PSY 101 Section 1 Lecture
Transcript of PSY 101 Section 1 Lecture
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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 1
LECTURE NOTES FOR SECTION 1 OF CLASS
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Introduction
What Isnt Psychology?
late night chats
What do dreams mean?
Why are people the way they are?
If a tree falls in the forest and no one hears it, does it really make a sound? Why doesnt he/she call?
A esearch !inding A"out #o$e
%he &indsight 'iasPredict Winner of (lection
Powell )*+-
%he &indsight 'ias Predict ape .ano0'ulman et al1 )*+2-
What Is Psychology? %he 3cienti4c 3tudy of 'eha$ior and the mind1
What Is Psychology? 3cienti4c5 3ystematic, o"6ecti$e methods of o"ser$ation )"ook calls empirical-
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What Is Psychology? 'eha$ior
Any acti$ity that can "e o"ser$ed, recorded, and measured1
What Is Psychology? 7ind5
All conscious and unconscious mental states 7ust "e inferred
8oals of Psychology
9ot 6ust to descri"e and e:plain "eha$ior "ut also to predict and control "eha$ior1
The History of Psychoo!y
Wundt %he father of psychology !irst la"oratory 3tructuralism ; identify the common elements of e:perience Introspection
!unctionalism &ow and why does the mind help us function in the world?
In
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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 3 eaction to Psychodynamic %heory einforcement 3tudy "eha$ior for "eha$iors sake
&umanistic Psychology ogers eaction to 'eha$iorism and Psychodynamic People ha$e positi$e $alues, free will, and creati$ity 8oal5 Personal 8rowth
=ogniti$e Approach &ow information is stored and operated on eaction to 'eha$iorism
9europsychology @nderstanding how the "rain works helps us to understand psychology
($olutionary Psychology 9atural 3election5 changes in the freBuency of genes in a population that occur "ecause
those genes gi$e an organism more chance of sur$i$al
What do psychologists do?
Rese"rch #ethods3teps to esearch5
*1 C"ser$e phenomenaD1 =ome up with hypothesisE1 Cperationalie $aria"lesF1 =hoose research method21 Analye dataG1 %heory
%he 3tory of Hitty 8eno$ese Why >ont People &elp?
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=ome up with &ypothesis &ypothesis5 a tentati$e and testa"le e:planation of the relationship "etween causes and
conseBuences (:p5 the larger the num"er of people who are witness to an emergency, the less likely
anyone is to inter$ene1
Cperationalie your $aria"les aria"les5 measura"le conditions that $ary (:p5 num"er of people, helping
Independent aria"le5 the $aria"les thought to predict the other $aria"le aria"le thought to predict other $aria"le (:p5 num"er of people
>ependent aria"le5 Any $aria"le whose $alues are the result of changes in theindependent $aria"le1 %he predicted
(:p5 helping
Cperationaliation5 the concrete representation of the $aria"le of interest (:p5 what is helping?
=hoose a esearch 7ethod*1 =ase 3tudy
D1 3ur$eyE1 =orrelational esearchF1 (:periment
=hoose a esearch 7ethod =ase 3tudy5 real life description
Pro5 rich data source =on5 $ulnera"le to "iases, limited generalia"ility
8eneralia"ility5 what inferences can you make a"out the phenomenas "readth1
3ur$ey Inter$iews or Buestionnaires of many participants concerning a particular phenomena of
interest Pros5 more generalia"ility, wide array of topics, real life description =ons5 $ulnera"le to "iases, tests are correlational in nature
'ias5 self0presentation "ias, wording
Wording 'iases
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=orrelational 3tudies 7easure the independent and dependent $aria"les in a num"er of cases in order to
generalie to an entire population
=orrelation5 A statistical measure of how closely two $aria"les are associated
=orrelations can range from 0*1 to J*1 =orrelations $ary in sign )J or 0- and in magnitude ) ; *-
(:plaining =orrelations
3tart with E $aria"les, )K, L, M N- where K and L are correlated5 K might cause L L might cause K K might "e correlated with L, which causes N
=orrelations show patterns, not causes
=orrelational 3tudies Pros5 tell us a"out relationships "etween $aria"les =ons5 say nothing a"out causation (:amples5 trees and crime, self0esteem
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(:periment 7anipulate $aria"les in a controlled en$ironment in order to assess the eects of such a
manipulation on other $aria"les Pros5 can draw casual ino groups dier? 3tatistical signi4cance5 less than 2O chance that dierence could occur due to chance1
%heory An organied set of principles that descri"e, predict, and e:plain some phenomena
(thical Issues Informed =onsent5 su"6ects sign a form that e:plains what the e:periment is a"out, their
rights, and the right to stop at any time without penalty Internal e$iew 'oard
What makes Psychological esearch 3cienti4c? Precision )operational de4nitions- 3kepticism )dou"t what is accepted- eliance on empirical e$idence Willingness to make risky predictions )must "e falsi4a"le- Cpenness )share data-
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Psycho$hysioo!y7ethods of Psychophysiological esearch
%win studies 'rain damage case studies
Phineus gage @sed to "e only way
#esion studies in animals Imaging(lectroencephalogram )((8-
Positron (mission %omography Acti$e areas ha$e increased "lood
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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 8 7otor5 transmit signals to muscles Interneurons5 communicate with each other
3tructure of a 9euron
%he 9euron in Action Information %ransfer )D phases-*1 Presynaptic )happens within neuron-
At rest 0 negati$ely charged When signals are sent channels are opened and inside "ecomes more positi$e When threshold is reached the neuron 4res5 action potential All or none5 the 4ring of a neuron is like a gun 3low5 *D meters per second 7yelin sheath ; speeds it up1
7ultiple 3cerosis
D1 Postsynaptic is graded $oltage change at receptor cite is caused chemically )neurotransmitters- (ach neuron connected to up to *, others
&ow 9eurons =ommunicate A:on terminals release neurotransmitter 9eurotransmitter enters synaptic gap 9eurotransmitter "inds to receptors that it 4ts euptake5 surplus rea"sor"ed
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9eurotransmitters After crossing the synapse, the neurotransmitter is reuptaken or degraded %here are more than F known types >ierent neurotransmitters ha$e dierent eects >rugs, neural diseases often aect neurotransmitters
9eurotransmitters Acetylcholine5 important for learning, memory, muscle mo$ement 3erotonin5 inopamine5 important to mo$ement and to pleasure and reward 9orepinephrine5 maintains alertness M wakefulness
>rugs 7any drugs inrugs can "e agonistic or antagonistic
Agonistic >rugs Increase release of neurotransmitter, or Acti$ate receptors, imitate neurotransmitter, or
Inhi"it reuptake of neurotransmitter
Antagonistic >rugs Interfere with release of neurotransmitter, or Cccupy and "lock neurotransmitter sites
Peripheral 9er$ous 3ystem 3omatic5 $oluntary muscle acti$ity Autonomic
3ympathetic5 generally acti$ates Parasympathetic5 generally inhi"its
The Br"in
'rainstem %he primiti$e inner core
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ital in$oluntary functions such as sneees, "reathing )hanging- Pons
3leep and arousal eticular formation
3creens incoming information and arouses higher "rain centers when needed =ere"ellum
#earning acBuired re
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&ypothalamus egulates glands, autonomic 93, release of hormones 'asic 9eeds5 !our !s
#o"es of the 'rain %emporal #o"es5 Auditory Perception1 =ategoriation1 (ssential for social interaction Cccipital #o"es5 =ontain the $isual corte:, associations related to $isual stimuli Parietal #o"es5 3ensory integration and then pro6ect to frontal lo"es1 7ental
manipulation1 =ross0modal matching !rontal #o"es5 star of "rain1 =ontain controls for speech production, thinking, planning,
reasoning, impulse control, moti$ation1 Phineas 8age
%he =ase of Phineas 8age 8age was a railroad construction foreman An *F e:plosion forced a steel tamping rod through his head Cthers said he was no longer 8age #ost his 6o", worked as a sideshow e:hi"it
%wo &emispheres #anguage mostly in left hemisphere
>etecting emotion, spatial a"ilities, music are in right ight controls and recei$ed input from left side of "ody and $ice0$ersa %he =orpus =allosum Pro$ides a pathway for communication "etween the hemispheres
3perrys 3plit0'rain (:periment 3plit0"rain su"6ects could not name o"6ects shown only to the right hemisphere If asked to select these o"6ects with their left hand, they succeeded %he right side of the "rain doesnt control speech
Plasticity in 'rain M 'eha$ior 3ome rats are housed alone in empty cages %heir littermate twins are group0housed in cages with toys, which are changed freBuently icher en$ironments led to hea$ier, thicker "rains, more synapses, and "etter learning
Sens"tion "nd Perce$tion 9ot the same thing
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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 12 3ensation5 the con$ersion of a stimulus )e1g1 light- to neural impulses at a receptor site
)e1g1 eyes- Perception5 interpreting those stimuli, applying meaning to them
3ensation M Perception Processes An age old Buestion5 If a tree falls in the forest and no one is there to hear it, does it make
a sound?
%ransduction %he process of translating physical information into neural impulses
!i$e 3enses At least )e1g1 eBuili"rium, pain- (ach sense percei$es certain types of info )e1g1 light- &as dierent structures )e1g1 rods and cones in eyes-
%hresholds A"solute %hreshold
%he smallest amount of stimulation that can "e detected
A"solute 3ensory %hresholds %ision&A single candle
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=ones 7ostly in the fo$ea #ess light sensiti$eQ detect colors &a$e "est detail $ision Adapt fully to darkness in D0E minutes
isual Pathways
=olor $ision
%he Loung0&elmholt trichromatic theory5
After0Image (ect
%he Cpponent Process %heory
=ells are connected so as to place sensations of5
After0Image (ect Cur receptor cells "ecome o$er0stimulated and then send less information into our "rain
for a short while afterwards1 Cpponent color is thus seen more
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=olor ision %he trichromatic theory e:plains perception at the receptor le$el %he opponent process theory e:plains it at higher "rain le$els
Perce$tion
'ottom up $ersus top down 'ottom up processing5 use "its of information )e1g1 color, "rightness- %op down processing5 use prior information
Perception is aected "y conte:t and e:pectations
%rue for auditory perception as well =hicago Police
=ritical ole of Attention We are surrounded "y stimuli all the time Perception depends on attention Preconscious Processing
Preconscious Processing %he processing that occurs prior to the 4ltering process (:p5 dichotic listening task
=ocktail party eect (:p5 sensiti$ity to sound while sleeping1 Hlinger
=hange 'lindness We tend not to notice une:pected changes in our en$ironments
Illusion of 7emory We think we percei$e and remem"er more of our world than we actually do
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Percei$ing $isual forms 8estalt Psychology5 whole is more than the sum of its parts1
!igure08roundWe organie the world so some parts of a stimulus appear to stand out )4gure- in front of
other parts )ground-
3imilarity We group things that are similar in color, shape, etc1 into single units and see them as
"elonging together
Pro:imity We percei$e as a unit things that are closer together relati$e to other things
8ood =ontinuation We group things together if they appear to form a continuous pattern
(:ample5 lines are continued through if they cross other lines
=losureWe tend to complete 4gures with gaps in them, "y ignoring the gaps and mentally 4lling in
what we "elie$e should "e there
>epth Perception'inocular =ues
etinal disparity5 eyes dont see the same thing =on$ergence5 eyes mo$e inward to see things
>epth Perception7onocular =ues #inear Perspecti$e5 as they get further away, o"6ects "egin to con$erge )get closer
together-
%he Pono Illusion
%op line seems farther away 'ut the retinal images of the red lines are eBualR
>epth Perception7onocular =ues
Interposition5 when something "locks another o"6ect elati$e sie5 knowing the sie of something and using it for perspecti$e %e:ture 8radient5 %hings in foreground are more distinct and pronounced
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&ow do we know these rules? (:perience5 "lind people who regain sight ha$e trou"le percei$ing depth1 %he isual =li >e$ised "y 8i"son and Walk to test depth perception 8lass surface, with checker"oard underneath at dierent heights
isual illusion of a cli 'a"y cant fall
7om stands across the gap &eart"eats of D month old "a"ies are faster when o$er cli
isual Illusions Are they nature or nurture? Answer5 some of "othR
#(er)Lyer Iusions
7uller0#yer only occurs in de$eloped countries with carpentered li$ing areas1 %op down &ermans grid5 competition among receptor cites
%aste 'uds Photograph of tongue surface )top-, magni4ed S2 times *, taste "uds line the tongue and mouth
%aste receptors are down inside the "ud =hildren ha$e more taste "uds than adults
%aste In$ol$es only F sensations5 3weet, sour, salty, "itter 7ost of what we consider taste is actually smell %e:ture is $ery important in en6oyment of food People lo$e fats for the smooth feeling they gi$e food )most are tasteless-
3ensiti$ity to %ouch
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(:trasensory Perception (:trasensory Perception )(3P-5
%he a"ility to percei$e something without ordinary sensory information %his has not "een scienti4cally demonstrated
%hree types of (3P5 %elepathy ; 7ind0to0mind communication =lair$oyance ; Perception of remote e$ents Precognition ; A"ility to see future e$ents
(3P 9o scienti4c e$idence >oes science know all?
*****Lecture +*****Thou!ht "nd L"n!u"!e
Cutline of #ecture 7ental epresentation 7ethods of Pro"lem 3ol$ing &euristics and 'iases #anguage
=oncept A mental category that groups o"6ects or e$ents
=hairs
!lying >ogs
&ow are concepts stored? Analog ; sensory correspondence to features of the stimuli
(1g1 Pumpkin Pie
3ym"olic ; not sensory "ut meaningful
3ym"olic epresentations
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3chema Integrated collection of concepts concerning a topic or aspect of the world =an ha$e schemas for anything
C"6ects 3ituations People
>unckerTs =andle Pro"lem @sing only the o"6ects shown in the picture, mount the candle to the wall
Why study representations? Cne reason5 can aect pro"lem sol$ing !unctional !i:edness5 failure to use familiar o"6ects in no$el ways
Pro"lem 3ol$ing Algorithms5
Pro"lem0sol$ing strategies that guarantee a solution1 7ay "e time0consuming1
&euristics5Promising pro"lem0sol$ing strategies that donTt guarantee a solution1 Cften faster1
Why do we use heuristics?
Information processing constraints5 we can only process so much info at one time)working memory- 7oti$ational =onstraints5 we dont always want to do the $ery "est )6ust good enough-
A$aila"ility &euristic @se ease with which instances come to mind to estimate pro"a"ility
(:p5 which is more common reason for death? >ia"etes or homicide? %ornado or lightning? 3hark attack or falling airplane parts?
A$aila"ility &euristic (:ample5 how many words are there in (nglish that could 4t in5
UU UU UU UU UU I 9 8 UU UU UU UU UU UU 9 UU
=onsensus heuristic Assume others think like us
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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 1 When asked how others think, we use oursel$es as a guide
(:ample of !alse =onsensus
!alse =onsensus (ect
Anchoring (ect %he tendency to use the initial num"er as an anchor when making a 6udgment (:p5
(:p5 &ow long is 7ississippi ri$er? 2 7iles? 2 7iles?
Anchoring (ect =an also ha$e eect with non0numerical 6udgments1Which car do you prefer?=ar A =ar '3tylish (:pensi$e8ood 8as 7il !air 3er$ice!air 3er$ice 8ood 8as 7il(:pensi$e 3tylish
#aws of 3ympathetic 7agic #aw of contagion #aw of similarity
#aw of contagion once in contact, always in contact (:5 apple 6uice1
'ug in "ottom of 4rst cup >rink second cup?
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#aw of 3imilarity Image V o"6ect
=on4rmation 'ias %he tendency to search for information that con4rms original hypotheses (:p5 %old story of &annah
poor "ackground well0to0do
>ierent academic promise
The essenti"s& ,h"t '"-es "n!u"!e "n!u"!e. Phonemes5 the smallest units of sound in spoken language (:p5 "oy $ersus toy is one phoneme dierence &umans can produce * (nglish uses F2 'a"ies "a""le all phonemes at si: months 'y one year start to limit Cther animals ha$e dierent phonemes
3ynta: Internal structure of a sentence All languages ha$e rules for how sentences are arranged ; a "asic part of language In (nglish we need a noun and a $er" I am1 'rocas area 'rocas aphasia
3emantics %he meaning of a word or sentence 7orphemes ; smallest unit of meaning walk $1 walking
3emantics 1 3ynta:5 cloud eat haughty "lue $1 I today school go1
Pragmatics %he way that language con$eys meaning indirectly (1g1 can I ask you a Buestion? (1g1 >o you know where the restroom is?
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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 21Innate or learned? (mpiricism5 we learn synta: )"eha$iorists- 9ati$ism5 crucial parts of language are innate All humans learn language5 ways our "rains are constructed
Le"rnin! "n!u"!e is inn"te*1 =hildren from dierent cultures go through similar stages of language de$elopmentD1 =hildren o$er generalieE1 =hildren dont need correction to learn rulesF1 =hildren in groups will form own language21 Infants deri$e linguistic rules automatically
Cther Animals and #anguage Apes can learn hundreds of signs and can communicate with them eecti$ely
>o not use language innately =an they "e generati$e?
>olphins and language (lephants and language
LECTURE NOTES FOR SECTION 1 OF CLASS
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