QUALITATIVERESEARCH

Contrasted with Quantitative Research

Fundamental differences between research strategies

Orientation Quantitative QualitativeThe role of theory in relation to research

Hypothesis first, tested by research. Deductive

Theory last, gener-ated from research. Inductive

Epistemology (how do we know what we 'know'?)

Natural science, Positivism

Interpretivism

Ontology (what is the nature of reality?)

Objectivism Constructionism

Adapted from…Business Research Methods

By Alan Bryman and Emma Bell © 2003, Publisher: Oxford University Press (UK)

Contrasted with Quantitative Research

Other common contrasts

Quantitative QualitativeNumbers WordsPoint of view of researcher Points of view of participantsResearcher distant Researcher closeTheory testing Theory emergentStatic ProcessStructured UnstructuredGeneralization Contextual understandingHard, reliable data Rich, deep dataMacro MicroBehaviour MeaningArtificial settings Natural settings

Business Research MethodsBy Alan Bryman and Emma Bell © 2003, Publisher: Oxford Univ Press (UK)

Why Use Qualitative Methods?

1. To understand human behaviour and behavioural changes

2. To use people’s own words, explanations3. To allow the data to lead to a theory4. To explore beyond correlation to cause

and effect

The Process

Research Techniques

ETHNOGRAPHY

1. INTERVIEWS

2. FOCUS GROUPS

3. NARRATIVES

4. DOCUMENTS

5. SAMPLING

Research Techniques

Ethnnography• The researcher lives and/or works among the group

being studied• Started with Cultural Anthropology• Now used in business and other social sciences

Research Techniques

1. Interviewing—guidelines• Sample the correct population• Ask questions that give you the specific data you need• Make sure the respondent understands each question• Conduct the interviews at a time and place where both

the interviewer and the respondent can concentrate

Research Techniques

2. Focus Groups—need…• A skilled moderator who has specific training

for conducting focus groups• Specific eligibility criteria for participants• Formal speaking protocol to avoid bias• Questions that encourage a two to three

minute thoughtful response or opinion

Research Techniques

3. NarrativesRecord stories. To ensure best results…• Pilot a narrative data collection mechanism with the

population that specifically interests you.• Use detailed instructions in that pilot group. • Refine the mechanism and instructions for the actual

group

Research Techniques

3. NarrativesRecord stories. To ensure best results…• Pilot a narrative data collection mechanism with the

population that specifically interests you.• Use detailed instructions in that pilot group. • Refine the mechanism and instructions for the actual

group

Research Techniques

4. Documents“Not prepared at the request of the researcher”• Public records

(census records, newspapers, court docs, company statements, books, etc.)

• Personal documents(diaries, photos, letters, wills, poems, etc.)

Research Techniques

5. Sampling

The general rule in qualitative research is that you continue to sample until you are not getting any new information or are no longer gaining new insights. (Or until deadlines come up, or funding runs out, etc.)

Techniques of Analysis

1. Content Analysis

2. Grounded Theory

3. Narrative Summary Analyses

4. Triangulation

Validity and Reliability

Some difficulties

• Would people say the same things if asked again to be in a focus group?

• How does one account for good or bad days for interviews and narratives?

• Generalizability is not the main aim in qualitative research, but validity and reliability can assist in this aim

Which disciplines would you expect to need and make the most use of qualitative research methods?

Two Examples…

Which of these qualitative methods might you use?