Psychological Foundations of Education (Complete)

Psychological Foundations of Education 1

Table of Contents

Educational Psychology .................................................................................................... 3

Key Concepts .................................................................................................................. 3

Cognitive and Learning Development ............................................................................ 3

Cognitive Development .................................................................................................. 3

Theories of Cognitive Development ............................................................................... 3

Piaget’s Main Tenet .................................................................................................... 3

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development ................................. 7

Information-Processing Theory ................................................................................ 10

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence ............................................................... 13

Language Development ................................................................................................ 15

Learning Theories and Implications ............................................................................. 16

Theories of Learning ..................................................................................................... 16

Laws of Learning .......................................................................................................... 17

Behavioral Psychology and Learning ........................................................................... 18

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning ................................................................ 18

Basic Concepts of Social Cognitive Learning Theory .............................................. 18

Four Learning Mechanisms in Observational Learning ........................................... 19

Watson’s Classical Conditioning .................................................................................. 19

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning ................................................................................... 19

Effective Teaching and Evaluation of Learning .......................................................... 20


Effective Teaching ........................................................................................................ 20

Foundations of Bilingualism .......................................................................................... 22

Bilingual Language Development ................................................................................ 22

Developing Bilingualism .............................................................................................. 22

Two Major Patterns in Bilingual Language Acquisition .............................................. 23

Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 25


Educational Psychology

Key Concepts

Educational psychology deals in learning and teaching. This branch of

psychology involves not just the learning process of early childhood and adolescence, but

includes the social, emotional and cognitive processes that are involved in learning

throughout the entire lifespan. The field of educational psychology incorporates a number

of other disciplines, including developmental psychology, behavioral psychology and

cognitive psychology.

It concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and learning

that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving those

methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation;

cognitive, emotional, and moral development; and parent-child relationships etc.

Cognitive and Learning Development

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development is gradual, systematic changes by which mental process

become more complex and refined. Establishment of new schemes is essential in

cognitive development.

Theories of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Main Tenet

Jean Piaget viewed children as constructivists, meaning they are active seekers

who respond to the environment according to their understanding of its essential features.

He also believed that intelligence was not random but it was a set of organized cognitive


structures that the child actively constructed, and viewed intelligence as basic life

function that helps the child to adapt to his environment.

According to Piaget, human beings inherit two essential intellectual functions

which he called organization and adaptation.

1. Organization is inborn and automatic, and it refers to the child’s tendency to

arrange available schemata into coherent systems or body of knowledge.

Children are constantly rearranging their existing knowledge to produce new

and more complex cognitive structures (Gines, et al., 1998).

2. Adaptation is the child’s tendency to adjust to the demands of the

environment. This occurs in two ways:

a. Assimilation is interpreting or understanding environment events in terms

of one’s existing cognitive structures and ways of thinking.

b. Accommodation is changing one’s existing cognitive structures and ways

of thinking to apprehend environment events.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget divided cognitive development into four stages: sensorimotor,

preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. He outlined this theory that

follows an increasingly adaptive behavior mechanism from diffused to generalized

responses of the patterns of behavior. He said that all children pass through these stages

in this order and that no child can skip a stage. However, different children may pass

through the stages at somewhat different rates.


1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years).

During this stage, children acquire knowledge through sensory

experiences and performing actions accordingly. This is entirely unconscious,

self-unaware, and non-symbolic cognition. There are six divisions of this stage:

a. Reflexes (0 to 1 month). These refer to the behavioral foundation upon which

more complex behaviors are based. They develop when applied to a wider

variety of stimuli and events e.g. sucking and modify with continuous

experience.

b. Schemes (1 to 4 months). These refer to an organized pattern of behavior

which the child interacts and comes to know his world e.g. sucking and

grasping. This substage coordinates and integrates previously independent

schemes such as visual and auditory. Moreover, schemes are directed inward

e.g. grasp for the sake of its grasping than on the effect it has on the world.

c. Procedure (4 to 8 months). The schemes are directed outward and develop

into procedures of interesting behaviors that produce interesting effects in the

world. Procedure gets repeated e.g. banging on a pot with a wooden spoon.

d. Intentional Behavior (8-12 months). Prior to this substage, child produces

some outcome from his behavior and repeats it. Now, the child wants to

produce a particular result then figures out the action.

e. Experimentation (12-18 months). Experimentation is the child’s trial-and-

error exploration of the world to discover new and different ways of acting on

it. Here the child produces new actions and observes the effects e.g. pulling

the rug to get an out-of-reach object.


f. Representation (18-24 months). Before this substage, all actions and results

occur externally. In this substage, the child begins to think about and acting on

the world internally e.g. naming an object that is not currently present but is

just thought of. Besides, the child witnesses an action but does not reproduce

it and he reproduces the witnessed action at a later time. This is called

deferred imitation.

2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 6 years).

During this stage, children develop their capacity to employ symbol,

particularly language. Because of symbols, they are no longer limited to the

stimuli that are immediately present and they use these symbols to portray the

external world internally e.g. child can talk about the ball and can form a mental

image of it. In stage, children also develop their ability to conserve the qualitative

and quantitative identify of objects even when they change perceptually.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (6-12 years).

Children are more logical and able to complete task not able to perform in

preoperational period. Thinking is still with real or concrete objects and actions,

and not yet abstract thinking.

This is the beginning of rational activity in children. They come to master

various logical operations including arithmetic, class and set relationships,

measurement, and conceptions of hierarchical structures (Gines, et al., 1998).

Child mastered by age 6 the Conservation of Number and he mastered by age 8 or

9 the Conservation of Length and Weight.


4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and over)

Children develop their abstract thinking. It is their ability to think logically

about things that are only possible and not necessarily real or concrete. They also

develop their hypothetical-deductive reasoning.

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Lev S. Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes that social interaction plays a vital role in

cognitive development. His theory basically means that development depends on

interaction with people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view

of the world (Gallagher , 1999).

These cultural tools can be transmitted to three ways. These are:

1. Imitative Learning- a person tries to imitate or copy another person.

2. Instructed Learning- a person remembers the instructions of the teacher and then

uses them to self-regulate.

3. Collaborative Learning- a group of person who strive to understand each other

and they work together to learn a specific skills.

He believed that children are born with elementary mental abilities such as

perception, attention and memory. These innate abilities transforms into higher mental

functions as children interact with their culture and society (Meece, 2002).

His theory also states that language plays a vital role in cognitive development.

Within his theory, he identified three stages in children’s use of language:

1. Social speech- speech used by children for purpose of communication to other

people.


2. Egocentric speech- speech that is more intellectual and children use this by

verbalizing their ideas.

3. Inner speech- speech used by children to think in their minds about their problem

or task, instead of verbalizing their ideas in order to solve their problem or to

decide what to do next.

His Socio-Cultural Theory also refers to the difference between what a learner can

do independently and what can be done with other’s guidance. He called this as Zone of

Proximal Development (ZPD). He assumed that interactions with adults or peers in the

zone of proximal development help children move to higher levels of mental functioning

within the classroom (Meece, 2002).

The implications of Vygotsky’s theory to education are to encourage cooperative

learning exercises and to engage student in the discovery process with guidance from

knowledgeable source. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises

where less competent children develop with the aid from more adept peers within the

zone of proximal development. He believed that when a student is at the ZPD for a

particular task, providing the appropriate assistance, will give the student enough of a

“boost” to achieve his goal or to complete the task (McLeod, 2012).

ZPD is associated with scaffolding. The concept of scaffolding was introduced by

Wood and Middleton. It is defined as a learner to concentrate on those elements of the

task that are initially beyond his capacity and complete only those elements that are

within his range of competence. According to Wood and Middleton, scaffolding becomes

most effective when the assistance is correlated to the needs of the learner (McLeod,

2012).


Meece has provided some of the major contributions of Vygotsky’s theories to

education. His theory gives insight to role of private speech and peer interactions in

cognitive development and explains the significance of guided participation and

scaffolding (Meece, 2002).

Furthermore, he also emphasized in his theory that three factors that shape

children’s behavior, and these are called ecological contexts.

1. Cultural Contexts- He said that one’s culture comprises the environment that

humans have created and continue to perpetuate in their caregiving practice.

Culture consists of human designs for living, which are embodied in beliefs,

values, customs, and activities.

2. Social Contexts- He believed that learning occurs through interpersonal, social

context. Thinking, as he defined, is a process of social interaction between

children and more experienced and knowledgeable members of community.

This social interaction helps them to master culture-specific skills and develop

their behaviors that will enable them to successfully adapt to their particular

community.

3. Historical contexts- His viewpoint, the child’s environment which he is reared

and his own developmental history in terms of his experiences in that society

are both significant in identifying the ways in which the child will think.

Conceptual thinking must be transmitted to children through words, thus

language becomes a crucial cognitive tool for deciding how children learn to

think (Owens, 2006).


Information-Processing Theory

Exponents of this theory perceive that we are a processor of information. It means

that we are not merely responding to stimuli rather we process the information we

receive. They equate our mind to a computer, which receives information and follows a

certain program to produce an output.

Structure of the Information-Processing System

The standard information-process model has three major components: sensory

memory, working memory or short-term memory, and long-term memory (Wikipedia,

2013).

1. Sensory Memory

Environment is the source of variety of stimuli. In psychology, stimulus is

an energy pattern which is recorded by our senses such light, sound, heat, cold,

etc. Human body has special sensory receptor cells that transduce external

stimulus to electrical energy so the brain can understand. This process of

transduction creates memory.

Each sensory system has its own sensory register which receives and

temporary stores all of the stimuli. The sensory register stores sensory information

for a while, then analyzes it to identify whether the sensory input should be

conveyed into working or short-term memory or should be forgotten. (See

diagram 1)

It is absolutely critical that the individual attend to the information at this

first stage in order to transmit it to the second stage. Transmission of sensory


information to working memory can be done if the stimulus has a stimulating

effect to the individual or the stimulus activates a known pattern.

2. Working Memory or Short-Term Memory

It is believed to be the center of conscious thought, compare to a computer

it is the Central Processing Unit (CPU) or using the concept of Sigmund Freud it

is the conscious memory. As individual pays attention to an external stimulus or

internal thought, working memory is created. Processing of information may take

around 15 to 20 seconds unless it is repeated or rehearsed at which point it may

take up to 20 minutes.

Working memory has subsystems that store and process verbal

information and visual images. It also supervises the coordination of subsystems

that includes awareness of the follow of information into and out of the memory

and visual representation of the possible moves, all stored for a limited amount of

time.

The short-term has a limited capacity, which can be readily demonstrated

by simple expedient of trying to remember a list of random items without

allowing repetition. In the experiments conducted by George Miller in 1956, he

gave the number 7 + 2, which he described as the “magical number” or sometimes

referred to as Miller’s Law however latest study proposes the number may be

more like 5 + 2 for most things we are trying to recall. The number of objects an

average human can hold in working memory, also called memory span, varies in

how much individuals can work with (Mastin, 2010).


One of technique for retaining and retrieving information in short-term

memory, and it also the method used to get information into long-term memory is

chunking. Chunking of information helps to the capacity of short-term memory. It

is the organization of pieces of information into shorter meaningful units to make

it more manageable. For example, it is easier to recall 0917-571-4380 rather than

09175714380.

3. Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory is responsible of storing information over a long

period of time. It encodes information for storage semantically- based on meaning

and association. However, some studies suggest that it also encodes to some

extend by acoustic. For example, when we are trying to recall a word, we try to

associate by a certain sound. Short-term memory can be become long-term

memory through the process of organization involving repetition and meaningful

association (Mastin, 2010).

There are two major memory strategies:

1. Rehearsal- A memory strategy that involves repeating the words or

information to be remembered or recalled either verbally or mentally.

2. Retrieval- A memory strategy that gets information out of the long-

tern memory.

Two common forms of retrieving the information: recognition and

recall. Recognition is a form of retrieval that involves noticing whether

a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced, and


recall is a form of retrieval that involves remembering or recalling a

stimulus that is not present (Owens, 2006).

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences suggests that intelligence is not

a single intellectual capacity but it has eight different capacities.

1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence

It is well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms

and meanings of words. Roles: teachers, editors, journalists, radio broadcasters

2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

It is the ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to detect

logical or numerical patterns. Roles: engineers, programmers, scientists

3. Spatial-Visual Intelligence

It is the ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and

abstractly, to do changes on those perceptions, and to re-create aspects of visual

experiences in the absence of pertinent stimuli. Roles: sculptors, photographers,

architects

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

It is the ability to control one’s body movements and the ability to handle

objects skillfully. Roles: athletes, dancers, nurses, geologists

5. Musical Intelligence

It is the ability to produce and appreciate pitch, rhythm, melody, and

aesthetic sounding tones and the ability to understand the forms of musical

expressiveness. Roles: singers, DJs, violists, song composers


6. Interpersonal Intelligence

It is the capacity to discern and respond appropriately to the moods,

temperaments, motivations and desires of others. Roles: psychologists, politicians,

therapists, salesmen

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence

It is the capacity to be self-aware and in-tune with inner feelings and to

use these feelings to guide one’s own behavior, and knowledge of one’s own

strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences. Roles: person who is self-aware

and involved in the process of changing personal thoughts, beliefs, and behavior

in relation to their situation.

8. Naturalist Intelligence

It is the ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other

objects in nature or appreciate the world and nature. Roles: zoologists, botanists

Achievement Motivation and Intellectual Performance

Achievement motivation is a person’s tendency to strive for successful

performance, to assess one’s performance against specific standards of excellent and to

experience pleasure as a result of having performed successfully.

The achievement motivation is premised on the fact that a person needs to

experience a certain degree of achievement essential for him in school, sports,

occupation, and business for self-esteem and social approval. A person with high

achievement motivation tends to choose challenging activities (Zulueta & Malaya, 2012).


Language Development

There is no definite sequence on how a child can acquire language. But since the

birth of child psychology many had developed theories or did researches that led to some

relevant information on how we as children acquire language. As the studies were

compiled and revised, it eventually formed a framework basis for the study of Language

Development.

Some learning theorists believed that language is acquired by imitation. It is an

advanced behavior whereby an individual observes and replicates another's behavior. It is

also a form of social learning that leads to the development of traditions and ultimately

our culture (Wikipedia, 2013) .

Noam Chomsky proposed that language is learned based on the Nativist Theory of

Language Acquisition. The Nativist explains that “Children are born with a specific

innate ability to discover for themselves the underlying rules of a language system on the

basis of the samples of a natural language they are exposed to.”

Chomsky believes that language development is primarily a matter of maturation

and that that environment is of little significance. Language is innate, an aspects of

children’s genetic foundation (Owens, 2006).

Modern theorists cling that language is learned through interaction. They say that

children are biologically ready for language but they require extensive experience with

spoken language for ample development. Acquiring language is always an active and

interactive. This involves formulating, testing, and evaluating languages’ rule.

Interactionist Theory explains that language development is both biological and

social. They argue that language learning is influenced by the strong desire of children to


communicate with others. According to this theory, “children are born with a powerful

brain that matures slowly and predisposes them to acquire new understandings that they

are motivated to share with others”.

One of the modern theorists is Jerome Bruner. He stresses that parents and other

caregivers have critical role in the language acquisition process. He also proposes the use

of Language Acquisition Support System (LASS). This refers to the importance of a

child’s social support network, which works in conjunction with innate mechanisms to

encourage or suppress language development (by interacting and encouraging the child to

respond).

Learning Theories and Implications

Theories of Learning

A number of theories of learning have been devised to provide a theoretical

framework to explain in a unified manner the various variables affecting learning. These

are:

1. The S-R Bond Theory- This theory assumes that through conditioning specific

responses can be directly linked with a particular stimulus. These bonds are the

result of biological processes in the human system.

2. Behaviorism- This theory assumes that learning is a process of building

conditional reflexes through the substitution of one stimulus for another. It

completely denies the existence of instincts or inborn tendencies of the individual.

It is inferred that almost all that an individual becomes in relation to this theory is

a matter of conditioning of reflexes.


3. Gestalt Theory- This theory of learning emphasizes use of insights as a basic

principle and is opposed to trial and error. Learning in terms of modification of

behavior takes place in meaningful patterns and configuration.

4. Functionalism- This theory assumes that behavior and mental processes are

adaptive (functional). This state behavior and mental processes enable the

individual to adjust to a changing environment to maintain equilibrium (Zulueta

& Malaya, 2012).

Laws of Learning

Edward Lee Thordike, an American psychologist and lexicographer postulated

laws of learning. According to him, learning occurs by the establishment of responses to

action.

1. The Law of Readiness- this law emphasizes the need for adequate motivation and

preparation of the learner by way of setting the proper mind-set and fostering the

level of aspiration.

2. The Law of Exercise- this law adheres to the adage that “practice makes perfect”.

It means learning can be achieved through repetition of correct responses.

3. The Law of Effect- this law states that if the response is rewarded and the reward

is satisfying or pleasant, the learning connection is strengthened; however, if the

effect is unpleasant or annoying, the connection is weakened (Zulueta & Maglaya,

2012)


Behavioral Psychology and Learning

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning

Social cognitive learning theory which was proposed by Albert Bandura has

become the most influential theory of learning and development. His theory added a

social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching

other people known as observational learning or modelling. It emphasizes the concept of

imitation as a form of learning. Learning according to this theory results from the ability

of the child to select the pattern of behavior to imitate. He also stresses the process of

learning through vicarious learning. It is a process of learning by way of seeing directly

or by hearing about consequences as a result of other people’s action (Zulueta & Malaya,

2012).

Basic Concepts of Social Cognitive Learning Theory

1. People can learn through observation.

There are three basic models of observational learning: (1) a live model

which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior, (2) a

verbal instructional model which involves descriptions and explanations of a

behavior, and (3) a symbolic model which involves real or fictional characters

displaying behaviors in books, films, televisions, programs, or online media.

2. Mental states are important to learning.

He describes intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as

pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.

3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.


Four Learning Mechanisms in Observational Learning

Bandura enumerated four learning mechanisms that are essential in observational

learning (Zulueta & Maglaya, 2012):

1. Attention- it is essential that one pays attention to what is happening around

him.

2. Retention- it is not only important to attend closely to the observed behavior;

but also remember it at some later time for use.

3. Motivation- one is likely to initiate those that are rewarding for his behavior

and whom he likes to have similarities with or to value more.

4. Reinforcement- the association of stimulus particularly the anticipation of

rewards as a motivational factor.

Watson’s Classical Conditioning

John Broadus Watsons argued that any science of behavior must be based on

observable events, and his approach is known as behaviorism. His work was heavily

influenced by Ivan Pavlov who was first to demonstrate the process of classical

conditioning. It is a type of learning that results from the repeated pairing of stimuli. He

defined classical conditioning as learning that involves the modification of a reflex; the

conditioning stimulus, which is neutral at the start, eventually initiates the same

behavioral responses as the unconditioned stimulus (reflex reaction) (Owens, 2006).

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

A key concept in Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s system is the process of operant

conditioning. According to Skinner, it is a process of learning in which reinforced


behaviors tend to be repeated and occur more frequently (Owens, 2006). In other words,

if a response is followed by a reward, the response will be strengthened.

They concept of reinforcement is one of the significant contributions he made in

the concept of learning. Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the

probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. Reinforcement can be either

positive or negative. A positive reinforcement is a stimulus added to the environment that

brings about an increase in a preceding response. In contrast, negative reinforcement

refers to an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that

a preceding response will be repeated in the future (Magpantay & Danao, 2014).

Furthermore, he also emphasized the importance of reward in shaping the

behavior. Reward is a form of positive reinforcement that will help to increase the

probability the desired behavior will recur. Punishment is a form of negative

reinforcement that will help to decrease the probability the unpleasant behavior will not

recur.

Effective Teaching and Evaluation of Learning

Effective Teaching

Effective teachers strive to inspire and engage all their students in learning rather

than simply accepting the some students cannot be engaged and are destined to do poorly.

They believe every student is capable of achieving success at school and they do all they

can to find ways of making each student successful (O'Niel, n.d.).

1. Using a variety of pedagogies- Effective teachers use techniques or strategies

that best serve the learning needs of their students. They help students learn on


their own as well as with and from others. They know that students learn best

if they are provided with opportunities to learn not only from the teacher but

also from other students and from sources outside the school that are now

more readily accessible through various forms of technology.

2. Encouraging student responsibility- Effective teachers teach in a way that

encourages students to take greater responsibility for their own learning and

make sure their students know what the goals of the learning program.

3. Having mastery of subject matter- Effective teachers have a thorough

knowledge of their subject content and skills. Through this, they inspire in

their students a love of learning. They also understand how students learn best

the concepts, the content and the skills.

4. Providing safe environment- Effective teachers provide a safe and orderly

environment, both physically and emotionally, so students can achieve their

potential. They know students learn best if they are in a classroom where they

feel safe and confident to attempt new tasks even if at first they are unsure

about how to tackle them.

5. Monitoring progress and providing feedback- Effective teachers closely

monitor each student’s achievements. This enables them to provide every one

of their students with regular feedback on their performance, and gives them

valuable information to assess the impact of their teaching. They are in the

habit of constantly reflecting on how well they are getting through to their

students and searching for better ways of teaching those who are not

responding as well as extending those who are achieving well. They


understand the standards their students are expected to achieve and use a

range of assessment methods to determine the extent to which those standards

are being met and to plan the next steps.

6. Building positive relationships- Effective teachers develop productive

relationships with their students – they get to know them and take a particular

interest in their overall development and progress. They treat their students

with respect and expect the same in return. They work collaboratively to

benefit student learning.

Foundations of Bilingualism

Bilingual Language Development

“How does a bilingual child acquire language? And how do learning two

languages affect the child’s language development?”

Bilingualism is the person’s ability to speak or write fluently in two languages.

Bilingualism is distinguished into two (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994):

1. Productive Bilingualism- Speaker can produce and understand both languages.

2. Receptive Bilingualism- Speaker can understand both languages but have more

limited production abilities.

Developing Bilingualism

According to Fierro-Cobas and Chan (Fierro-Cobas & Chan, 2001), language

development is a complex, dynamic process influenced by the child’s age, language

exposure and social interaction. A bilingual child generally follows one of the two

language acquisition patterns: simultaneous bilingualism, in which the child acquires two


languages at the same time before the age 3 years, and sequential bilingualism, in which

the child acquires a second language by age 3 having acquired the primary language.

Preschoolers may differ qualitatively from school-age children in their ability to

develop a second language. For older children and adult, acquiring a second language is a

conscious rather than subconscious process; more appropriately learned language

learning rather than language acquisition.

For example, Filipinos are not a native speaker of Spanish, and for them to learn

the language, they enroll to one of the language institutions that offers courses for

speaking and writing.

Two Major Patterns in Bilingual Language Acquisition

1. Simultaneous Bilingualism- children go through two stages to simultaneously

learn two languages.

Stage 1: Children mix or blend words or part of words from both

languages. Example: “Gusto ko hat.”

Stage 2: Child can distinguish the two languages, and can use each

language separately. Example: “I want hat.” and “Gusto ko ng sombrero.”

2. Sequential Bilingualism- Fierro-Cobas and Chan (Fierro-Cobas & Chan, 2001)

explained that the process of developing a second language before age 3 is

slightly different from a process of developing the first language. The reasons are:

a. A sequential bilingual child can draw on knowledge and experience

with the first language.


b. Whether and for how long a child passes through several phases in

sequential language acquisition process depends on his temperament

and motivation.

c. The relative exposure to second language compared with the first

language can affect how a child develops the second language.


Bibliography

Bialystok, E. & Hakuta, K., 1994. In Other Words: the Science and Psychology of Second

Language Acquisition. New York: Harper Collins.

Fierro-Cobas, V. & Chan, E., 2001. Language Development in Bilingual Children: A

Primer for Pediatricians. [Online]

Available at: http://courses.washington.edu/sop/Bilingualism_PrimerPediatricians.pdf

[Accessed 12 August 2013].

Gallagher , C., 1999. Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky. [Online]

Available at: http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/vygotsky.htm


Gines, A. C. et al., 1998. Developmental Psychology: A Textbook for College Students in

Pschology and Teacher Education. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc..

Magpantay, C. D. & Danao, R. R., 2014. General Psychology. Rizal: Jenher Publishing

House.

Mastin, L., 2010. The Human Memory. [Online]

Available at: http://www.human-memory.net


McLeod, S., 2012. Zone of Proximal Development. [Online]

Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html


Meece, J. L., 2002. Child and Adolescent Development for Educators. 2nd ed. New York

: McGraw-Hill.

O'Niel, S., n.d. Department of Education and Training. [Online]

Available at: file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/Effective%20Teaching.pdf


Owens, K. B., 2006. Child and Adolescent Development: An Integrated Approach.

Singapore: Thomson - Wadsworth.

Wikipedia, 2013. Imitation. [Online]

Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imitation



Wikipedia, 2013. Information Processing Theory. [Online]

Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing_theory


Zulueta, F. M. & Maglaya, E. M., 2012. Foundations of Education. Mandaluyong City:

National Book Store.

Zulueta, F. M. & Malaya, E. M., 2012. Historical, Anthropological, Philosophical, Legal,

Psychological, Sociological Foundations of Education. Mandaluyong City: National

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Psychological Foundations of Education (Complete)

Education

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