village to get PDS benefits. All the
respondents buy wheat and rice every month from PDS. In
addition, around 83 per cent beneficiaries purchase kerosene,
77 per cent purchase cooking oil and 84 per cent buy edible
levy sugar from the PDS system on subsidised rates.
Foodgrains are supplied to the beneficiaries on monthly
basis, it was acknowledged by 72.3 per cent, on the cost loss
in terms of losing labour wage, 65.6 per cent replied ` 100-200
as their loss in every purchase.
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Around 36 per cent replied positively on the prevalence
of gender discrimination and suppression by rich against poor
but remaining 64 per cent responded negatively. Only 10.3 per
cent responded that the quantity supplied under AAY is sufficient
for their consumption. According to data, higher percentage of
people i.e. 49.3 responded that whole year they face food
inadequacy due to less income and more number of children.
Followed by, 34.6 per cent face food inadequacy during October
– December; 13 per cent replied January – March. Majority
respondents, i.e. 56 opined that the quality of materials under
PDS is good, 22 per cent feel satisfactory and another 22 per
cent expressed that materials are of poor quality. It is reported
that 73 per cent have not verified or cross checked the entries
of ration card and PDS supply register. Seventy one per cent
responded that middlemen involvement is very high in all the
three States in functioning of PDS. It is due to local politicians’
interference to help their kith and kin to control over PDS supply
which is one of the important factors of local influence to keep
people within their clutches. Local traders also hinder the civil
supplies for making benefit through illegal trade of PDS goods
because of prevailing high variation of commodity prices in the
open market. Another around 19 per cent viewed that local
powerful people enjoy the benefits through indulging into
malpractices; another 56 respondents expressed that local
traders encourage and instigate the PDS functionaries to involve
in black marketing to make money; It is understood from the
views of respondents that PDS goods are sold up to ` 15 per
kg of rice or wheat. Around 36 per cent respondents confirmed
that goods are sold for the price range from ` 10-15.
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All the respondents use foodgrains for their own
consumption but only 22 per cent sell some of the materials like
sugar, kerosene and cooking oil. These commodities help to
fetch some money to buy essential commodities like groceries,
dhal, salt etc. The effect of increased number of BPL population
on the supply of PDS materials to the consumers was verified
and responses reveal 34 per cent agree that they could not get
entitled quantity in some instances.
The BPL survey conducted during the year 1994 was
the latest one therefore, newly emerged families and families
which became BPL from APL category due to natural shocks
have not been included in the present public distribution system.
The quantity of supply of foodgrains by the Government of India
is based on the Planning Commission BPL data but the State
Governments give additional BPL cards to the new families of
the BPL category which mismatch the demand and supply in
the PDS system. There are inclusion errors of APL category
who get BPL cards by political influence or local power structure.
There are bogus cards in the name of dead members or migrated
families, etc., in this direction around 41 per cent of study
population agreed about the existence of inclusion and exclusion
errors. It happens in all the study regions of the three States.
There are 88.6 per cent who purchase all the items and quantity
entitled for them. But there are 11.3 per cent who are not able
to purchase because of non-availability of money or if the
products are inferior quality or denial by PDS shop.
Conclusion
It is now well recognised that the availability of foodgrains
is not a sufficient condition to ensure food security to the poor.
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It is also necessary that the poor have sufficient means to
purchase food. The capacity of the poor to purchase food can
be ensured in two ways – by raising the incomes or supplying
foodgrains at subsidised prices. While employment generation
programmes attempt the first solution, the PDS is the mechanism
for the second option. With a network of more than 4.62 lakh
fair price shops (FPS) distributing commodities worth more than
` 30,000 crore annually to about 160 million families, the PDS
in India is perhaps the largest distribution network of its kind in
the world. This huge network can play a more meaningful role
only if it ensures the availability of food to the poor households.
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FACTORS FACILITATING PARTICIPATION OFWOMEN IN MAHATMA GANDHI NREGS
Dr. C. Dheeraja
Dr. N.V. Madhuri
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act is a
landmark initiative in providing 100 days guaranteed employment.
MGNREGA has the potential to enhance women’s economic
independence through cash earnings and social status through
participation. So the present study sought to explore, through
fieldwork, the reasons behind, extent and the implications of
women’s participation in NREGA in selected districts of four
States, Kerala, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Bihar.
Objectives
The specific objectives of the study are:
* To assess the present status of women’s participation in
Mahatma Gandhi NREGS in all phases;
* To analyse the facilitating factors as well as hindering
factors (socio-cultural and economic) for qualitative
participation of women in MGNREGS and also state
specific development programmes affecting women’s
participation.
* To study the role of women functionaries in MGNREGS on
quality of participation of women wage seekers.
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Survey instruments include structured schedules for
MGNREGS women workers, Focused Group Discussions
(FGDs) and interviews. Information was collected on the socio-
economic profiles, institutional affiliation, participation in women
development programmes and also their participation with regard
to MGNREGA. The village information was collected to assess
the socio-economic conditions of the village in which study was
carried out. Study was conducted in four districts of four States
namely Mahaboobnagar of Andhra Pradesh, Thrissur district of
Kerala, Gaya district of Bihar and South 24 Paraganas of West
Bengal.
Findings of the Study
Factors like characteristics of a person (such as literacy),
a situation (such as the drought), or a person’s environment
(such as family members’ - ill-health) that force a person to
participate though not really interested are called vulnerability
factors. In the present study an attempt was made to list out
few such factors and they are, no sufficient agriculture work,
migration, lack of skills to do other works, poverty, unemployment,
debts, bonded labour, health problems of other members in the
family etc.
There are few factors which encourage and motivate the
respondents to participate in MGNREGS. Such factors are listed
out and they are, support from the family, group arrangement,
equal wages, minimum wages, timely wages, work taken up in
their own land, higher than market wages, institutional payment,
worksite facilities, timely employment, sensitivity of the officials,
SHG membership etc.
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There are few factors which form as constraints or
obstacles for the respondents to participate in MGNREGS even
though they are willing to work. Out of such factors, untimely
employment, delayed payments, health problems, rigid timings
are few. Household work load, own agricultural works, wages
less than market wages, unequal wages, gender and caste
discrimination, worksite harassment, insensitivity of the officials,
problems in getting employment, officials not able to provide
employment, lack of mandatory worksite facilities, hard work
and distance to worksite etc. are also included in such category.
To document the outcomes of women participation in
MGNREGS, data on the changes in the quality of life (like
incomes, food, clothing, health, education, housing etc.) and
changes (within and outside) in environment of women are
collected. In all the parameters of quality of life, majority of the
respondents reported moderate change; however the outcomes
varied across the sample districts. In Gaya, major change was
observed in the income levels and also in the quantity and quality
of food intake followed by expenditure on clothing, health and
education. Very minimal changes took place in the area of
housing. Similar trend was observed in other two sample districts
of Thrissur and South 24 Paraganas with varying degrees of
change. But when it comes to Mahaboobnagar in almost all
parameters, responses reveal that changes occurred were
moderate and significant.
Any development programme will impact not only the
quality of living of the beneficiary but also the factors contributing
to the empowerment within and outside the environment women
deal with. Few indicators of empowerment like leadership
qualities, mobilising skills, negotiation skills, decision making
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skills, financial management skills, resource mobilisation, political
participation, mobility, membership in VDOs, self-confidence,
competence and self-esteem were measured posing few
questions before the participation in MGNREGS and at present.
An attempt was made to score the responses of the respondents
for the outcomes and the changes that took place within and
outside environment of women due to participation in
MGNREGS. The average score was 11.9 per cent before
participation in MGNREGS and increased to 47.4 per cent with
participation in MGNREGS.
Recommendations and Policy Implications
* For improved participation of women focus to minimise
the vulnerable factors and hindering factors should be taken
up and more attention on motivating factors should be
laid.
* As per the observations of the study there is impact of
women empowerment programmes on quality of
participation of women in MGNREGS. So a convergence
mode of planning should be taken up where both
programmes will take the support of each other.
* Women officials are found playing constructive role and
facilitating the participation of women in MGNREGS and
so as a policy certain percentage of positions at each
level may be reserved for women functionaries.
* There are few grey areas with regard to participation of
women in the MGNREGS process like participation in social
audit and planning of works etc. where special IEC efforts
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should be made to educate women. The women members
of GP should also be involved, in large measure, in
mobilising and guiding women workers.
* Though NREGA was not envisioned as an exclusively
women’s empowerment programme, the opportunity taken
by a large number of women indicates a preference for
“government work” which provides dignity and higher
wages than available in the market. The problems such
as drudgery need to be addressed by making available
gender-sensitive / women-friendly tools.
* NREGA implementation could be strengthened by effective
provisioning of what is already available in the Act, such
as worksite facilities, eg. shade and safe drinking water
and especially child care facilities. The functionaries of
Anganwadis may also be reviewed in providing child care
services (in terms of timing and other services), so that
MGNREGA women workers are ensured of the safety of
children.
* The composition of women workers seen on worksites,
and the nature of the work offered, suggests that there is
need to give some serious thought to developing a wider
range of activities under the NREGA. For example, while
elderly women and young women with infants coming to
sites confirm their pecuniary needs; however, hard manual
labour is not desirable from the point of view of their own
health or that of infants. The design of the programme
needs to accommodate these variations in life cycle and
physical ability to undertake hard manual labour.
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* The potential of the programme for allowing women to
make some savings is observed everywhere. Facilitating
their ability to save towards specific income generation is
a way of enhancing well-being.
* Some “gender-sensitive measures” such as increase in
participation of women in planning, implementation and
social audits of NREGA, in turn, will create an opportunity
for women’s role in asset management.
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Introduction
The MGNREGS is aimed at enhancing livelihood security
of people living in rural areas by providing minimum 100 days
wage employment in a financial year to every household whose
adult members, volunteer to do unskilled manual labour. One of
the main objectives of this scheme is to generate employment
and enhance purchasing power among the rural poor. Therefore,
if the ultimate goal of NREGS is poverty eradication, it is
necessary to ensure the reaching of its benefits to the PWD
who are considered not only vulnerable but also belong to the
poorest of the poor. Despite the mandatory 3 per cent reservation
to the PWD in the entire poverty alleviation programme, the
participation of disabled in such programmes is not very
satisfactory. The present study was undertaken to examine the
implications of inclusion of People with Disabilities (PWD) in
MGNREGS with the following specific objectives.
* To examine the national coverage of disabled under
MGNREGS during the last two years.
* To know the respondents’ awareness about the scheme
* To study the type of work undertaken under this scheme.
MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURALEMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE SCHEME ANDINCLUSION OF PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES
Dr. K.P. Kumaran
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* To know the employability and work participation
* To understand the extent of enhancement of livelihood
security achieved through MGNREGS.
Methodology
Multi-stage purposive and random sampling methods
were used for the selection of study areas and samples.
Study Areas
Andhra Pradesh (Mahabubnagar district), West Bengal
(Burdwan district) and Madhya Pradesh (Seoni district).
Sample size
280 Disabled MGNREGS workers
Findings
Like others, the PWD are also keen and interested in
undertaking employment suited to their physical and mental
conditions. The current level of work participation of disabled
population either in skilled or un-skilled employment sector is
very low despite the protective measure extended through the
Disability Act (1995). One of the reasons for low participation is
due to the social and environmental barrier erected around them.
But the introduction of NREGS heralded a new chapter in the
history of wage employment for the disabled. The sample based
study showed that many of those disabled who were hitherto
denied or deprived of employment in the unskilled sector got an
opportunity to take up wage employment for the first time in
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their life and earn a modest income. The study revealed that
those who suffered not only from locomotor disability but suffered
from non-locomotor disability also undertook wage employment.
However, the national level data considering the total population
of the disabled showed that the number of them engaged in
MGNREGS is too small. Some of the UTs and North-eastern
States are yet to involve disabled in NREGS work. Considering
their vulnerability, physical and mental condition, there is a need
to provide a conducive working environment by discounting of
work norms to attract them into NREGS work. Such an action
will help the disabled to realise their potential and contribute
their mite in the nation building.
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Introduction
Fisheries are an important sector in India as it provides
employment to millions of people and contributes to food security
of the country. India, with a coastline of over 8,000 km, an
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of over 2 million sq km, and
with extensive freshwater resources, fisheries play a vital role.
Presently, fisheries and aquaculture contribute 1.07 per cent to
the national GDP, and 5.30 per cent to agriculture and allied
activities, while the average annual value of output during the
Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) was ` 31,682.50 crore, (ICSF,
2010).
India has vast marine and fresh-water sources and the
potential of fisheries has immense value in the national economy.
As per the data available, Marine Fisheries contributes to food
security and provides direct employment to over 1.5 mn fisher
people besides others indirectly dependent on the sector. The
total marine fisher folk population of 3.57 mn is in 3,305 marine
fishing villages spread across the coastal States and Union
Territories (including islands). Of these, 0.90 mn are active fisher
people, and another 0.76 mn fisher people are involved in other
fisheries related activities (ICSF, 2010).
ROLE OF EXCLUSIVE CREDIT LINKAGEPROGRAMME FOR OCCUPATIONAL DYNAMICS
AMONG FISHERWOMEN
Dr. T.G. Ramaiah
Dr. G. Rajanikanth
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The study was conducted with the aim of observing the
occupational dynamics resulted among the fisherwomen who
had accessed the micro-credit offered to the Self-Help Groups
in which they were the members.
The credit linkages programme is decided to only
fisherwomen who were entrusted with fish-vending activity. Since
the timely credit supply for fisherwomen ensures timely
diversification into various activities, the study intends to cover
the following aspects:
* Perception on programme
* Perception on utility of credit linkages
* Perception on qualitative and quantitative aspects of credit
* Pattern of access to credit
* Occupational diversity
* Occupational mobility
* Impact on livelihoods
* Impact on household economy
* Perception on capacity – building activities
* Institutional mechanism in place.
Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study are:
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i. To assess qualitative/quantitative requirements of credit
among women from fishing community and suitability of
strategies adopted under exclusive credit programme:
ii. To analyse the process, prospects and promotion of credit-
linkage for women from fishing community;
iii. To study the pattern and paradigms of credit-support and
its impact on occupational dynamics of women from fishing
community.
Methodolgy
The methodological issues pertaining to the study are as
under :
i. Sampling : Keeping in view the resources available with
the research team and also the quantum of SHG women
accessed the micro-credit facilities, from each block, 50
SHG women members were selected for the study. Thus,
the total sample of the study consists of 400 SHG women
members. Further, as the study was focused on
fisherwomen, the sample consists of only SHG members
from the fishing community.
ii. Instruments of Data Collection : Keeping the objectives
and focus of the study in view, a structured schedule was
used to collect the data from the selected fisherwomen. In
addition, FGD and PRA techniques were utilised to collect
the primary data. Official records and registers available
with the SHGs were utilised to collect secondary data.
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iii. Analysis : Data analysis was attempted based on the
following variables:
* Time spent in accessing the credit
* Quantum of credit accessed
* Internal lending
* Utility of revolving fund
* Pattern of repayment vis-a-vis economic status of
fisherwomen
* Occupational diversity
* Impact on linkages with formal financial institutions
* Impact on economic conditions
* Impact on social issues and future outlook etc.
Study Area
The study area was proposed in the States of Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The two States were purposively
selected keeping in view the unique experiments made by these
two States while implementing the programme as well as
abundance of marine fishing activities. In each State, two districts
were selected keeping in view the number of SHGs operating
among fisherwomen community and also quantum of micro-
credit accessed. Based on the data available, the following
districts were selected for the study :
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Andhra Pradesh : East Godavari and Visakhapatnam
Tamil Nadu : Tutucorin and Ramanathapuram
From each district, once again based on the discussion
held with officials concerned and the secondary data available,
two blocks with much concentration of fisherwomen SHGs and
micro-credit facilitated were selected. Based on these criteria,
the following blocks (mandal in the case of Andhra Pradesh)
were selected:
State District Block/Mandal
Andhra Pradesh East Godavari Uppada Kothapalli
Thallarevu
Visakhapatnam Bheemunipatnam
Atchuthapuram
Tamil Nadu Tuticorin Thiruchanduru
Vottapidarom
Ramanathapuram Mandapam
Kadaladi
Findings
In an exploratory study of this nature which aims at
understanding the utility of micro-credit accessed by the
fisherwomen through their respective SHGs, it is indeed quite
positive to observe that the targeted community had benefited
to a large extent from the avenues provided to them for
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development. However, based on the results of data analysed
and also keeping in view the field observations, especially that
were grasped through PRA approaches, the study suggests the
following for the amelioration of conditions among fisherwomen:
* The pace of micro-credit and also the quantum need to be
more;
* The fisherwomen SHGs were still functioning in isolation
and they need to be mainstreamed;
* Though the social and economic development issues were
quite encouraging, occupational dynamics were operating
around the fishing activity alone. Hence, more new
economic activities need to be introduced among the
fisherwomen.
* Marketing support for the fisherwomen SHGs has been in
place, but the value addition issues were not encouraging.
Hence, there is every need to provide market support for
the value added products from the SHGs;
* The training component was well received by the
fisherwomen, but the training imparted was only confined
to SHGs procedures and self-development. There is every
need to encourage more occupation-based training.
* Participation of NGOs was limited in Andhra Pradesh and
to some extent good in Tamil Nadu. However, NGOs had
better role to play, especially with reference to occupational
issues.
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* Training imparted and the participation in SHGs has indeed
been providing several social development concerns
among fisherwomen. However, there is every need to
strengthen the social development issues among
fisherwomen.
* Micro-credit facilities are quite well utilised by the
fisherwomen, yet the quantum of credit and other loan
facilities should be enhanced to strengthen the SHGs
concerned.
* Leadership appears to be dominating the SHGs concerned.
This in view, the empowerment of SHG members need to
be concentrated through more personality development
concerns.
Conclusion
To sum up, the SHGs operating among fisherwomen
were making good inroads as far as social and economic issues
are concerned. However, the quantum of good penetration made
through the SHGs was not sufficient to meet the requirements
of fisherwomen. Continuity in micro-credit at enhanced level,
more focus on capacity building to empower each and every
fisherwoman would certainly pave better avenues of
development. Further, physical facilities for diverse occupations
are also needed for fisherwomen in view of their accessing to
new skills and institutional support from NGOs is also quite
worthy in this regard.
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TRAINING AND CAPACITY NEEDS ANALYSIS FORMGNREGS’ FUNCTIONARIES AND OFFICIALS
Dr. B. Uday Kumar Reddy
Dr. Gyanmudra
Dr. C. Dheeraja
Introduction
Our country had the experience of implementing many
types of Public Works Programmes since its Independence.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(MGNREGS) has evolved into its present shape by building on
the past experiences in designing and executing schemes
providing employment. It is an improvement over its
predecessors. Hailed as ‘flagship programme’, ‘first ever scheme
that guarantees wage employment at an unprecedented scale’,
‘mother of all local development programmes’, ‘demand-driven
and people-centered programme’, ‘boon to the rural poor’, ‘lifeline
to the marginalised and landless’, ‘the largest employment
programme in human history’, the scheme was introduced
through an Act known as ‘National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act’ notified on Sep. 7, 2005.This scheme guarantees number
of days of employment each year to any unemployed work-
seeker from rural household seeking employment. It gives the
people the legal right to seek employment.
It is obvious that the results of NREGA depend very much
on the extent of building appropriate administrative mechanisms.
Considerable attention should be paid to mutual learning from
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the evolving best practices in implementation across the regions
and in appropriate resource allocation not merely for
administration but thorough role-specific Training Needs Analysis
from time to time and competency based - capacity building
accordingly.
Objectives
The main objective of present research study is to conduct
TNA and facilitate for competencies based training strategy and
training plan for MGNREGS officials and functionaries with the
following specific objectives :
* To list out roles and responsibilities of the identified
functionaries
* To design Competencies Framework, model for
assessment.
* To list out cadre-specific behaviour descriptor in each
competency.
* To assess the competencies status of the targeted
respondents.
* To facilitate training strategy and training plan for
MGNREGS officials and functionaries.
Methodology
To analyse key functionaries’ role and responsibilities of
the functionaries of MGNREGS, two-day State-specific TNA
workshops were held in three places separately at Hyderabad,
Jaipur and Bhubaneswar in which all functionaries were present.
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In this workshop role-wise (mate, field assistant, technical
assistant etc.) and level-wise (panchayat, block and district)
identification of employees was done. Job charts were prepared,
and performance problems were discussed. Training and non-
training needs were identified.
To design behavioural competencies framework, model
for assessment, firstly, a list of competencies were identified
with the help of review of related literature and discussions with
all participants during the national level workshop “Development
of performance management tools for MGNREGS Functionaries”
conducted at NIRD by the research team leader (25 Jan 11 to
27 Jan 11) including TNA workshops. Behavioural competency
model and competency related behavioural descriptors were
adopted from the earlier study conducted by the team leader
(NIRD Research Study on Competency Mapping for RD
Functionaries, 2008). Focus group discussions technique was
adopted to derive role specific functional competencies model
because to a large extent the roles, competencies and problems
have to be identified, reviewed, ratified and prioritised with the
help of reporting and reviewing officers during workshop.
Study Area
The selection of the three States for the present study
locations - Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan - were
specifically identified with the purpose of accommodating three
different situations that existed which will invariably influence the
status of implementation of MGNREGS. In each of the three
States chosen for the study viz, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
and Orissa, two districts (High performed and Low performed)
were selected – Anantapur and Guntur in Andhra Pradesh,
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Cuttack and Nayagarh in Orissa and Ajmeer and Dausa in
Rajasthan. Selection of districts was based on the performance
of MGNREGS in the districts, in terms of expenditure incurred,
number of households provided employment and number of job
cards issued to scheduled caste households. Based on district
level Monitoring and Information System (MIS) information, all
level functionaries were selected randomly and a semi-structured
schedule was canvassed. Discussions were also held with
functionaries at the village, Gram Panchayat, block and district
levels to assess the difficulties in implementation of the scheme
on the ground.
Findings
Functional Competencies
As far as role-specific functional competencies are
concerned, some of the functional competencies (i.e. Behavioural
Descriptors) were found more important to be trained in a
given role, since these are viewed as more often required during
job and the same could hamper the work due to “below
confidence level and significantly below confidence level” as per
sample response. In this study, whichever competency was
opted by more than 15 per cent of the sample respondents is
considered for training input. It is observed that there is a variance
among the required competencies from state to state which
means that there is no common prescription of behavioural
training inputs for all states.
Behavioural Competencies
There is no single Behavioural Competency among 26
competencies which emerged as an independent module in all
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levels for conducting exclusive training. Some of the competency
components (i.e. Behavioural Descriptors) were found more
important to be trained since these are viewed as more often
required during job and the same could not be displayed at work
due to “below confidence level and significantly below confidence
level” as per sample response. In this study, whichever
competency component was opted by more than 15 per cent of
the sample respondents is considered for training input. It is
observed that there is a variance among the required
competencies from state to state which means that there is no
common prescription of behavioural training inputs for all states.
Hence, level-wise behaviour descriptors are given below for
training implications.
Non-Training Initiatives (Supporting Factors)
Since training alone could not ensure solution for any
performance problem, all non-trainable issues that emerged
during the TNA Workshop were thoroughly analysed and role-
specific issues were prepared and circulated in the form of
structured schedule among sample respondents. Whichever
factor was opted by more than 80 per cent of the sample
respondents is considered as required support for the given
role towards demonstrating better performance. It is observed
that there is a variance among the required support from state
to state which means that there is no common prescription of
supporting inputs for all states.
Recommendations
* Focused capacity building is possible only through Training
Needs Analysis
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* Role-specific content requirements need to be gathered
through trainable problems
* Role-specific supporting factors (non-trainable issues)
should be verified simultaneously while competency
mapping need to be addressed
* It is essential to run stress management lab for block
level and district level MGNREGS Functionaries
* It is recommended to develop separate training module
(functional skills) role-wise and training modules
(behavioural skills) level-wise for every district through
competency mapping.
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Introduction
MGNREGS, the national level flagship programme
commencing since 2006, has already completed five years of
its implementation. With RTI act coming into force during the
same time, there has been unprecedented interest, curiosity,
findings, allegations and counter allegations about MGNREGS.
Different aspects of this programme have interesting findings
apart from the usual pilferages of funds on various pretexts at
various levels. The finest thing about this rights based approach
is that apart from the primary stakeholders (the wage seekers),
the involvement of secondary and tertiary stakeholders (officials
of different departments of Central and State governments, the
PRI members, bank/postal staff, civil society organisations, social
audit groups, CBOs, media persons, international civil society
organisations, people of different walks of life, etc.) is
extraordinarily high for which there is continuous upscaling in
rules and executive instructions, even amendments. The
experience of five years of implementation of MGNREGS and
the findings from different nook and corners of the country have
opened up new vistas for a different mode of governance based
on transparency and accountability.
EFFECT OF FINANCIAL INCLUSION ON SAVING ANDEXPENDITURE PATTERN OF ST WAGE SEEKERS
IN MGNREGS
Dr. B.C. Das
Dr. P.K. Nath
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One of the criticisms of MGNREGS on the very first year
of its implementation was that it would end up as relief
programme without having much impact on poverty alleviation.
It needs to be noted that MGNREGS is only one of the
instruments in alleviating poverty. Factors like labour intensive
or pro-poor economic growth such as agricultural growth and
promotion of rural non-farm employment are equally important
for poverty alleviation. Apart from direct benefit of employment,
MGNREGS has not only fulfilled the function of unemployment
insurance but also it has addressed the core issues of poverty
gap. It has been validated by the fact that the MGNREGS wages
constitute a big portion of the household income. There may be
a debate about the productivity of assets created and skill
development in works which is mainly in the form of “digging
holes and filling them”, but in a country where a large percentage
of total population are BPL, the short-term impact and insurance
function of MGNREGS in reducing the vulnerability are equally
important.
The impact of MGNREGS on one of the most vulnerable
sections, that is ST, is no less encouraging. This is due to the
fact that for the first time a large section of ST people have
been brought under the financial inclusion umbrella by opening
account to receive the MGNREGS wages. Financial inclusion is
one of the important parameters of new economic policy. It
entails a country’s population to have tie-up with any of the
financial institutions dealing with the provision of different financial
products. In the absence of any sort of linkage of financial
institutions with a majority of ST population, the opening up of
account to pay MGNREGS wages has acted as the first building
block towards realising the goal of financial inclusion.
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Though a majority of the studies on MGNREGS focus on
its process and fault finding with the system or departure from
prescribed norm, few have come out with short term effects of
the same on different MGNREGS groups. Most of the studies
speak about the overall performance of MGNREGS starting from
payment mode, worksite facilities, involvement of different
disadvantaged groups like STs, SCs and women, payment/non-
payment of unemployment allowance and interest payment for
delayed payments, etc. These studies are specific to small
sample size with specific time duration of one financial year. In
sharp contrast to those studies, the present study was taken up
with well defined objectives with specific primary stakeholders
in mind. The study focuses on ST population and the effects
MGNREGS has on their income and expenditure pattern.
Objectives
1. To find the effect of Financial Inclusion on the saving
patterns of ST wage seekers
2. To assess the effect of Financial Inclusion on expenditure
patterns of ST wage seekers
3. To assess the perception of the implementing agencies
on institutional wage payment
Methodology
The study examined empirical data collected from six
states with regard to several variables associated with the saving
and expenditure pattern of MGNREGS workers, perception of
implanting officials towards the financial inclusion of ST workers
and constraints associated with the implementation of
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MGNREGS. Data on these variables were obtained through
structured interview schedules specially designed for MGNREGS
workers, programme officers, assistant programme officers, bank
officers, post office officers, gram rozgar sahayak, panchayat
secretary and PRI members responsible for implementation of
MGNREGS. In all, six different sets of schedules were used for
the study. Six States selected for the study were namely
Jharkhand (26.30 per cent), Chhattisgarh (31.76 per cent), MP
(20.27 per cent), Rajasthan (12.56 per cent), AP (6.5 per cent)
and Nagaland (cent per cent) on the basis higher percentage of
tribal population (Figures in the parentheses show the percentage
of tribal population). Also these six States represent different
zones of India i.e. Eastern, Central, Western, Southern and
North Eastern. AP was selected to study the process of financial
inclusion as it has started making payments of NREGS wages
through passbook from the very inception of this flagship
programme. From each State two districts were selected based
on high percentage of tribal population, and from each district,
two blocks / mandals were selected on the same basis. From
each block, two to three GPs were selected based upon the
availability of MGNREGS workers completed 100 days or nearer
to 100 days of wage earnings either in 2009-10 or 2010-11.Then
from these GPs, 100 respondents were selected randomly.
In some of the blocks, due to non-availability of adequate
number of respondents, more GPs were selected for the study.
Other than MGNREGS workers, programme officers and
assistant programme officers at block level, bank and post office
officials of the block, GRS, Panchayat secretary and PRI
members were also interviewed to know their perception about
the financial inclusion of ST wage seekers under MGNREGS.
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However, due to various problems, data from 200 respondents
could not be collected from Zunheboto district of Nagaland and
Dantewada district of Chhattisgarh, and in both of these districts
data collection from the MGNREGS workers was limited to 100
each. Similarly, some of the officials at block and Gram
Panchayat level could not be contacted in spite of the best effort
of the study team. So, finally data collected from 2412
respondents (MGNREGS worker-2200, Programme Officer and
Assistant Programme Officer- 24, PRI members- 84, GRS- 29.
Panchayat Secretary-34, Post office officials- 23 and Bank
Officials-18 ) were analysed by applying various descriptive tools
like mean, frequency and percentage to draw meaningful
conclusions for the study.
Study Area
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Andhra Pradesh and Nagaland
Findings
1. Agriculture is the main stay of livelihood in the sample
area, but MGNREGS work has also contributed
substantially to their rise in income. MGNREGS wages
constitute more than 30 per cent of the total income of the
HHs per annum. It varies from a minimum of 29 per cent
in Rajasthan up to 49 per cent in Chhattisgarh. Even
among the six sample States studied, MP and Chhattisgarh
have higher contribution of MGNREGS income than the
income from agriculture.
2. In the sample area studied, only Nagaland continues the
practice of MGNREGS wage payment through cash and
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in other five States the same is through either PO or bank.On an average, the wage seekers travel 900 meters in APto collect his/her wage from the PO which is the lowestin the sample areas studied. The longest distance to becovered by the wage seekers to collect his wage is in MP(6.8 kms).
3. Amongst the 2200 households in the entire sample studyarea, more than 97 per cent of the wage seekers withdrawmoney immediately, the moment it is deposited in theaccount. The system of deposit of wages and withdrawalis such that the wage seekers are constrained to withdrawthe entire deposited amount immediately having no scopeto earn a single pie as interest. The postal and bank staffalso encourage the wage seekers to take away the entiredeposits without having any liability to pay the interest.The entire institutional set-up (including the GRS, PRImembers and others involved) also support immediatewithdrawal of wages in the account leaving very little scopefor furtherance of financial inclusion.
4. In AP and Nagaland, prevailing market wage is higher thanthe MGNREGS wages, but market wage is far low in Stateslike Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and MP.
5. In States like AP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and MP, mostlythe GRS help the wage seekers. In Rajasthan, it is thePanchayat secretary who has been instrumental in openingthe account and renders useful services to the MGNREGSwage seekers.
6. Even though MGNREGS wages provided some kind ofrelief to the poor rural HHs, their dependence on rural
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moneylenders have not decreased to meet their credit
needs. Moneylenders continue to be the most reliable
source for credit for these ST MGNREGS wage seekers
even if they are to pay an exorbitant rate of interest i.e
more than 7 per cent per month in all sample areas studied.
It remains the highest at 8.63 per cent in AP. The
penetration of formal FIs among these ST wage seekers
is the highest in AP i.e. 44.5 per cent of the ST wage
seekers avail of some forms of credit from FFIs. Other
States have a dismal performance with a minor success
of 23.5 per cent of penetration in Rajasthan.
7. Agricultural sector continues to predominate in the credit
requirement of the ST wage seekers like any other rural
population. One of the important findings of the study is
that in spite of 92 per cent of pucca houses in AP, 42 per
cent of MGNREGS wage seekers also seek credit for
housing. One significant feature is the lowest percentage
of ST MGNREGS wage seekers (20.75 per cent) taking
loan for social function in AP. It goes up to 33.25 per cent
in Chhattisgarh which is highest in the sample study. While
credit requirement for education is very low in States like
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and MP, it stands very
highest at 22.5 per cent amongst the MGNREGS wage
seekers in AP.
8. The incremental MGNREGS income is mostly utilised for
increased food expenditure. Increased expenditure is
observed for purchase of clothes, expenditure on dwelling
structure, education and health. Higher percentage of
respondents in Nagaland spend on health and education
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out of increased MGNREGS income in comparison to other
States. AP and Nagaland also spend more on housing.
9. MGNREGS wages also have contributed for acquiring
productive assets like livestock, poultry bird, sewing
machine, agricultural implements, mobile handsets, by-
cycle, etc. On this count, the percentage of respondents
in Nagaland is the highest and Jharkhand is the lowest.
Suggestions
1. Timely payment of MGNREGS wages
2. Payment of interest in MGNREGS savings account
3. Provision to allow deposits in MGNREGS account
4. Tie-up of insurance benefit with MGNREGS wage account
5. Special incentives to postal staff in Maoist affected area
6. Job card and MGNREGS passbook as collateral for loan
7. Formation of SHGs based on MGNREGS wages
8. Payment of wages through other financial institutions
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Following observations have been made in the field as
regards the above mentioned study conducted in the sample
States of Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Goa.
1. Primary membership and affiliation to political party is
essential and the Elected Women Representatives (EWR)
seek membership of political party after their successful
inception into their positions.
2. Most of the EWRs wished to help people in the society
and to work for the development of the village which has
been their basic reason for joining politics. However,
pressure from the family especially from their husbands
and fathers-in-law to enter into politics and hold power
since there was no other woman member available has
been an obvious reason for her contesting the elections.
3. Freedom of expression in the meetings was available to
most of the EWRs as they usually raised their point of
view and enforced them in the Panchayat meetings.
4. Gender disparity was found to be a major hurdle in putting
their view point as the views of the male panchayat or the
male participants were preferred in male headed
PROBLEMS AND PERCEPTION OF WOMENELECTED REPRESENTATIVES ON PLANNING AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF RURAL DEVELOPMENTPROGRAMMES AT THE GRASSROOTS LEVEL
Dr. G. Valentina
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Panchayats. Consequently they felt hesitant to present
their views before the male members.
5. Some EWRs face opposition from other panches due to
their self-motive who are exclusively guided by their
personal interest. There is also non-cooperation which is
again based on gender discrimination and male domination.
6. The EWRs also faced constraints from the family. Where
the family lacked progressive thoughts on the social issues
and were ridden in culture, superstition and guided by
traditional norms, EWRs received no help from their family
members which stood in their way in taking up the social
works. The EWRs expressed their need to be free from
such hassels to make them perform as better leaders.
7. Additionally ability to speak, literacy, self-confidence, lack
of skill, knowledge on rural development programmes etc.
further inhibited their performance.
8. Men’s attitude towards women’s entry into politics has
begun to change from that of total rejection to limited
encouragement and in some cases even to active
encouragement. This trend needs to be strengthened
through orientation courses, capacity building programmes
and training programmes for officials and elected
representatives, both men and women. Besides there is
a need to train the women leaders at regular intervals to
enable them to manage the responsibilities assigned to
them in the Panchayats at all the levels.
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9. Most of the women elected representatives at the grassroot
level also work as labourers and they find it difficult to
forego their wages while attending training programmes,
therefore, these training programmes must be organised
at their doorstep and some of the articulate Panchayat
leaders should be involved as the trainers.
10. Another important effort required for real empowerment of
rural women is to bring about an attitudinal change in both
men and women. The feeling that women are meant for
household activities and rearing children needs to be
transformed into a feeling of equal partnership of women
and men. To inculcate this they should be imparted gender
education for bringing about social and political awareness
among both.
11. Contact with outside world makes women more alert and
also active in the political process which can be gained
through interactions with enlightened rural women and the
EWRs should be encouraged to be involved in discussion
and take them as role models. The EWRs can also be
taken out to the urban areas and organise their interaction
with educated urban elected women representatives as is
done in the case of the panchayat federations formed in
States like Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
12. There is a need to utilise the services of the Mahila Mandals
in the village to mobilise the EWRs and also stand out as
support organisations enabling the women elected
representatives in participating in the political processes.
Some successful women’s organisations can also act as
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catalytic agents for encouraging the women’s participation
in social and political activities. The Government should
provide finances and infrastructure to some of the
deserving and successful women organisations/ NGOs to
take up the responsibility. The leaders of women’s
movement like the women commissions, reputed
organisations like UN Women in the country could also
take up this task.
13. The media both print as well as electronic, play an important
role in creating awareness in the rural society and act as
an agent of political socialisation for inculcating the values
of gender equality and gender justice.
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Migration, especially from rural areas, has mostly been
in search of wage employment. Of late, the guaranteed
employment provided through Mahatma Gandhi NREGS at
minimum wages has been widely considered as yielding positive
results in (distress) reducing migration from rural to urban areas.
Studies conducted in recent past have been pointing out that
Mahatma Gandhi NREGS is creating encouraging environment
for better ‘wage employment’ opportunities in rural areas due to
guaranteed 100 days employment and also sequel effects of
creation of durable assets. Hence the study on ‘Impact of
MGNREGS on migration” was taken up in two States viz.,
Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
Objectives
* To examine the qualitative and quantitative changes in
socio-economic conditions of MGNREGS worker
households
* To study factors contributing to changes in trends of
migration among MGNREGS worker households
* To identify factors leading to qualitative and quantitative
changes in pattern of migration among MGNREGS worker
households
STUDY ON “IMPACT OF MGNREGS ON MIGRATION”
Ms. P. Leelavathi
Dr. G. Valentina
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Main Issues of the Study
* Socio-economic and demographic conditions of
MGNREGS worker households (pre-MGNREGS period and
2010-11)
* Gainful employment opportunities and assets created
through MGNREGS
* Changes in the trends and pattern of migration, especially
distress migration of rural households (between pre-
MGNREGS period and 2010-11)
* Benefits and problems experienced by migrant households;
and
* Factors contributing to reduction in migration of MGNREGS
workers/ beneficiaries
Study Area
The districts with high per cent of migration (Census
2001) and high performance in MGNREGS (percentage of
amount spent on wages) implementation were selected from
among the 1st and 2nd phase MGNREGS districts in the study
states. From these districts blocks and GPs were selected based
on the development.
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Table 1.1 : Details of Study Area
District Block GPs No. ofsample
HHs
Rajasthan Banswara Gatol Bhungada 101(Agriculturally anddeveloped) Kandavu
Anandapuri Bhaler 99(backward) Bhodar
and Phalwa
Kushalgad Kalinjara and 100(Developed) Patan
Nagaur Naguar Balwa and 150(Developed) Chila
Jayal Awliyasar 100(Backward) and Katauti
Kuchaman Marot and 100(Agriculturally Mindadeveloped)
Madhya Meghnagar Malkhandwi 100Pradesh (Developed) and Dedla
Jhabua Petlawad Bawdi and 100(Agriculturally Amargarhdeveloped)
Thandla Madalda 100(Backward) and Miyati
Tikhamgarh Jatara Manchi and 100Muhara
Niwari Mudara and 100
Prithvipur Madiya Khas 100and Chomo Khas
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Major Findings of the Study in Rajasthan
* MGNREGS workers belonging to ST community have
distinct socio-economic features in Banswara with high
rate of illiteracy and poverty and economic dependency
compared to such workers belonging to socially diversified
communities in Nagaur.
* The sample households have received on average 60 days
of employment and ` 4250 wage income under MGNREGS
in 2009-10 in Rajasthan.
* Households with ` 120 - ` 250 were the model income
among the poor households. But it has been shifted to
` 251 - ` 350 among the poor households due to additional
income from MGNREGS in the study area.
* About 793 migrants, who form 90 per cent of the migrants
reduced to 74 per cent who belong to the poor households
after MGNREGS implementation indicates a decline of 16
per cent migrants among the poor households.
* 793 migrants, who form 90 per cent of the migrants, belong
to the poor households. It has been considerably changed
since the implementation of MGNREGS.
* Household migration has declined to 6.5 per cent in
Rajasthan due to MGNREGS implementation.
* Female migration has been increased by 9.37 per cent in
Rajasthan after MGNREGS mostly among younger
generation.
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* Migration from non-poor households increased to 303 per
cent in Rajasthan and attributed to pull migration.
* Duration of migration has come down, for instance,
migration of 1-3 months has been reduced.
* Migration to outside states and bigger cities has been
decreased after MGNREGS by about 13.8 and 6.6 per
cent, respectively.
* Because of restriction of 100 days of employment, delay
in providing work and wage payment under MGNREGS
are the causes of migration even after implementation of
MGNREGS.
Major Findings of the Study in Madhya Pradesh
MGNREGS workers belonging to ST community have
distinct socio-economic features such as high rate of illiteracy
and economic dependency and poverty in Jhabua compared to
such workers belonging to socially diversified communities in
Tikamgarh.
* The sample households have received on average 40 days
of employment and ` 3400 wage income under MGNREGS
in 2009-10 in MP.
* Migration has declined 26 per cent in MP since the
intervention of NREGS.
* Female migration has declined around 26 per cent in MP
after the intervention of NREGS.
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* Migration from the poor households declined 30.6 per cent
in MP.
* Migration from non-poor households increased to 330 per
cent in MP.
* Migration of only one couple of family has come down in
MP.
* Duration of migration has come down, for instance,
migration of 1-3 months has been reduced.
* Migration to outside states and bigger cities has
decreased.
* It has been noticed that there is lack of undertaking asset
creation works under NREGS; and
* There is a delay in providing work and wage payment
under NREGS in the sample districts.
Recommendations
1. Farmers and labourers should be organised into common
interest groups and actively participate in MGNREGS
planning and implementation to reap the intended benefits
and also make the programme demand driven. The
Information, Education and Communication (IEC) efforts
are found to be inadequate and these need to be
strengthened to enable workers demand 100 days of work
and payment of full wages in time;
2. The number of days of work under MGNREGS should be
increased to 150-200 days to every household. In other
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words, NREGS should provide at least 75 days of
employment to two adults in a household in every financial
year in the backward blocks in each district.
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Introduction
The provision of shelter to all the needy people, which is
a basic need, has become a big challenge especially to the
rural poor. Owning a house provides significant economic
security and social status in the village community. The total
shortage of housing is estimated at about 35 million as per the
2001 Census, while the Working Group for 11th Five Year Plan
(2007-12) estimates at 43 million. Considering the need and
importance, Government of India has initiated several initiatives
right from the First Five Year Plan. Indira Awaas Yojana is an
important programme of housing primarily for the members of
Below Poverty Line (BPL) population. Scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes form major part of the BPL as the majority live
either in thatched house or kutcha houses. The objective of
constructing a house for the habitants is to create an organic
link between house and its surroundings with various needs of
people who live over there. However, in the implementation of
IAY even the basic facilities are also not being ensured. Further,
the implementation of IAY is not uniform in integrating the felt
needs of the poor especially tribals. Each occupational group
or households depend on different livelihood activities, which
are very essential and integral part of living of poor people.
STUDY ON INDIRA AWAAS YOJANA (IAY) :INTEGRATION OF FELT NEEDS OF TRIBALS
Dr. Y. GangiReddy,
Dr. P. SivaRam,
Dr. S. Venkatadri
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Traditional housing systems and designs are in tune with the
customs and cultures of different sections of the poor especially
tribals. The National Rural Housing and Habitat Policy (2008)
focuses on the various needs of adequate housing as every
citizen is to live with dignity. Adequate housing entails provision
of minimum services such as water, electricity, sanitation,
ventilation/healthcare, education, livelihood and security of tenure
– all of which are essential for dignified living, personal growth
and social well-being in a productive society. Making these
services available as a part of habitat development can be
ensured through the convergence of schemes and mutual efforts
of the government, the private sector and the people themselves.
Besides, it is essential to promote the creation of habitats which
are sustainable and inclusive. This will ensure balanced utilisation
of available resources and cater to the special needs of the
vulnerable sections of society. The concerns of affordability,
credit support, space for livelihood and education and durability
will have to be addressed by harnessing appropriate technology.
Hence there is an urgent need to observe, understand and
analyse the implementation of IAY and its impact of integrating
the basic felt needs with the house provided to the rural poor in
general and tribal families in particular. Understanding the specific
felt needs of these families is essential as they are the most
vulnerable sections of the society.
Objectives
* To understand and trace out the various felt needs of
housing and rural community with special focus on SCs
and STs across the regions vis-à-vis the provisions under
IAY programme.
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* To analyse the implementation process and institutional
interventions in realisation of the felt needs of the Rural
households under IAY.
* To come out with possible actionable points that could
facilitate better integration of these felt needs into present
housing and habitation.
Study Area
Considering the need and importance of the theme, study
was conducted in two States namely Chhattisgarh and Orissa.
The criteria adopted for the selection of these two States are
the share of tribal population and number of IAY houses
constructed during 2005-06 and 2009-10. Two districts from
each State namely Mayurbhanj and Sambalpur from Orissa and
Raipur and Dhamthari from Chhattisgarh were selected based
on the same criteria. Number of villages from each district varied
based on the availability of number of sufficient tribal households.
Methodology and Sampling
Data were collected from both primary as well as
secondary sources. In-depth study is based on data collected
from the primary stakeholders of IAY tribal households. Interviews
were held with all those associated with the planning and
implementation of IAY including PRIs and NGOs. Focus group
discussions were also held with the primary stakeholders apart
from the questainnaire. In all, total sample of 400 IAY respondents
were selected from all the four districts at the rate of 100
respondents from each district.
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Findings
The following are the major study findings :
* Literacy levels of IAY beneficiaries are low in all the four
districts except in Raipur and Sambalpur (60 per cent),
which have determined their awareness and interest in
completing the house with reasonable facilities.
* Occupational background of the respondents appear to
be uniform as majority of them are labourers (agriculture
and non-agriculture) except in Mayurbhanj district, which
is predominantly cultivators.
* The annual average income of these families is about
` 8,000 to the tune of 80 per cent of sample in all the
three districts, whereas 57 per cent of them in Sambalpur
district are able to earn more than ` 8,000.
* The average size of earning members is three persons in
Mayurbhanj district while in all other three districts it is 2.5
persons.
* About 30 per cent of the respondents are the members of
SHGs in the entire study area except in Sambalpur district
(49 per cent).
* IAY beneficiaries could not avail of the benefit of other RD
programmes except PDS (86 per cent) and MG-NREGS
(90 per cent).
* The proportion of IAY assistance in the construction of
houses was quite significant in all the districts except in
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Sambalpur. However, it is observed that every respondent
could match with their own funding in all the districts. The
average of own funding comes to ` 20,000 in Raipur and
Sambalpur districts while it is ` 7,500 (Dhamthari) and
` 2,500 (Mayurbhanj), respectively.
* The percentage of houses completed with all the facilities
vary from 56 (Dhamthari) to 6 (Mayurbhanj) with an
average of 20 while the percentage of houses constructed
without facilities vary from 89 (Mayurbhanj), 73 (Raipur),
48 (Sambalpur) to 38 (Dhamthari).
* The average size of the house (plinth area) is about 200
sq.feet except in Raipur.
* Majority of respondents have used local technologies
(materials) in all the stages of construction and they were
of the opinion that the local material could meet their
housing needs. The reasons include local availability, cost
of the material, good and no transport costs.
* The choice of the material appears to be of the
beneficiaries.
* In terms of the ownership of house site, majority had their
own land except in Raipur (19 per cent) and Dhamthari
(7 per cent), where the state government has provided
house sites.
* It is observed that the type designs are suggested by the
local officials including junior engineer and other local
officials and it is as per the choice of beneficiary.
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* Suitability of the type design appears to be matching with
their beliefs and values. The suitability ranges from 90 per
cent (Mayurbhanj), 73 per cent (Sambalpur), 87 per cent
(Raipur) to 54 per cent (Dhamthari).
* Satisfaction levels appear to be high for the following
reasons;
* Based on own tradition
* Fulfilment of their desire
* Availability of sufficient living space
* Suitable for livelihood activities
* Suitable for living in comforts
* Ownership of the house facilitating the recognition in
the society
* Satisfaction is measured in terms of the type design, size
of house, availability of facilities including drinking water,
sanitation, electricity, smokeless chulha, backyard space,
bathroom, drainage, access to market, school, anganwadi
and health centre.
* Availability of drinking water appears to be very good in
Mayurbhanj (99 per cent),followed by Dhamthari (92 per
cent), Raipur (52 per cent) and Sambalpur (41 per cent).
* In spite of mandatory tie-up of IHHL with IAY house, nearly
90 per cent of them are not provided with IHHL in
Mayurbhanj followed by 67 per cent in Raipur, 63 per cent
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in Dhamthari and 62 per cent in Sambalpur. The reasons
cited for not having IHHL include lack of space, finance,
material, not interested and layout across all the four
districts. The usage position of IHHL appears to be all the
more serious in all these districts. Lack of water, lack of
awareness, not habituated are some of the reasons why
they are not in a position to use the same.
* The condition of other needs such as electricity, smokeless
chulha and bathroom facility is all the more discouraging.
Access to backyard facility such as kitchen garden, fruit
plants and livestock is seen in Dhamthari (38 per cent)
and Mayurbhanj (51 per cent).
* Since majority of the respondents are within the village
layout, their access to school, market, health and drainage
facilities could not be determined by having a new house
under IAY.
* It is observed that the support received from GP, village
officials, BDO and DRDA is significant while the involvement
of NGO, Bank, ZP and MLA/MP is not noticed in majority
of the places. However, the support of SHG is noticed in
Sambalpur district only.
* Satisfaction levels of respondents vary from place to place
as well as the issues such as the type design,
infrastructural facilities, financial and general support of all
those who are associated with the implementation of IAY
programme.
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Conclusion
The overall objective of having one’s own house is to
lead a safe, secure, comfortable and healthy life. The objectives
of IAY remain the same as to assist the poor families in realising
their dream of having own house to fulfill their desire of
comfortable living. The study observes that the programme of
IAY could not succeed in integrating the felt needs of housing of
tribal families in almost all the four districts. However, there are
several instances, where an attempt is made either by the
implementing agencies or the local leaders across all the four
districts. It is suggested that the flexibility of IAY guidelines would
alone ensure better integration of different social and occupational
groups especially tribal families. The proposed National Rural
Housing and Habitat Policy is likely to ensure the effective
implementation of IAY programme in integrating different felt
needs of poor in general and tribal households in particular.
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In 1999, as part of the sectoral reforms initiatives, Central
Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP) was restructured from
allocation mode to a demand-driven and community-based
programme as Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC). The whole
concept of Nirmal Gram Puraskar (NGP) is to reward those
districts, blocks, and GPs, which have achieved 100 per cent
sanitation coverage. During 2007-2008, the whole State of Sikkim
was awarded as Nirmal State by the President of India. An
attempt was made on the factors that helped for award,
sustainability of higher levels of sanitation and hygiene in NGP
awarded GPs in Sikkim. In addition, TSC impact on reduction of
incidence of diseases like diarrhea, cholera, malaria, enteric
fever etc. was studied.
Objectives
* To identify the factors contributing to the success of NGP
status and its sustainability, and also its impact on the
incidence of diseases
* To study the behavioural changes among the community
including school children
SUSTAINABILITY OF TOTAL SANITATION CAMPAIGN(TSC) IN NIRMAL GRAM PURASKAR (NGP)AWARDED GRAM PANCHAYATS IN SIKKIM
Dr. P.SivaRam
Dr. Y. Gangi Reddy
Dr. S. Venkatadri
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Study Area, Methodology and Sampling
Sikkim was purposively selected for the study as the
only State which had received NGP award for the whole State.
In the State, two districts, namely, East and South Sikkim districts
were selected for the study. The selection of the sample districts
was done based on the highest number of NGP awards received
by GPs in a district during 2006-2007.
From each district, two blocks were selected. From each
block, two NGP awarded GPs were selected for in-depth study.
About 675 respondents were interviewed with structured interview
schedule in eight NGP awarded GPs. A stratified random
sampling method for NGP awarded GPs was adopted.
Besides, Participatory Rural Appraisal tools like semi-
structured interviews, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs),
transect, time lines etc., were used to collect qualitative data
from various stakeholders. Secondary data were collected from
the concerned departments of the sample block as well as
districts. Also, the data were downloaded from the website of
Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India.
Major Findings
* TSC has brought a significant change in the sample GPs
for improving sanitation facilities including other institutions
like schools, anganwadies, health centres etc. This change
has led to winning of NGP awards in the sample districts.
* TSC sustains in the sample GPs because the people
have changed mindset towards open defecation and more
than 99 per cent of the respondents are using the IHHLs.
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School children have marvellously been using the toilets
and no doubt the children have influenced the parents for
adopting IHHLs in their homes. However, PRIs, concerned
officials, NGOs, CBOs should watch the villagers for some
more time, not to go to open defecation.
* Awareness responses about TSC showed that more than
82 per cent were having awareness but remaining were
unaware as they belonged to the category of illiterates.
* Responses on ‘source of knowledge about IHHLs’ revealed
that nearly 89 per cent of the respondents got the
knowledge from awareness public meetings, motivators,
personal contacts, TSC rallies etc. In addition, TV, posters/
wall paintings and pamphlets also played a role in imparting
knowledge about IHHLs.
* Usage of IHHLs by the respondents showed that 100 per
cent were using the IHHLs.
* More than 89 per cent of the respondents had adopted
single pit lined IHHLs, but 6.6 per cent of respondents had
unlined single line pit. The rich and the forward
communities (4.5 per cent) had double pit lined IHHLs.
* Nearly 64 per cent of respondents had procured the sanitary
materials like sanitary structure including pan etc., from
open market and the rest had purchased sanitary materials
from rural sanitary markets.
* The cleansing personnel for IHHLs are categorised into
men, women and servants. The analysis revealed that
mostly women were cleaning the IHHLs by using locally
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made phenyl and acid. A few men were also doing the
cleaning. In APL houses, western latrines were also seen,
which were largely cleaned by the servants. It is noticed
that a small bucket and a mug were kept inside IHHLs.
* Water supply for IHHLs is categorised into four. They are
tap inside (66 per cent), tap outside (12 per cent),water
storage inside (9 per cent) and water storage outside (13
per cent). Respondents did not experience water problem.
* More than 75 per cent of respondents adopted the method
of composting the household garbage within the
compound. Respondents said that it was their traditional
method to prepare manure, which was used for their
vegetable garden within the compound. Another 22 per
cent were handing over their household garbage to the
garbage collector arranged by the village panchayats. This
person daily visits each house and collects the garbage.
Remaining were using community dustbins for disposing
the garbage, which were arranged by the village
panchayats in street corners.
* 95 per cent of respondents were highly satisfied with the
IHHLs. Degree of satisfaction was more among BPL than
APL respondents. The reason is that the BPL had received
more subsidy than the APL.
* School Sanitation and Health Education Programme
(SSHE) had a positive impact on the sanitation behaviour
of students in terms of regular use of toilets and zero
open urination and defecation. Use of dustbins for waste
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disposal both in the classroom and the school compound
was consistent. Student sanitation committees were active.
Teachers too have played their SSHE role with visible
commitment. Personal hygiene habits of the students were
noteworthy. Keeping themselves and their uniform clean
was a noticeable practice witnessed during our field visits
to the sample study schools.
* All the sample Anganwadi centres were functioning in the
sample GPs. And they were having sanitary latrines, which
were being used by the children with the help of Anganwadi
staff. All the centres were having water facility with piped
water supply.
* Data of Primary Health Centres (PHCs) in the sample
blocks revealed that water-borne diseases like cholera;
enteric-fever; gastroenteritis and jaundice were totally nil.
Respondents mentioned in FGDs with us that the negligible
sickness and subsequent wage loss, a number of visits to
PHCs were declined in the sample block. Reduction in
expenditure on health and more participation in labour
market would increase the earnings and overall welfare of
good sanitation practices and economic gains.
* The NGP cash incentives were utilised properly for
improving and maintaining sanitation facilities in all sample
GPs. The focus was on drainage pipelines, borewells,
streetlights, connectivity bridges etc. GDs with the people’s
representatives revealed that the said works were
discussed and finalised in the Gram Sabha. Further, they
said that this incentive gave a positive boost to the
sanitation drive in sample GPs. It is observed that the
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elected body and the governing body were having a good
coordination, which brought them a grand success in TSC.
After receiving the NGP, concerned State, sample district
officials, Block Administrative Units seemed to be
energetic along with the people’s representatives of PRIs.
Conclusions
The concerted efforts of the government’s machinery
starting at the state level to the village combined with the elected
representatives in ensuring the awareness and involvement on
a continuous basis created very good impact on the sustainability
of NGP awarded state and on the health condition of the people.
The study found that the health status of rural people has
increased significantly and the same could facilitate their ability
to work on fulltime basis so as to enhance the overall living
standards of people. Apart from all other efforts, the approach
of Community Lead Total Sanitation (CLTS) and its effective
adoption in drawing the attention of community and their
involvement in the entire exercise would go a long way for
sustainability of NGP awards not only in Sikkim but also in any
other state or district or a village.
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Importance of the Study
The Ministry of Rural Development is constantly
endeavouring to empower the PRIs as well as representatives
in terms of functions, powers and finance. The Gram Sabha
being potentially the most significant institution for participatory
democracy and decentralisation, it is a vibrant unit at the village
level to participate liberally by SC/ST and women community
and there are more possibilities to take decision on their own for
the benefit of their village development so that it was decided to
observe 1999 – 2000 as the year of gram sabha, at the same
time the 73rd Amendment Act gives constitutional status to gram
sabha. The provisions of the panchayats (Extension to the
Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 to the tribal areas, has come into
force on 24 December 1996 for the benefit of entire tribal
population in eight states.
With a view to making the PRIs truly representative of
the weaker sections of society, the 73rd Constitution Amendment
Act (1992) has provided reservation of seats for SCs and STs
according to their population in the three tiers of PR system, 33
per cent will be given to women in PRIs. The Act has made the
Panchayati Raj mandatory functionary through Article 243G of
EMPOWERMENT OF DISADVANTAGED GROUPSTHROUGH THE INITIATIVES OF PRIs : A STUDY IN
ORISSA AND JHARKHAND
Dr. Y. Bhaskar Rao
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the Constitution (1992), it deals with the powers, authority and
responsibilities of Panchayats. However, still there are certain
grey areas with regard to social justice, where the PRIs can
and should be very effective, if the 243G is followed: These are
(a) Empowerment of rural people in general and the weaker
sections; (b) Implementation of land reforms alongside various
poverty alleviation programmes; and (c) Institutionalisation of
Nyaya Panchayats by energising them for providing inexpensive
justice expeditiously at the doorstep of the villagers. A set of 29
items in the 11th Schedule to the Constitution has been added,
and these items pertaining to the development and welfare are
to be entrusted to the Panchayat. Item in the 11th Schedule
deals with the welfare of the weaker sections.
Objectives
* Socio-economic and political background of the SC/ST
and women representatives of the PRIs.
* To assess the level of awareness among the elected
members about the roles, responsibilities and various
developmental programmes.
* To analyse participation of weaker sections in decision
making process of PRIs.
* To study about the orientation training for the members of
PRIs.
* To suggest suitable measures to ensure their effective
participation in the decision making process and
development.
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Methodology
The study was taken up in two States (Orissa and
Jharkhand) with the help of officials and elected representatives,
State governments, and keeping in view implementation of
empowering policies in favour of PRIs in both States. The
Jharkhand State does not have PR System till 2010. The PR
elections were held recently and elected their representatives at
the grassroot institutions. However, Orissa State has long history
of panchayats. Both States have long way to go socially and
economically and also has pockets that are predominantly tribals.
After discussion with the officials of state level, the researcher
has decided to take up one district in each State.
Study Area and Sample Size
Further, for indepth investigation, two blocks were
selected from each district. These blocks are being covered
predominantly by SC, ST and women population. The elected
representatives of PRIs are also taken into view to elicit
information. Two gram panchayats were selected from each
block. In all eight gram panchayat sarpanches, chairpersons of
standing committees and elected members of PRIs from SC/
ST and women were interviewed. Apart from the above, the
research had touched upon and interviewed the officials at three
levels. In each State 96 respondents were interviewed. The total
sample size is 192 in both States.
Data Collection and Processing
Primary data on socio-economic, demographic and
political profile of the respondents of the study area were obtained
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through structured interview schedule. Empowerment scale was
designed and used to measure the level of awareness.
Participation in PRIs, decision-making process in development
and PRIs, in addition, the perception on empowerment of weaker
sections were also obtained from the SC/ST and women elected
representatives of PRIs. Besides the individual interviews, Focus
Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted at three levels with
elected representatives of SC/ST and women officials of PRIs
and elites of the village level to understand the potential
opportunities as well as limitation bottlenecks etc.
Secondary data were collected to get better
understanding of the location and situation of the study area,
that covered the various developmental programmes and new
initiatives regarding empowering of the panchayats and
disadvantaged groups. The relevant state data, district, zilla
parishad, block and villages were collected on socio-demographic
profile to get clarity and matching in dates with primary data.
Data Analysis
The quantitative on socio-economic variables of the
sample respondents were analysed. For the purpose of identifying
Socio-Economic Status (SES) groups/SGS index was measured
based on information collected on certain socio – economic
variables from each of the respondents. The SPS package was
used for analysing the socio-economic index from the variables
selected namely, age, caste, educational level, occupation and
annual income of respondents.
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Field Findings
The present study revealed several problems and issues
in both States. Jharkhand State do not have past experience of
panchayat structures, their newly elected representatives have
awareness which is much lesser than Orissa State.
* The sample respondents are basically from two
communities, SCs are 49 per cent and STs are 33.3 per
cent including women in both States. However, Orissa
State consists of more literates among the elected
representatives of PRIs than Jharkhand State.
* About 72.9 per cent of the respondents were aware about
the Panchayati Raj 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act in
both States. There is no much variation of awareness
among the people and elected representatives of PRIs.
Jharkhand people are active and eager to participate in
panchayati raj activities.
* In the decision making process it was found that nearly
74 per cent expressed their satisfaction in Orissa State.
However, only 34 per cent respondents said that they have
participated in decision making process of their village
development. It indicates that the empowerment of
disadvantaged group is significantly less.
* According to field situation, after recent panchayat elections
in Jharkhand, the Aam Sabha was held in April or June
and December. The Aam Sabhas are held in the presence
of Block Development Officer (BDO), Panchayat
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Supervisor and Panchayat Sevak. The Aam Sabha
approves plans, programmes and projects that include
Tribal Sub-Plan. Selection of beneficiaries and contractors
for the schemes to be undertaken is decided at the Gram
Sabha. However, the field reality is completely different in
both States. But in Jharkhand the Aam Sabha and Gram
Sabhas are not being properly organised because, the
panchayat elections were held very recently, it certainly
gets empowered gradually step by step.
* In connection with the cooperation from PR officials
towards SC/ST/women representatives, it is not
encouraging trend in both States. However, in Jharkhand,
the capacity is to be developed among the elected
representatives.
* In Jharkhand State, bureaucracy and line departments also
interfere in the functioning of PRIs. Because there is no
PRI structure as such for 30 years, for this purpose the
bureaucracy and line departments have developed the
habit of interference in the panchayati raj administration
for the benefit of the development. At this juncture there is
a possibility to create much more awareness among the
elected representatives of the PRIs, then only they will
cope up and mould towards running of their own grassroot
institutions.
* In view of devolution process in Orissa 21 subjects have
been already devolved, 11 departments were transferred
to panchayati raj institutions. Out of that 9 departments
have already prepared an activity mapping. This will help
officials and elected representatives to go through and get
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acquaintance with the financial matters, responsibilities
and implementation of developmental activities. In this
connection several Central and State governments are
being provided funds for the development. The activity
mapping can provide insight to follow further proper action.
Conclusion
Several studies have revealed that the SC/ST elected
representatives of PRIs were not able to articulate group specific
interest or exercise their own judgement in decision making.
They did not take part in deliberations or contribute to major
decisions. However, the gram sabha is also not positively
reacting towards weaker sections. The gram sabha has become
nominal and proxy. It is because of the absence of entry of the
dalits and women into the framework of gram sabha.
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Introduction
The problem of improving the educational scenario in
India can be understood as consisting of two challenges. The
first challenge is to get a child enumerated, enrolled and be kept
in the rolls in the school while the second is to provide quality
education to the children who show up in school. Despite
numerous initiatives by the government and NGOs specifically
targeting the problem, enrolling and retaining the children in
school has remained a challenge. The most important reason
for failure of these programmes is the poor socio-economic
state of affairs prevailing in the society. Improvement in school
enrolment rates cannot be expected without any betterment in
the socio–economic condition and vice-versa. Any effort to break
this stalemate between education and socio-economics should
start with thoroughly understanding the factors that result in a
parent putting a child at work instead of at school.
Lack of livelihood is probably the greatest impediment to
an improvement in school enrolment and retention rate and
instigator for child labour. From a parental perspective the basic
necessities of life like food, shelter and clothing largely precede
the necessity for education. According to the latest data of
National Health Survey in 2005-06, the all India average for
EFFECT OF MGNREGS ON SCHOOL ENROLMENTAND ATTENDANCE AMONG THE CHILDREN OF
BELOW POVERTY LINE (BPL) FAMILIES
Dr. T Vijaya Kumar
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malnourished children is 47 per cent. Migration is another major
issue that leads to an already enrolled child dropping out of
school. Lack of sustainable livelihood resources in villages
results in parents seasonally migrating to urban areas leading
to school dropouts.
In this context, the National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act (NREGA) can be used as an effective tool to address both
the challenges. NREGA is legislation enacted by the Indian
Parliament in 2005 that provides a legal guarantee of one hundred
days of employment every year to every member of a rural
household who is willing to do unskilled manual work. This act
was introduced with an aim to improve the purchasing power of
the rural populace by leveraging the enormous amount of human
resource that is left untapped in rural India to create/ improve
the much needed rural infrastructure. This scheme has eased
the parental burden and income to send their children to schools.
The standard status attainment model which incorporated
parental socio-economic status, parental income to predict
educational attainment and early labour market out comes often
reports significant effects of parental SES and household
income. The explanations for income effects on children
achievement focus on differences in home environment between
the high and low income households (Smith et al.1997) and the
effects of economic pressures on children’s self-confidence
and achievement in the low income families (Conger et al. 1993).
Adding middle childhood family income variable in the regression
model, Duncan et.al. (1998) report that income in the early
childhood had stronger impacts on high school completion than
the effects of the middle childhood income. Increase in family
income would have greater effects for children’s educational
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attainment in the very low income households than the other
income groups. So far the studies taken up in this area mainly
focused on entitlements, rights and the processes involved in
the implementation of National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme but not on the effects on social aspects such as health,
education etc. In view of this the present investigation is proposed
to study the effects of NREGS on school enrolment and
attendance among the children of Below Poverty Line (BPL)
families.
Objectives of the Study
* To study the effects of NREGS on school enrolment and
attendance among the children of wage earners.
* To identify appropriate intervention to leverage the NREGS
towards improvement of school enrolment and attendance
among the children of wage earner households under the
NREGS.
Methodology
Research Design
The study was carried out in two selected States i.e
Orissa and Uttar Pradesh and from these states four districts
i.e Khurda and Kandhamal districts in Orissa and Sitapur and
Jhansi districts in Uttar Pradesh were included in the sample.
From each district, 50 NREGS worker households @ 25
households per block were selected to cover a sample of 400
households (50 per cent each in two districts).
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The study was conducted by following survey research
methods and the sample selected for the study is as follows:
* NREGS worker households with school going age children
in two States is as follows.
* 100 households with 100 days work during the preceding
one year;
* 100 households with 50-60 days (national average) work
during the preceding one year;
* 100 households with 20-30 days work during the
preceding one year;
* 100 households, cardholders but not at all benefited by
any work during the preceding one year.
Thus the present study covers 400 NREGS cardholder
households with 6-14 year school age children, who were
benefited by varied days of employment under NREGS and also
those who were not at all benefited by the scheme despite
holding the card for employment under the NREGS.
Findings and Conclusions of the Study
* In Orissa State it is observed that 92.5 per cent of the
respondents are males and 7.5 per cent are females.
Whereas in Uttar Pradesh State 94.5 per cent are males
and 5 per cent are females.
* Caste-wise distribution of the respondents indicates that
in Orissa 75 per cent belong to scheduled caste followed
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by 15 per cent from backward class and the remaining
are from the minority communities i.e 5 per cent.
* Caste-wise distribution of the respondents indicates that
in Uttar Pradesh State 54.5 per cent respondents are from
scheduled caste followed by 42 per cent from backward
communities, 3 per cent from scheduled caste and 5 per
cent are from other communties.
* The sample households in two States indicates the positive
and significant coefficients on the causal and agricultural
variables and suggest that households who have variable
incomes and and are prone to seasonal shocks and lean
agricultural periods seem to be more likely to register for
the scheme.
* Households whose primary occupation is agriculture are
15 per cent more likely to register.
* Households whose primary occupation is casual work are
16.7 per cent more likely to register for the scheme.
* The programme has positive impact on males and females.
Increased insurance or safety perceived by registering for
the programme seems to provide encouragement for
enrolling the children in schools and sending regularly to
the school.
* The programme has positive impact through the income
transfer that it generates, with households taking up work
up to 100 days are less likely to participate in child labour
and increases children attendance.
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Introduction
The 73rd constitutional amendment has given a prime
place to District Planning Committees (DPCs) with a twin
responsibility of preparing the draft development plan converging
interests of both Panchayats and Municipalities by addressing
the issue of physical and natural resources, integrated
development of infrastructure and other related developmental
needs. Even after two to three rounds of elections to PRIs
across states, DPCs seem to be still in a state of dormancy
with no active involvement of the desired stakeholders.
Meanwhile, the identification of backward districts and launching
of an exclusive programme clearly put forth that DPCs need to
be a channel for funnelling the funds and as a ‘critical gap filling’
fund. Obviously this paved way for constituting DPCs across
states but with a stamp of strong political climate prevailing in
the state. In the process DPCs still remain to be under the
grappling hold of in charge District Ministers rather than with the
District Panchayat chairman. Hence, a study was proposed to
look into the functioning of this unit of planning in its varied
forms.
DISTRICT PLANNING COMMITTEES:PERFORMANCEIN BRGF AND NON - BRGF DISTRICTS
Dr. K. Jayalakshmi
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Objectives
a. To study the existing organisational structure and
functioning of District Planning Committees, and analyse
the process adopted in DPCs,
b. To assess the plans prepared and implemented with
reference to objectives, and examine the initiatives taken
to reach the goals.
c. To suggest measures, and various capacity building
requirements of DPCs including training functionaries, and
evolve policy and professional interventions for effective
formulation and implementation of plans and projects by
the DPCs.
Methodology
The sample for the study includes one BRGF and the
other non-BRGF district from each State, identified on the basis
of discussions with respective State government functionaries.
Hence, we identified in total six districts. We have prepared a
tentative matrix to capture the several facets of DPC : a) present
functions and powers of DPC as provided by the government;
b) constitution of DPC, awareness levels among members about
their roles and responsibilities; c) constituting special committees
for core subjects such as poverty alleviation, health and
sanitation, education, social justice, administration etc. d) review
the progress of plans prepared by the officers of different
departments working in the district; e) Municipalities normally
send their annual budgets to the directorate of municipal
administration/government even before they are placed before
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the DPC; f) adequate training of the members of the DPC
including the district level officers of different departments in the
district; g)The role of special invitees etc.
Study Area
The rationale for selecting these three States, a) To cover
three regions central, western and southern regions. and
accordingly state selection was taken up on the basis of three
indicators’ i) functioning of DPCs, ii) activity mapping and
devolution of 3Fs.-Functions, Funds and Functionaries; and Tamil
Nadu has town panchayats. iii) In two States viz., Rajasthan
and Tamil Nadu, the District Panchayat President is the Chairman
of DPC but in Chhattisgarh Minister is the chairman of the DPC.
In Chhattisgarh we identified Dhamtari (BRGF) and Raipur
(Non-BRGF), Rajasthan Tonk (BRGF) Jaipur (Non-BRGF) and
in Tamil Nadu we identified, Villipuram (BRGF) and Kanchipuram
(Non-BRGF).
Findings
The composition of DPC varies across States viz., in
Chhattisgarh four-fifths of the members are elected from among
the elected representatives of Zilla Panchayat and Municipalities;
In Rajasthan as envisaged in Section 121 of the Rajasthan
Panchayati Raj Act, 1994, DPC has in all 25 members, out of
whom 20 members are elected from amongst and by the elected
representatives of Zilla Parishad and Municipal Bodies in
proportion to ratio of population of rural areas and urban areas
in the district. DPC also includes five nominated members viz.,
Collector of the District; Chief Executive Officer, Zilla Parishad;
Additional Chief Executive Officer, Zilla Parishad; and two persons
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from MPs / MLAs or persons representing voluntary agencies
nominated by the State Government.
In Tamil Nadu, at least four-fifths of the members shall
be elected by the elected members of the district level Panchayat
and of the Municipalities in the district from amongst themselves.
Their proportion would be in accordance with the ratio of urban
and rural population of the district. Also, members of house of
people, Council of State and Legislative Assembly are members
and District Collector as Vice-Chairman of DPC.
States have activated DPCs merely to garner BRGF
funds, but although a component of capacity development for
elected representatives exists, a majority of them lack planning
skills. No dialogue across three tiers while finalising the plan.
Conclusions
A. In three study States the composition, membership,
functioning of DPCs vary across States as per the
prevailing political will and the devolution status in the
respective State, especially where Minister is Chairman of
DPC. As the functioning of DPCs was also linked to the
issue of BRGF and the works taken up were according to
the guidelines. Decentralised Planning is to be arrived at
by an integrated participatory and coordinated idea of
development of local areas. Each Gram Panchayat or
Municipality is treated as a planning unit and district plans
are prepared through consolidation and integration of these
plans as well as by considering the development of district
as a whole and to be implemented by the respective
municipalities or the gram sabhas. This aspect seems to
be largely missing in all the three States.
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B. All the Panchayat members clearly stated that DPCs’ role
is visible only in BRGF districts whereas in other districts
their counterparts have informed that it is more notional.
At present, very little coordination is visible across
departments implementing RD programmes in two States
Chhattisgarh and Rajasthan, totally nil in Tamil Nadu. To
ensure the use of resources available at the local level
and resources made available under various schemes in
a batter way, that the development needs as desired of
the whole district may be achieved.
C. It has been observed that the DPC members across state
need a serious and sincere capacity development
programme. A quick Training Need Assessment revealed
that they need to be oriented in basics related to planning
concepts, preparation of plans, identification of needs and
preparation of shelf of projects by integrating from other
schemes/departments. Similarly, elected members need
to be trained at other levels too.
D. It is quite clear that elected representatives are quite
interested to access BRGF funds as it is a critical gap
filling component. However, big or small amount is being
booked to the BRGF and they stated that it is handier to
complete the projects which were pending for want of
very little money. They also stated that they need training
in all flagship programmes giving them details pertaining
to the programme per se and also the financial resources
available to the state, district, blocks and GPs.