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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION

Avaniendra Chakravartty

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Learning Objectives • To acquaint one self to the fundamental foundations that

build up the different components of research process and research.

• To have an understanding of what qualitative research is about, its nature and scope.

• To know about the various approaches used to collect data in qualitative research.

• To reflect on the appropriateness and need of qualitative approaches.

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What is Research ?Research means a systematic investigation, including

research development, testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge. (34 Code of Federal Regulations [CFR], 97.102[d])1

“A studious inquiry or examination , especially a critical investigation or experimentation having for its aim the discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation, the revision of accepted conclusions, theories, or laws in the light of new discovered facts or the practical application of such conclusions, theories or laws.”

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What is not Research?

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Fluke or by chance an action results in something new.

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Types of research

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‘Iceberg model’ of the dimensions of research – Behind all researches and within all researchers exist

the philosophical foundations.

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Philosophical Foundations of Research

Ontological, Epistemological, Axiological & Methodological foundations form the base for all types of researches.

(Guba & Lincoln, 1994, P.105; CRESWELL, 1998, Pp.74?77; Creswell, Hanson, Clark Plano & Morales, 2007, P.238; Patton, 2002, P.266; Savage, 2006, P.386).

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ONTOLOGY• Ontology - The starting point of all research

and forms the researcher’s view of reality, the nature of things, claims about what exists, the nature of causation, and the meanings of “public” and “health”.

• It is about the nature of reality that is worth investigation.

- (Journal of epidemiology and community health) (Epidemiology Community Health)

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Ontological Assumptions• When a researcher is formulating a

theoretical understanding of a particular object of study, he/she will be greatly influenced by his/her assumptions regarding the ontology of the natural and social world.

• Clarifying this object requires a researcher to make specific assumptions regarding the nature of structure, humans, and causality (natural and social).

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• Ontological assumptions form one of the most important building blocks of our worldview and they are so fundamental that we rarely question them. They are therefore of central importance to any research in any discipline (Stahl 2007). (Reutlinger & Koch 2008)(Patil & Giordano 2010)(Eriksen et al. 2013)(Johnstone 2004)

(Silva 2005)(Eastwood et al. 2014).

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EPISTEMOLOGY

• Epistemology addresses how we come to know the reality and how we as researchers gain knowledge about the external world? It involves the study of how knowledge is gained, and the general validity of claims to knowledge. (Epidemiology Community Health)

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• Epistemology poses the following questions: What is the relationship between the knower and what is known? How do we know what we know? What counts as knowledge?

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Epistemological assumptions

• Epistemological assumption is deeply rooted in the culture and worldview of the society and determines the recognition of a problem and whether the causes of the problems are named (Bunniss & Kelly 2010)(Dugassa 2012) (McKeganey 1995)(Magolda 2004) (Hammell 2002).

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• Health Ontology and Health Epistemology refer to health workers and non health workers knowledge, attitudes and associated behaviors which pertain to health related topics such as diseases, their prevention, and treatment. (Encyclopaedia of Medical Concept, 2012)

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AxiologyAxiology focuses on the place of values in

the research process.

Axiology is the theory of values, and values are aspects of human behaviour that emerged during evolution and gave us aims, goals and opinions which through our knowledge direct our actions

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Axiological assumption

• The axiological assumption of logical positivist research is that it is value free and unbiased, as opposed to naturalistic research, in which the researcher acknowledges his or her values and biases, as well as the value nature of the information gathered from the field (Johnstone 2004)(McKeganey 1995)(Tallacchini 2005)(Koetting & Malisa 2004).

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METHODOLOGY• What is the nature of the approach to

research? Choices made about research methodology ‘profoundly affects what one finds’ (Kincheloe and Berry, 2004:6).

• Methodology is determined by ontology, epistemology and axiology. Even the most scientific, positivist, objective, quantitative researcher will make a subjective choice, for example, of which statistical measure to apply.

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Methodological assumption

• Methodological assumptions are concerned with how the researcher can go about finding out whatever it is that he or she believes can be known, based upon prior epistemological assumptions (Hammell 2002) (Trentmann 2004)(Guba & Lincoln 1994)(Frohlich et al. 2001)(Johnstone 2004) (Reutlinger & Koch 2008).

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Sequential steps of research

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An example of the ontological, epistemological and methodological assumptions on research on population control.

Hypothesis -1People have many children

and hence they are poor.Based on the above

statement the researcher will see reproducing too many children as the primary cause for poverty.

Solutions – Family control measures, health education and promotion.

Hypothesis - 2People are poor so they

have many children. Based on the above

statement the researcher sees poverty as the main reason for having too many children.

Solutions – Poverty reduction measures, employment generation.

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Qualitative research

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Defining qualitative research (QR) - Qualitative research is a type of scientific research.

•“Qualitative research involves any research that uses data that do not indicate ordinal values.”• Qualitative research is concerned with

developing explanations of social phenomena. That is to say, it aims to help us to understand the world in which we live and why things are the way they are.

• Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with: why? how? in what way?

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Nature of qualitative research

• Concerned with the opinions, experiences and feelings of individuals producing subjective data.

• Describes social phenomena as they occur naturally with no manipulation.

• Holistic perspective• Data are collected through direct encounters

with individuals, through one to one interviews or group interviews or by observation.

• Intensive and time consuming nature of data collection necessitates the use of small samples.

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Purpose of qualitative research• To describe, explore and explain the phenomena

being studied and to gain new perspectives.• QR questions often take the form of, what is this? Or

what is happening here? And are more concerned with the process rather than the outcome.

• Provide rich descriptions of complex phenomenon. • Explore sensitive topics• Explore culturally defined experiences• Explore issues of difficult to access

groups/subcultures.

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Three main qualitative research methods• In-depth interviews, Focus group discussions

and Direct observation.

• In-depth or unstructured interviews are frequently used in qualitative research for researchers to understand research topics from respondents’ points of view. In-depth interviews are designed to be open-ended and flexibly structured to enable respondents to discuss their point of view using their own language.

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Focus group discussions (FGDs)• (FGDs) are useful for collecting data about

experiences, feelings, opinions and reactions that may not be revealed in one-to-one interviews but may be elicited and observable through participation in a social gathering and through interaction with others in debating issues and exchanging views. FGDs produce data about perceptions and how the world is classified by participants and gives multiplicity of views.

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Direct observation

• Direct observation of behaviour (such as what actually happens in a patient consultation) is central to holistic analysis (Silverman 2005).

• It is of interest in itself as well as in conjunction with people’s accounts of their behaviour as reported in interviews or focus group discussions since, “the hidden meanings of words [spoken in formal interviews] sometimes only emerge when we observe speakers’ actions, in context”.

• Direct observation can produce qualitative and/or quantitative data about the practices of those observed, depending on the research question.

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Questions ‘Qualitative research’ seeks to answer

• Why people behave the way do?• How opinions and attitudes are formed?• How people are affected by the events that go

around them?• How and why cultures have developed?• The differences between social groups.

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Examples of types of questions asked in qualitative research enquiry

• Why is it that people continue to smoke when the evidence about harmful effects of smoking is all around them and known to those who smoke?

• Why do people not take the medicine prescribed for them?

• What difference has the involvement of doctors in management made to the management of health services?

• Why do many motorcyclists not wear a helmet?

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Samples of qualitative research objectives in maternal health

• To identify factors that contribute to current maternal care seeking behaviors, with a focus on childbirth and the early postpartum period, and determine amenability of these behaviors to change;

• To document social networks and communication channels that facilitate rapid dissemination of information about, and adoption of, improved practices.

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To determine the decision making and social support roles of husbands and other male influential's in household and community during routine pregnancy, childbirth and obstetric emergencies.

• To explore husbands/male influential's’ knowledge and perceptions of problems, complications, and emergencies in birth and early postpartum, when and where they should be cared for, and perceptions of emergency care providers.

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• To determine community leaders’ perspectives on what preferences of women in their community are now for birth attendant and birth location, and reasons why women do or do not use skilled care (barriers, motivators, willingness to change) for routine skilled care for all births and emergency care;

• To understand perceived reasons why women continue to rely on the TBAS and other “unskilled birth attendants” who now deliver many women in their community;

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• To determine TBA perspective on reasons behind household and community level delays in seeking skilled care for normal births and in obstetric emergencies, and on provider/facility factors influencing timely receipt of quality obstetric care; their perception of facility/provider barriers, motivators, willingness of providers to change.

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Conversational prompts for qualitative fieldwork

• Ask for a story - ‘What happened last time …?’

• Explore metaphors ‘I’m interested you describe this as alike to X. Can you tell me more..?’

• Ask for clarification ‘What do you mean by..?’, ‘Can you say a little more about..?’ ‘In what way?’

• Search for opinions ‘What do you think of that?’ ‘Do you believe that?’

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Validity and generalisation of qualitative research

Qualitative research is context specific and local specific

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Qualitative researches could produce different views and understanding.

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Qualitative research does not study the parts in isolation

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Thank you