Psychology Notes Psychology Notes

Two Branches

Research: Biological, Developmental, Social, Clinical, Cultural, and Quantitive

Applied: Therapists, Human factoring, Industrial/organizational

Epigenetic: Heritable changes in gene activity not caused by a change in DNA sequence.

Psychology is a scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Behavior (Walking) = Observable

Mental processes (Thinking) = unobservable

History

Early Schools of thought

Structuralism FunctionalismPsychology= Study of mental life

Freudian psychology

How do unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect behavior.Behaviorism

Psychology= scientific study of behavior Observable behaviors Dont bother w/ black box (mind) Behaviors result of consequencesCognitive Revolution

Saw limitations of behaviorism Psychology=study of behavioral and mental processesBehavioral and Mental processes

1. Describe2. Explain3. Predict4. ControlUse controlled methods when observing behavior and mental processes

Rubin et al [and others] (1970s) study

Had parents describe their newborns Descriptions depended on sex Daughters Smaller, Delicate, AwkwardObjective (controlled) methods

size weight No difference between boys and girls Parents used subjective measure (just eyes) Stereotypes/expectations affected observation1st Goal of Psychology = To describe behavior and mental processes

2nd Goal of Psychology = to explain why behavioral and mental processes occur

Rubin Study Why do some suffer from addiction and depression3rd Goal of Psychology = To predict what behavioral and mental processes will occur in the future

a. Psychologists- predictions based on past events b. Dont claim to make predictions for any ONE person (based on average)4th Goal of Psychology = To control and change behavioral and mental processes

Why do people suffer from depression?

Genes? UpbringingBio psychosocial approach

Biological influences Psychological influences Social/cultural influences Love- what chemical changes in brain occur when in love Examines how consequences affect our B+M Processes Love- How do we learn to show attraction in a socially appropriate way? Sociocultural Perspective: Examines relationship between culture and B+M Processes Are there cultural differences in courting rituals? Psychodynamic Perspective: Examines how our unconscious and early childhood experiences affect our B+M processes. Freud: Conscious- thinking about now Preconscious- Memories we can pull up Unconscious- Drive to do things Love: How does the relationship with our mothers in infancy affect who we choose as a romantic partner in adulthood Neuroscience- What chemical changes in the brain Behaviorist Sociocultural- are some cultures more susceptible to addiction Psychodynamic- can a neglecting parent lead to addiction Critical thinking- Identification and evaluation of evidence to guide decision making Enables us to: think for ourselves, responsibility to make decisions1)Investigate problems

Ask questions, question traditional/popular beliefs

Be skeptical

Ask Questions

Who Conducted this study

Was there an agenda for personal gain

Skeptical- Not sure whether true or not, need proof

Cynicism- Disbelieve everything

2) Examine definition of terms3) Be cautions in drawing conclusions from evidence4) Consider alternative interpretations of research findings

-Placebo

-Alterior

5) Do not oversimplify

Be suspicious of single factor explanations

6) Do not over generalize7) Avoid making belief changes based on the finding of one study Psychology is a science because of the methods we use to gather knowledge Empirical Approach: Knowledge gained through direct observation and measurement All zeeps have 16 toes All men are zeeps All men have 16 toes Controlled Empiricism Perception is biased Rubin Study Traffic light example Use controlled methods to control for bias Objective measures Rubin Study Careful recording rubrics Record every event Clear recording rubric How do Psychologists gather information Surveys/interviews: ascertain self-reported attitudes/behaviors of particular group Observation: Naturalistic, watch behavior in natural setting Lab: Watch behavior in lab setting Case studies In-depth examination of one person/small group Which Method is Best Depends on Question All methods have pros and cons Limitations? Resource intensive May not generalize to population Strengths? Generates research questions How do people show romantic attraction? Common Questions in Psychology 1)Are two things related? 2)Does one thing cause the other?Are two things related

Correlation: measure of extent to which two factors vary together naturally Are age and happiness correlated? Is TV watching associated with unhealthy developmentTypes of Correlation

Positive: As one variable increases, so does the other As hours spent watching TV increases, # of aggressive acts increase Negative: As on variable increases, the other decreases As temperature rises, # of clothing articles worn decreases No correlationStrength of Correlation

If know about one variable, can make better prediction about the other As ice cream consumption increases, crime rates increaseLimitation of Correlation

Cant draw causal conclusion Why 1) Bidirectionally Issue 2) Third Variable Issue Even if a causal relationship exists, we are not sure what is causing whatThird Variable Issue

Relationship between two variables could be driven completely by another variableDangers of Drawing Causal Conclusions from Correlations

Vaccines - autism diagnosis Experimental Method allows for causal conclusions Control: Isolate the variable of interest Manipulate variable of interest Keep all other variables constantBiological Psychology examines links between

Biological Activities Psychological events Every psychological event is simultaneously biologicalNervous system

Complex combination of cells Allows us to: Gain info about whats going on inside/outside our bodies & respond appropriately

Somatic Nervous System: Carries sensory & motor (voluntary, muscle movement) info to & from central nervous system

Autonomic Nervous System: Controls bodily functions NOT consciously directed

(Automatic Processes): Breathing, Heartbeat, Digestive processes

Sympathetic

Expend energy Flight-or-fight systemParasympathetic

Replenish energy Rest-and-digest system Neurons Process, store, transmit information Generally, born with over 100 billion neurons Neurons vary in: Location (most found in brain0 Size (Fraction of inch to several feet) Function Sensory neurons: sensory info TO CNS Motor neurons: info from CNS to Body tissues Neuron: Single nerve cell with: Dendrites- Rootlike structures attached to cell body Receive impulses (messages) Cell body- contains nucleus of cell Control center of cell Axon- long thin part of the neuron Transmits info to other neurons, muscles, or glands Axons end in small bulb shaped structures Axon terminal buttons store neurotransmitters Axons and myelin Some axons wrapped with myelin (fatty, waxy substance) Purpose of myelin? Allows messages to be conducted more efficiently Myelination happens throughout first 25 years of life Allows for greater muscle control, judgement, & self-control Synapse Generally, neighboring neurons DONT touch one another Tiny fluid-filled gap between neuronsWhen do neurons transmit messages?

When: Stimulated by sensory signal Triggered by chemical signals from neighboring neurons Electrochemical Process Transmission involves electricity & chemicals Electrical (neural impulse) travels down axon Causes neuron to fire Release of chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) from axon terminal buttons into synapse Neurotransmitter crosses synapse & binds to receptor sites on dendrites of receiving neuron Neurotransmitters leads to neural impulse in receiving neuron, causing neuron to fireNeurotransmitters: an Introduction

Neurotransmitters affect: Behaviors & Mental processes Identified 100+ neurotransmitters (NTS) Involved in different processes Serotonin Affects Mood Hunger Sleep Arousal (alertness) Associated with depression Many antidepressants (ssri) target serotonin SSRIs Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors SSRIs bind to sites on sending neuron that would reabsorb neurotransmitter Blocks reuptake Serotonin in synapse long enough for receiving neuron to make use of it MDMA (Ecstasy) Recreational drug Targets serotonin Blocks reuptake of serotonin Long-term use Can damage serotonin-producing neurons Decreased serotonin output Increased risk of permanently depressed mood Research investigating ways to increase serotonin without drugs Regular aerobic exercise Exposure to light Dopamine Dopamine influences movements, learning, attention, and emotion Dopamine influences learning & attention Reduced dopamine in part of brain related to attention, impulse control ADD Ritalin Inhibits reuptake of dopamine Dopamine associated with emotion People with schizophrenia More receptor sites for dopamine in brain area involved with emotional responding May overuse available dopamine leading to hallucination & delusions Most drugs that treat schizophrenia block dopamine receptorsCerebellum:

Involved with Balance Coordination Voluntary movement Thalamus

Serves as the brains sensory switchboard Transfers sensory info to & from higher & lower brain regionsLimbic System

1. Hippocampus- New memory formation2. Amygdala- Involved w/ emotion especially perception & expression of rage and fear3. Hypothalamus- controls autonomic nervous system, regulates motivated behavior Hunger Sex driveCerebrum

Higher brain structure Consists of two hemisphere Left & right Contralateral Hemispheres connected by Corpus callosum Collection of axon fibersCerebral cortex

Surface of cerebrum Bodys ultimate control & information processHemispheres of cerebrum

1) Occipital Lobe Sight 2)Temporal lobe Hearing 3) Parietal Lobe Somatosensory cortex 4) Frontal Lobe Motor cortexParietal Lobe & Somatosensory Cortex

Somatosensory cortex receives info from 1) skin senses 2) information from movement of body parts Makes you aware body part is moving Map of body Phantom limbFrontal Lobe & Motor Cortex

Motor cortex controls: Voluntary movements of bodys musclesAssociation Areas

More to cerebral cortex than sensory input & muscular output Association areas Parts of cerebral cortex involved w/ higher mental functions learning remembering, thinking and speaking Found in all four lobesAssociation areas in frontal lobe associated with:

Judgment (including moral judgment Planning Impulse control Decision makingFrontal lobe & free will

Developmental Psychology

Branch of Psychology that studies

Physical Cognitive Social Change throughout lifespanWhy study development ?

What is Cognition?

All mental activities associated w/: Thinking Knowing Remembering Communicating Cognitive development: Examines how mental activities change throughout lifespanJean Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development

Traced growth in cognitive capacities in: Infants Children Adolescence Intelligence Basic life function Helps organism adapt to its environment Adapt? Adjust to demands of environment Intellectual activity undertaken for one reason Produce balanced relationship between Ones thought processes/wants/needs Their environment Piaget viewed children as little scientists Organize isolated behaviors and thoughts into higher order system Develop sophisticated schemes FOOD NO FOOD Schemes: Pattern of action Mental structures Both used to interpret and organize experience Two processes underlie all intellectual growth 1) assimilation Interpreting ones new experiences in terms of ones existing schemes Bird, Marie Calendars 2) Accommodation Adapting ones current schemes to incorporate new information WhaleTry assimilation

Fails

Disequilibrium:

Cognitive Conflict- feel uncomfortable

Accommodation

Equilibration:

Thoughts consistent w/ evidence from external world

Feel better

Scheme: All gay people bad Assimilation: All gay people you meet are bad Find out: Very lovable son is gay Experience disequilibrium Motivated to achieve equilibration Options? Assimilate: Change opinion of son Deny sons orientation Accommodate scheme Not all gay people are bad Piagets 4 stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor (birth- 2) Pre-operational (2-6) Concrete operational (7-11) Formal operational (11+ years) Stages Universal Cannot be skipped Can vary in terms of rateSensorimotor stage

Take in info through senses and motor movement Here and now Throughout stage, babies begin to mentally represent worldPreoperational Stage

Symbolic capacity: use images, words, gestures to stand for objects and experiences\ No longer trapped in here and now One-dimensional thinking Can only focus on one aspect of situation at time Consequences of one-dimensional thinking 1) egocentric Unable to view situation from anothers perspective Lack understanding of law of conservation Law of conservation: if appearance of object changes, but nothing added or subtracted, object retains its basic properties Concrete operational stage

Perform mental actions on concrete objects and events Concrete: can be examined by senses Capable of 2-D thought Lack abstract reasoning Abstract: Cannot be examined directly by senses Cant perform mental actions on ideas very well Ex: Incapable of complex hypothetical thinking Formal Operational Stage

Develop abstract reasoningCan perform mental actions on concrete objects/events as well as on ideas Hypothetical thinking (if-then)Learning: relatively permanent change in behavior/mental processes due to experience

Classical Conditioning:

Simple form of learning Make association between two or more things From association learn to anticipate eventsFather of Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov Discovered principle of classical conditioning by accident Failed research attempt- didnt give up! Asked new research question: Could he get dogs to salivate reflexively when he wished and to any stimulus he chose? Designed a study Pre learning stage (reflexive behavior) Learning stage (making association through pairing) Ringing of bell-------meat powder---------salivate Post learning stage (anticipation) Pavlovs bell Pavlov demonstrated empirically that dogs could be taught to: Salivate when he wished and to any stimulus he chose Operant conditioning: A Definition Simple form of learning Learning based on consequences Likelihood of (voluntary-type) behavior Increased if followed by a reinforcer Decreased if followed by a punisher Reinforcers increase likelihood that behavior will occur again Two types of reinforcers 1) Positive Increase likelihood of behavior when applied, or given Cleaning- Sticker Working- pay check 2) Negative Increase likelihood of behavior when something unpleasant is removed Ground until room cleaned Headache/ aspirin Punishers: Decrease likeliness of a behavior GET THESE NOTES--------- Two Types of Encoding 1) Automatic Implicit: Type of memories encoded through automatic processing 2) Effortful Type of memories encoded through effortful processing Explicit Effortful encoding strategies Mnemonics Effortful memory enhancing Chunking: Take individual units of info, group them into larger, meaningful units Hierarchies: Memory Processing (Dual Track) Implicit Memories: Automatic Without conscious recall Processed in cerebellum/ basal ganglia Space, time, frequency, well-learned info, procedural info, classically conditioned info Explicit: Effortful Conscious recall Processed in hippocampus/cortex Facts general knowledge Distributed Practice: Retain info better when encoding distributed over time Ex: Spend 4 hours studying for exam Different results Spend 1 hr studying M-Th Spend 4 hrs. studying Thursday night Self-test Flash cards Checking for understanding questions at end of chapter Encode verbal info at different levels 1)Shallow processing: encode on very basic level Physical appearance of word How many vowels in word 2) Deep processing: encode semantically (meaning of word) More deeply processed info is better remembered TIP: Personally meaningful (related to our experiences) info encoded most deeply Retrieval: Getting Info Out Long-term memory organized like web Memories stored by web of associations When encode info into memory, associate it w/ other bits of info in our surroundings Bits of info serve as retrieval cues, which prime our memories More retrieval cues the better Memory Construction Tend to remember gist of event rather than details Fills in gaps w/ prior knowledge, expectations, schemas Construct & reconstruct memory each time we recall it. False Memories Misinformation Effect: Tendency to include misinformation in memory of event after exposure to questions or suggestions that misrepresent event. Social Psychology- Scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to people Social Perception Subfield of social psychology Examines ways in which people form and modify impressions of others Attribution Belief concerning why a person/people behaved in a certain way Two Types: 1)Dispositional: Ascribe a persons behavior to internal factors 2) Situational: Ascribe a persons behavior to a situation they are in Fundamental attribution error: Tendency for observers, when analyzing anothers behavior, to underestimate impact of situation and to overestimate impact of personal disposition. Actor-Observer Effect: Tendency to attribute other peoples behavior to dispositional factors but our own to situational factors. Speeding/pulled over example The Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to attribute our successes to something dispositional but our failures to something situational. Social Influence Compliance Obedience Power of the situation What is evil: Exercise of power to intentionally harm people Psychologically Physically Abu Ghraib Interrogation hold for prisoners of war in Iraq Discovered: American soldiers were abusing prisoners Administration did not want to be blamed Blamed it on soldiers Zimbardos Hypothesis American soldiers are good, usually May be there was bad barrel (situation created by those in power) Zimbardo became expert witness for one of the guards Ted Talk Discussion Questions What is meant by the lucifer effect: the ability of good people to turn into perpetrators of evil How do psychologists understand such transformation in character Dispositional: Bad apple Situational: Barrel Systemic: Barrel Makers Milgram 1960 RQ: Would average american hurt stranger simply because authority figure told them to do so? Obedience Methodology Advertised in newspaper Participant always teacher Teacher teaches learner word pairs Would shock learners for mistakes (15-450volts) Not one participant stopped before 350 volts About 65% of participants went all the way to 450H

Stanford Prison Experiment (1970) *

* Stanford Student

* Randomly assigned to be Prisoner or Guard

* Realistic Arrest (humiliating)

* Prisoners Put in Isolation, Uniforms, Given Numbers (Dehumanizing)

* Guards - Symbols of Power, Eye Glasses, Uniforms (Anonymity)

* Had to end study after 6 days

What are 7 Social Processes that grease the slippery slope to evil?

* Mindlessly taking first small step

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* Foot in door Technique

* Dehumanizing others

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* Prisoners, Numbers, Uniforms

* De-individuation of self (anonymity)

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* Guard Uniforms; Sunglasses

* Diffusion of Personality responsibility

* Blind Obedience to Authority

* Uncritical Conformity to group norms

* Passive tolerance to evil through inaction/indifference

* System Guilty

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* Stanford Prison Study Cautionary Tale

* Power without oversight, prescription for abuse

* The Govt knew that, Let it happen

* Need Paradigm Shift: medical model to public health model

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* Medical Model?

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* focuses on individual

* Public health Model

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* Recognizes situational and systemic vectors of disease

* Foster Hostile Imagination

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* Creates Perpetrators of evil

* Foster imagination of heroism

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* Creates heroes out of ordinary people

* Create Passive bystanders

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* Evil of Inaction

* Psychology of heroism

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* Learn to be deviant

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* go against conformity of group

* Act when others arent acting

Heroes: ordinary people whose social actions are socially extraordinary Attitudes- Feelings often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in particular way to objects, people, and eventsEx:

If I believe someone is mean Feel dislike for them Respond to then in unfriendly manner Attitudes not great predictors of behaviors Safe Sex example Can hold conflicting attitudes Cognitive Dissonance When two attitudes in conflict When behavior not in line with thoughts/beliefs We experience discomfort: to ease discomfort sometimes easier to change thoughts and feelings to be in line with behavior Two types of attitudes 1) Explicit: Consciously aware of holding this attitude Can consciously decide to report or not 2)Implicit: NOT consciously aware of holding this attitude Cannot consciously decide to report or not Nonverbal cues IAT (Implicit Association Test)Explicit and Implicit attitudes can conflict

Attitude towards school: Explicit attitude towards school positive while implicit view negative How can this be? Explicit and implicit attitudes formed/modified differentlyTwo Routes to Attitude Formation

1) Central Route Evidence/info Straightforward 2) Peripheral Route Associations with positive/negative cues Not as straightforward Drugs Explicitly taught in school Implicitly taught in mediaWhat If We hold Implicit Attitudes That We Dont Want?

Implicit attitudes are malleable 1) Seek experiences that oppose implicit preference Ex: Interact with people/read literature that provide experiences that can counter your preference 2) Remain alert to existence of undesired preferences Ex: Question your motives for treating someone in a certain way 3) Act in ways that can compensate for known unconscious preferences and beliefs. Ex. Smile at people who are elderly if you know you have implicit preference for the youngPsychological Disorders

Historical view: Psychological Disorders Slide Sign of possession by evil spirit To determine if individuals possessed, tests conducted. Water Float Test Psychological Disorders: Patterns of thoughts, feelings, or actions that are: Deviant Distressful Dysfunctional Biopsychosocial Approach to Understanding Psych Disorders Biological influences Psychological influences Sociocultural influences Criteria of Mental Disorder: 1) Unusual/atypical 2) Suggest faulty perception or interpretation of reality: Hallucination, Perception in absence of sensory stimulation, confused with reality Delusions: False, persistent beliefs unsupported in sensory or objective evidence Two types of delusions 1) Delusions of Grandeur Person believes more important or grander, than really is in reality. 2) Delusions of Persecution- Person believes he/she is being sought by mafia, CIA, etc. 3) Suggest severe personal distress Panic Attack 4) Self-defeating Behavior/mental process affects persons ability to function in important domains (occupational, social) of their lives Ex: OCD example 5) Dangerous to self and/or others Suicide Attempts Cutting 6) Socially unacceptable Toe nail clippings Once behaviors/mental processes deemed psychological disorder, must use: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of Mental Disorders to diagnose DSM lists SYMPTOMS associated with each psychological disorderMajor Category: Anxiety Disorder

Phobia: Fear Social Phobia: Fear of humiliation in social situations PTSD Always preceded by traumatic event OCD Obsession: Unwanted repetitive thoughts Unwanted repetitive action Potential Treatment: Medication Antidepressants Anti-anxiety meds Beta Blockers Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy OCD Exposure Therapy No known society