Pronunciation Tips.docx

7/29/2019 Pronunciation Tips.docx

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Pronunciation Tips from youtubers comments on this video (applies to the next videotoo).

- Gah is like saying the "c" in car

- Kah is saying the "k" sound using your stomach muscles - Dah is saying the "t" sound but your tongue is placed in the back half of your

mouth

- Tah is having your tongue placed right on or behind your teeth

- Lah is saying ra but you add the "l" and roll your tongue. Llra

- Bah is saying pa but frowning when you do it

- Pah is having the "p" come from your stomach

- Jah is saying cha but as soon as the "ch" comes out, drop your chin and open

mouth.

- Cha is made using cleanched teeth for the "ch"

'' [Pa]

I believe that - Gah can be physically described as the back of your tongue touching the back portion of the roof of your mouth. It

creates a softer k sound that resembles the g-like sound I hear you say. - Kah like you suspect it sounds, sounds to me like the

English K. I hope this helps=)

ae like the e in the word ( set ) yae like the e in the word ( yet )

e like the a in the word ( take )

ye like the a in the word ( yay )

wae like in the word ( way )

oe like in the word ( wet )

Notes on video hangul number 6

1. and should sound close to 'e'

2. and should sound close to 'ye'

* in the video I pronounced '' as 'e', which is wrong. '' should sound close to 'ye'.- It was not a mistake. I just could not hit it right. Please refer one of the responding video from ever4ever to clarify.

Sorry and Thank you^__^

,,,,

A, Ya, Eo, Yeo, i


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Hangul

1. Consonants ( )

Consonant chart

Plain Aspirated tensed

[k] [k'] [kk]

[n]

[t] [t'] [tt]

[r / l]

[m]

[p] [p'] [pp]

[s] [ss]

[zero /ng]

[ch] [ch'] [cc]

[h]

dictionary order:

(),, (),,, (), (),, (),,,,,

Aspirated ones are with more puff of air than the plain ones. As for

tensed ones, you add more stricture, but without puff of air, when letting
http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/k.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/k.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/k.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/kh.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/kh.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/kh.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/kh.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/kk.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/kk.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/kk.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/n.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/n.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/n.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/t.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/t.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/t.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/th.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/th.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/tt.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/tt.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/tt.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/tt.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/r.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/r.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/r.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/r.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/l.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/l.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/l.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/l.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/m.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/m.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/m.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/p.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/p.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/p.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/p.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ph.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ph.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/pp.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/pp.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/pp.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/pp.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/s.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/s.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ss.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ss.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ss.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ng.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ng.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ng.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ch.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ch.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ch.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ch.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/chh.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/chh.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/chh.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/cc.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/cc.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/h.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/h.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/h.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/h.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/cc.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/chh.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ch.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ng.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ss.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/s.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/pp.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ph.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/p.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/m.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/l.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/r.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/tt.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/th.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/t.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/n.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/kk.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/kh.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/k.mp3


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out the sound. Tensed ones are difficult for beginners, and many

students take long time to acquire the correct pronunciation.

is similar to g as in god.

is similar to k as in sky.

is similar to k as inkill.

is similar to d as indo.

is similar to t as in stop.

is similar to t as intwo.

is similar to tt as in butter(not [t] but a flap like a Spanish [r]), in asyllable initial position.

is similar to l as in filling, in a syllable final () position.

is similar to b as in bad.

is similar to p as in spy.

is similar to p as inpool.

is similar to s as in astronaut.

is similar to s as insuit.

is similar to j as in jail.


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is similar to tz as in pretzel.

is similar to ch as in charge.

is similar to h as in hat.

2. Vowels ( )

Vowel Chart

Simple Palatalized labiovelarized

[a] [ya]

[ae] [yae]

[o^] [yo^]

[e] [ye]

[o] [yo] [wa]

[wae]

[oe]

[u] [yu] [wo^]

[we]

[ui]

[u^] [u^i]

[i]

dictionary order:
http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/a.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/a.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ya.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ya.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ya.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ya.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/o%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/o%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yo%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yo%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yo%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yo%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/e.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/e.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/e.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ye.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ye.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ye.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ye.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/o.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/o.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/o.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/o.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wa.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wa.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wa.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/oe.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/oe.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/oe.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/oe.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/u.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/u.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yu.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yu.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yu.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yu.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wo%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wo%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wo%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/we.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/we.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/u%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/u%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/u%5Ei.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/u%5Ei.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/i.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/i.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/i.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/u%5Ei.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/u%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/we.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wo%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yu.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/u.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/oe.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/wa.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/o.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ye.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/e.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yo%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/o%5E.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/yae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ae.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/ya.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/phonemes/a.mp3


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(,),, (,),, (,,),, (,

,),, (),

is similar to "Ah".

is similar to "yard".

is similar to "cut".

is similar to "just" or "Eliot".

is similar to "order".

is similar to " Yoda".

is similar to " Ungaro".

is similar to "you".

is similar to "good" or "le chatau".

is similar to "easy".


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is similar to "add".

is similar to "yam".

is similar to " editor".

is similar to " yes".

is similar to " Wow!" or "what".

is similar to "wagon".

is similar to "Koeln".

is similar to " one".

is similar to " weather".

is similar to "we" or "Oui!".

Traditional vowel classification:

Traditionally, vowels are classified into three categories, thatis yang(bright), yin(dark), and neutral. This classification is veryimportant, for it will be used when we learn conjugation ofpredicates and some phonological aspects of Korean. Theclassification also principles the vowel-hamp3ony phenomenathat Korean has as a member of Altaic language family. Thecassification is as follows:


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yang(bright)-- andseries(,,,,)

yin(dark) -- andseries(,,,,)

neutral -- and

3. How to make a character out of alphabet

Each character is designed to represent one syllable, thestructure of which may be described as (C)V(C), where C stands

for a consonant, and V does a vowel--(C) means that theconsonant in the position is optional.

(C) + V + (CC)

initialconsonant

vowelfinal consonant

(coda)

Some vowels are placed on the right side of the initial consonant; some

are placed underneath the initial consonant: Vowels,, (andtheir derivatives, i.e.,,,) are placed on the right; and

vowels,, are placed undersneath the initial consonant. Finalconsonants are always placed at the bottom.

E.g)

+ + = [kam]

+ + = [kuk]

+ + =

+ = [na]


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+ = [hwa]

+ = [ae]

+ + = [ot]

+ + = [kot]

+ + = [kkot]

+ + = [pat]

+ + = [hu^(r)k]

+ + = [o^p]

+ + = [tto^(r)p]

NB) Final consonant

clusters:,,,,,,,,,,

Except for,,,,,,(ones with placedbefre another consonant), when followed by another consonant or

nothing, the second consonant of the cluster becomes silent.This second consonant will come alive when there is a vowel

after it.

= kap "price"

+ = kap kwa "price and"

+ = kapsi "price (with a subject particle)"

Final clusters with '+consonant' fomp3ation are pronounced with

slight irregularity. As for,,,,, the foregoing liquid sound

[] of the cluster is ignored when followed by another consonant or


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nothing. This comes alive when the cluster is followed by anothervowel. However, Seoul speakers (and many other regions too) tend to

throw in a touch of liquid sound for the even when the cluster isfollowed by a consonant or nothing.

= sa(l)m "a living"

+ = sal mi "a living (with a subject particle)"

In clusters and, however, [] is alive even when followed byanother consosnant.

+ = kku^l k'o "boil and.."

Korean lessons: Lesson 3

Phonological notes

1. Syllable-final Consonants ():

1) Theoretically, any consonant can be in the (syllable final)

position. In reality, ,, andare not used as.
http://learnkorean.com/sound/l2/samp3.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/l2/samp3.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/l2/salmi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/l2/salmi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/l2/salmi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/l2/samp3.mp3


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2) Some of the consonants merge into one sound when they are in thesyllable-final position. Orthographically, however, they remaindifferent. Summarized as follows:

consonantendings

sound examples

, [k] ,

[n]

,,,,, [t] ,,,,,all

pronounced as []

[l]

[m]

, [p] , both pronounced as

[]

[ng]

3) These merged sounds regain their original values when they arefollowed by a zero-initial syllable (i.e. vowel).

+ (topic/subject marker) = [kagi]

+ (place marker) = [puo^kè]

+ (temporal marker) = [naje]

+ (place marker) = [nachè]

+ (top./sub. marker) = [ibi]

+ (top./sub. maeker) = [ipì]

2. Rules of Pronunciation
http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kak.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kak.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ktchn.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ktchn.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/eye.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/eye.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/nat.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/nat.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/nat.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ssal.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ssal.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pom.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pom.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ip.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ip.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ip.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/yong.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/yong.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/yong.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ip.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pom.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ssal.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/nat.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/eye.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ktchn.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kak.mp3


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2.1. Liason (carry-over)

1) Ais carried over by the following syllable when the following

syllable starts with a zero-initial.

ex)

[] []

[] []

[] []

2) The second part of a double

is carried over by the folowingsyllable when the following syllable starts with a zero-syllable.

ex)

[] []

[] []

[] []

2.2. Nasalization

When a final (non-nasal) consonant is followed by a nasal initial

(,), the non-nasal consonant absorbs the nasality, keeping its

place of articulation. Remember, '' in the initial position is not a

nasal consonant but a zero.

, ,,,,, / beforeor

,

ex)
http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kuki.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kuki.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kuki.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kuki.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/muni.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/muni.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/muni.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pabul.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pabul.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pabul.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/osi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/osi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/osi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/osi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/osi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ipi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ipi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ipi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pakke.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pakke.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pakke.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/anjayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/anjayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/anjayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ilgoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ilgoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ilgoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ilgoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/palbayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/palbayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/palbayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/haltayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/haltayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/haltayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/haltayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ulpoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ulpoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ulpoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/opsoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/opsoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/opsoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/opsoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ulpoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/haltayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/palbayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ilgoyo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/anjayo.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pakke.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ipi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/osi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/pabul.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/muni.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kuki.mp3


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[] [] []

2.3. Aspiration

When[h] is adjacent, a consonant is influenced and

aspirated.

/ before or after

ex)

[] []

[] []

2.4. Palatalization

Whenoris followed by[i], a paplatalization occurs.

[t] [ch]

[t`] [ch`] / before

ex)

[] [] []

2.5. Liquidation
http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kamnida.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kamnida.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kamnida.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kamnida.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/nanmal.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/nanmal.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/nanmal.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/mong_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/mong_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/mong_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/mong_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/mong_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/chota.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/chota.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/chota.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/chota.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/chota.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/norata.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/norata.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/norata.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/norata.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/saen_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/saen_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/saen_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/saen_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ipida.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ipida.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ipida.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ipida.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/midaji.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/midaji.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/midaji.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/midaji.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kuji.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kuji.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kuji.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kuji.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kachi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kachi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kachi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kachi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kachi.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kuji.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/midaji.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/ipida.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/saen_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/norata.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/chota.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/mong_da.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/nanmal.mp3http://learnkorean.com/sound/13/kamnida.mp3


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/before another

ex)

[] []

Korean lessons: Lesson 4Base forms and Stems

In a language, we find three basic ways of describing facts: description

of action, state, and identity. To describe an action, we use verbs. For

example, in English, we say "I eat lunch," which describes the action

('eating') of the subject ('I'). To describe a state, we use adjectives.When we say, "I am tall," it describes the state ('being tall') of the

subject ('I'). Describing an identity is relating one thing to another,

characterizing the property of the subject. To say "I am a student" is

characterizing a property of the subject ('I'), by identifying the subect as

a student. When we talk about facts that happened in the past, or a

something that will happen in the future, the story is not simple. In

English, if the your action of eating had happened in the past, you need

to use a different form of the verb, i.e., "I ate lunch." If you used to be

quite tall for your age in the past, but it is not the case now, you have to

say, "I was tall."

For similar reasons, we say, "I was a student." In order to

differentiate the mode of facts, such as tense, we make variation on the
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predicates--in other words, verbs, adjectives, and noun phrases, etc. This

variation is called "conjugation." Like English, Korean also uses this

conjugation of predicates. Therefore, in a verb predicate, for example,

we see a part that is constant in all kinds of sentences, and the other part

that changes according to the modes of facts. (Think of "push, pushes,pushed, pushing..." in English. "Push" is the constant, where "-es", "-ed",

and "-ing" are alternating.) The constant part is called the 'stems'. The

conjugation in Korean is made by attaching different suffixes to the

stems.

stem mid-polite suffix

"to go/leave" (present tense)

"", a lexical verb stem, is attached with a mid-polite suffix "",

making a present-tense predicate. ("-" has more stories. We will learnthem later.) Subjects can be omitted in many simple everyday-

conversational sentences, as long as they are obvious by the context.

""thus can be used in the sense of "I go," "you go," or sometimes,"He goes," etc. With an intonation rising at the end ( ), it can be a

question, "Do you go (Are you leaving?)" or "Shall we go?", etc. It caneven be taken as an imperative sentence, "Go (Leave)!"

A stem is a part of a verb predicate, not a whole word. When we list it

in dictionaries, or refer to it as a word--just as when we say "to go" or

"to eat" as words--, we add "" at the end of a stem. Thus,

Stem + = Base Form

+ = (Base Form, "to go")

High-polite -


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When addressing a senior (in terms of age or social ranking), a high-

polite stle of speech is used. "- " is a typical suffix of this style. A

simple "How are you?" is made as the following.

stem

"to be well"

high-polite suffix

(present tense)

"" is a stem, the base form of which is "". Apart from

the politeness of the style, "-" can be used you use "", as in "Yougo (Please leave)" or "Do you go (Are you leaving)?", "He/She goes", or

"Does he/she go", etc. However, you may not want to use it when the

subject is you, the subject. For the added politeness by "--" is for the

subject, not the addressee, whereas "-" is for the addressee, as it isused in the mid-polite style.

Practice

Using the given words, make different sentences as seen in the key.

1. [verbs] --- (to meet), (to sleep), (to buy), (to

ride), (to dig)

(togo):

. .I/you go. He/she

goes.

? ?Do you go? Does

he/she go?

! ! Please go!


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2. [adjectives] --- (to be expensive), (to be salty), (tobe cold)

(to be cheap) :. It's cheap.

? Is it cheap?

3. '-' verbs andadjectives

(adj.) (to be healthy)

(verb) (to

study), (to work)

(adj.) (to bewell):

? Are you well (How areyou)?

(verb) (to do) : ? Do you do (it)?

! Do (it)!


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Nominal predicates : "-- "

Sample Dialogues

By 'nominal predicate', we mean a predicate of a sentence that describes the subject

by identifying it with another noun: "I am a student." For verbs and adjectives, we

learned that there are base forms and stems. We thus get base forms, "" for

"to go", and "" for "to be cheap", etc. Now, we are facing a new problem.If there is no such thing as the English verb "to be", how are we going to say such

sentences as "I am a student"? Many languages lack the verb like "to be," which

can be used both in nominal predicates and adjectival predicates. ("I am a student"and "I am tall".) In order to relate two nouns (i.e., the subject and the nominal

complement), such languages use so-called 'copula'. In Korean, that copula is "-

". "-" is of course the base form, which still has to be conjugated to

be used in actual sentences. Hence, "" ("to be a student");

"" ("to be clouds").

True stories of the present-tense suffix - and -

InLesson 4, - and - were introduced. It was, however, not exactlyeverything that we should know about them.

1) Mid-polite suffix -/

Verbs and adjectives that we practiced with for - suffix in Lesson 4have

something in common: they all have the stem ending in vowel ? without anypatch'im followed ('', '', '', etc.) Those whose stems endotherwise, should take either - or -. The last vowel of the stem decides

which of the two to take. Once again, the vowel harmony principle ('yang withyang; yin with yin') applies:
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If the stem has a yang vowel at the last syllable, use -;

If the stem has a yin or neutral vowel at the last syllable, use -.

(For yang/yin/neutral vowels, seeLesson 2.)

to be small

: + -

"It's small." or "He/She is

small."?

to come

: + -

() "Come!" or "I come" or

"He/She comes."

[]to be alright

: +

-

[]"It's OK."

to give

: + -

() "Give (me, etc.)!" or "I give."

to eat

:

+ -

"Eat!" or "I eat." or "He/Sheeats."

[]to read

: + -

[]"Read!" or "I read." or "He/She

reads."

In fact, is a contraction [ + - ()

], so are the others inLesson 4.

(NB) - verbs and adjectives are rather peculiar. For them, -is

assumed instead of -. This may sound quite overwhelming, but -
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words are in fact easier. All the - stems with no exception appear as

-.

to work

to study

to be nice (person)

2) High-polite suffix -()

Although not so complicated as -/, this suffix also has its own rules:

If the stem ends without a patch'im, use -;

If the stem ends with a patch'im, use -

.

: +

to laugh : +

: +

: +

[]

""

Finally, we arrive the detail structure of ". XXX(name)." Since

personal names are the same as nouns, we use the nominal-predicate copula, -

. In order to make it into a real sentence, we need to add either -or -


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in place of the base-form making -after --. Foris a neutral vowel, -

is added. -had gone through a certain phonological change in

modern Seoul speakers' speech, and ended in -.

+ -"I am Oh YoungKyun."

Similarly,

:"I am / You are a student" or "He/She is a student"

:"It's a train."

There are two forms to spell this -: -and -. As far as we areconcerned, just -suffice.


Subject marker: - /

As mentioned in Lesson 1, Korean is an agglutinating language. It

means that Korean uses little grammatical devices attached to words to

specify their roles in a sentence. English is not an agglutinating

language, employing rather a fixed word order and prepositions in order

to specify the role of each part.

A subject of a sentence is the agent (doer) of the action described by the

sentence. Assuming that a state of being can also be treated as an action,

a subject can take any kind of predicate, i.e., a verbal, an adjectival, or a

nominal predicate. Think of "S goes," "S is bad," and "S is a man." In


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each case, S is the subject. To mark this subject, Korean attaches

either or to it. - is used when the subject word ends without a

final consonant (patch'im), whereas - is for those ending without afinal consonant.

Only nouns can be subjects in Korean, such is the case in English. In

other words, when you see a part of a sentence attached with - or -,you will know that it must be a noun. However, you might hear

sometimes people say sentences without using subject markers -

/ for subjects. It is because the sentences were simple and aconversational reality is presumed. For these sentences, subject markers

can be replaced by a short pause. In sentences the structure of which is

complex, or in written forms, the markers should be specified.

Finally, we get a sentence meaning, "The embassy is far."

Now, let's look at some more examples.

subjectpredicate

. These pants are comfortable.

. The train is coming.


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. The teacher is laughing.

.That (over there) is a school.

. This is a bear.

Use the following pairs of words to make sentences in mid-poite style.

Don't forget to use subject markers, and to translate each sentence, as

given in the above examples.

subject predicate

1. (this person) (friend)

2. (rose) (to be expensive)

3. (water) (to be cold)

4. (tree) (to be good)

5. (that person) (to be healthy)

6. (money) (to be many/much)

7. (baby)

8. (this [thing]) (hat; cap)

9. (here; this place)

10.

(to be small)

11. (studying) (to be dislikable)

12. (car) (to come)

13. (to work)


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_________________________________________

Korean lessons: Lesson 6: Answer

1.. This is a friend.

2.. Roses are expensive.

3.. The water is cold.

4.. Trees are good. (I like trees.)

5.. That person is healthy.

6.. There are a lot of money.

7.. The baby is healthy.

8.. This is a hat.

9.. There (or, this) is a school.

14. (home) (where)

15. (who)

16. (book) (to be cheap)17. (America)

18. (this computer) (to be okay)

19. (a younger sibling) (to sleep)

20. (homework)


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10.. The pants are small.

11.. Studying is dislikable. (I hatestudying.)

12. (


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as possible while discussing it.] An object in a sentence is the thing or aperson that receives the action (described by the verb) from the subject. Aswe know, the subject is the doer (agent) of the action that the verbdescribes.

In this sentence, the doer of eating is "friend ('my' is assumed)," and therecipient of the action ("eating") is "lunch." As you might have noticedalready, not every sentence will have both subject and object. Only thosesentences containing verbs that take objects will. Let us think about Englishfor a moment, in order to understand this grammatical terminology. InEnglish grammar, the verbs that take objects are called 'transitive verbs.'For example, "to eat" is a transitive verb, since there must be something

that is eaten (that is, receives the action). Similarly, you have a group ofverbs that are transitive and another that are intransitive. Such verbs as"love, buy, drink, see, understand, choose, find..." are transitive. (Whatthese verbs have in common is that you can say "to [verb] something /someone.") Such verbs as "go, sit, stay, die, come..." are intransitive. Youhandle an object in an English sentence simply by placing it AFTER theverb.

A dog

subject

bites

verb predicate

a person.

object

If you switch the positions of the subject and the object, you get acompletely different meaning.


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A person

subject

bites

verb predicate

a dog.

object

Now, let's go back to Korean. We know that the predicate must be placedat the of a sentence. Thus, both subject and object should come before theverb (predicate), and such change of meaning depending on the wordorder is less likely to happen. A subject does not necessarily come beforethe object in a Korean sentence. What clarifies the meaning, therefore, isthe particle, i.e., subject/object markers. (Linguists usually call them Casemarkers.)

subject "a person"

object "a dog"

.

verb predicate "bite"

"A person bites a dog."

-and -are subject and object markers, respectively. Since the subject

and object are labeled with markers, there is no possibility of confusion, aslong as you keep them together.

object "a dog"

subject "a person"

.


"A person bites a dog."

The meaning can only change when you switch the markers.

object "a person"

subject "a dog"

.


"A dog bites a person."

Oftentimes, a subject is simply not said in Korean when it is understood.


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A:? (Who does the dog bite?)

B: . ([It] bites a person.)

As you might have noticed, the difference between -

and -

is purelyphonological: when the previous syllable ends with a consonant (patch'im),

use -; with a vowel (no patch'im), use -.

You are given two nouns and one transitive verb in each line. Combinethem into a sentence, assuming that the first noun is the subject and the

second is the object. Be sure to conjugate the verb with -, -, -

(), when needed.

Key

,

(friend)

,

(television)

(watch,see)

.

([My] friend watches TV.)

1.(boy friend),(book),(buy)

2.(father),(newspaper), (read)

3.(student), ,

4.(girl friend),(movie),(like)

5.(grandmother), (money),(give)

6.(child), (lunch),(eat)


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7.,,(meet)

8.(uncle),(English),(study)

9.

,

(Korean),

10.(mother),,

Korean lessons: Lesson 7: Answers

1.,,. [My] boyfriend buys abook.

2.,,. [My] father reads

the newspaper.

3.,,. A student reads a book.

4.,,. [My]girlfriend likes movies.

5.,,. [My] grandmother givesmoney.

6.,,. The child eats lunch.

7.,,. [My] friendmeets her boyfriend.

8.,,. [My] uncle studiesEnglish.

9.,,. [My]girlfriend studies Korean.

10.,,. [My] mothermeets her friend.


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Who, What, Where?

Q: ?

Whois it?

A: .

It's Sun-i.

Q: ?

Whomare you meeting?

A: .

I meet sun-i.

Q: ?

Whatis it?

A: .

It is an apple.

Q: ?

Whatdo you like?

A: .

I like apples.


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Q: ?

Whereis it?

A: .

It is in Seoul.

Q: ?

Whereare you going?

A: .

I go to Seoul.

who

(often >) what

where

These words are pronouns. They need particles to be specified fortheir functions, such as subject, object, adverbial, etc. Although we

have not discussed it in detail, let us learn -and -, object markers.

-is used when there is a final consonant (patch'im) preceding;

whereas

is for elsewhere. Note that

(where) is also a noun(pronoun), while "where" in English is not.

sub. obj.

what (= ) (=)

who (>)

where

E.g.

? What is difficult?

? Who is coming?

? lit. Where is hurting? (Which part of


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your body is hurting?)

? What do you learn?

? Whom are you meeting?

? Where do I hit?

For similar reasons, -is needed afterin the above dialogues.

-is a marker that functions like the preposition ('in' or 'to') in English,

though they are placed after the noun they work with.

in Seoul = (Seoul+ in)

We will discuss this in detail later.


This 'n that, here 'n there --, --, --

,, and are demonstrative modifiers for nouns.


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+thing +person +place

this

that over there

that

Q-word (what) (who) (where)

When the referent (an object or a person) is close to the speaker, it is

referred to as--. When it is closer to the listener than to the speaker, it

is referred to as

--. If it is rather distant from both parties, it is referredto--. The only thing that is different from the case in English would

be that what is referred to with-- should be in thesight of thespeaker.

? .

? .

? .

?.

?.

? .

? .

? .

? .


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Using ('person') is not polite enough to refer to an older person.

You replace

with in such cases. Then, the predicate will have to changeaccordingly into high-polite

(with honorific infix --) style.

? .

? .

? .


Styles of speech--a broad classification

1. or Polite speech

(non-polite style): the style of speech in which you speak to your friends (of

your age) or to people younger than you are. (polite style): the style in which you speak to your superiors or seniors.

Politeness of style can be demarcated into two criteria:

(1) whom you talk to -- Politeness is achieved by -/- or -

(2) whom you talk about -- Politeness is achieved by infix --.


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When you talk to someone, that person you are talking to could be older or

younger than you are; when you talk about a person to someone (of course, they

can either be different or identical), that person you are talking about can also be

older or younger than you are. Chon-dae mal concerns the proper handling of both

these criteria in speech. In addition to age, rank in various social relations also

dictates proper use of these speech styles.

Throughout these categories applies a supervening category of formality. This

category concerns the occasion where the conversation occurs. For example, the

formal style will be adopted more in work place, public speech, army, etc. ;

whereas the informal would better be used among close friends, family members,

and people in private relationship. However, in many cases, the consistency of

formal/informal speech style is not really strict. In other words, you may feel free

switch back and forth between formal and informal style within a conversation, aslong as you keep the consistency of politeness.

We can summarize the above:

TOABOUT formal ending informal ending

TO

seniors

(polite)

ABOUT juniors or

self-/ -/

ABOUT seniors -() -()

TO

uniors

(plain)

ABOUT juniors or

self- -/

ABOUT seniors -() -()

This is a simple outline of endings. As we will learn later, there are other

grammatical details that may be needed according to tense, verb/adjective

differentiation, etc. There are also other supplementary devices, such as self-effacing pronoun for the first person ( instead of plain for 'I'), lexically

honorific words ( instead of for 'speech, words'), etc. , which will also be

discussed later.

Now let us see how we can make variation for same sentences. The following is in

informal style.


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(Talking to my friend) The teacher is coming to our house.

.

(Talking to my mother) The teacher is coming to our house..

(Talking to my younger sister) My friend is coming to our house.

.

(Talking to my mother) My friend is coming to our house.

.

Extensive variety in speech style is often the most overwhelming part when a

foreigner begins to learn Korean. It is known to be more complicated than in

Japanese. However, as much as it is hard to foreigners, it is not an easy matter to

native speaker. People in younger generations in Korea also experience difficulty

with proper use of speech style. (In fact, this is somehow related to the shifts that

happened in the Korean social structure. Speech style is a product of layers of

social/kinship relationship. Compared to traditional families where more than

three generations lived in one house or neighborhood, modern 'nuclear' families

offer very few opportunities for the children to practice different speech styles. )

2. or written style

literally means "written-language style," in which you write formal

documents, articles, papers in classes, and so on. As there are polite and non-polite

styles, we have polite formal style and non-polite formal style. They both have -

at the end.

polite formal ending -- -/

non-polite formal ending -- -/ (present-tense verb) or - (elsewhere)

Newspaper articles, academic papers, public announcement, and so forth, are

written in these styles. In fact, the non-polite is preferred in most written


36/51

documents over the polite, unless the document is by nature a dialogue (i. e. ,

announcement) aiming at actual readers.

The non-polite formal, from a native speaker's intuition, gives the impression of

self-addressing, which may explain why it is also used in diaries--something that

can be most informal. The style is also used frequently by a speaker toward others

in the same or younger age, as we saw in the chart above, and therefore we can call

it.


Numbers (I)

Two Sets of numbers

Two sets of numbers are in use in Korean: native Korean and Chinese-

based sets. The Chinese-based set transmitted to Korea long time ago,

probably with Chinese writing system, to settle in the language. It is also

the case in Japanese, and we see certain phonological similarity among


37/51

Chinese numbers and Chinese-based sets of Japanese and Korean

numbers.

Japanese Korean

one yi ichi il ()

two er ni i ()

three san san sam ()

four si shi sa ()

five wu go o ()

In fact, the Japanese and Korean sounds of Chinese numbers are quite

similar to those in many modern Chinese dialects, sometimes even moresimilar than modern Mandarin to them. The Chinese remnants in

Japanese and Korean, along with other Chinese dialects, reflect old

phases of Chinese language.

For the sake of our convenience, let us call these two sets 'Korean

numbers' and 'Chinese numbers.' Here are the two sets of 1 to 10.

Korean numbers Chinese numbers1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10


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There is no semantic difference between the two sets. Both '' and

'' means one. They differ according to when and how they are used.We will discuss this in the next lesson.

First, let us learn more about the Chinese numbers. Counting more than

ten observes the arithmetic principles. Take "12" and "20" for example.

12 is made of 10 and 2--there are other ways of making it, but this is

what the number stands for--. On the other hand, 20 stands for two tens.

Thus, the Chinese number has them:

12 = 10 + 2

20 = 2 x 10

Chinese numbers under 100

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39


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Tens, hundreds, thousands . . .

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

tens

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

hundred

s

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

thousan

ds

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10

thou.

10,00

0

20,00

0

30,00

0

40,00

0

50,00

0

60,00

0

70,00

0

80,00

0

90,00

0

100

thou.

100,0

00

200,0

00

300,0

00

400,0

00

500,0

00

600,0

00

700,0

00

800,0

00

900,0

00

millions

1 mil.

2 mil.

3 mil.

4 mil.

5 mil.

6 mil.

7 mil.

8 mil.

9 mil.

10 mil.10

mil.

20

mil.

30

mil.

40

mil.

50

mil.

60

mil.

70

mil.

80

mil.

90

mil.


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100

mil.

100

mil.

200

mil.

300

mil.

400

mil.

500

mil.

600

mil.

700

mil.

800

mil.

900

mil.

Notice that 'one hundred', 'one thousand', etc. are not '', '', etc.

Now, let us see how these work.

168:

250:

7,892:

980,768,543:

Some examples in the usage of Chinese numbers.

Money: (12,000 won), (3,500 dollar)

Phone number: 238-7834 ()

Room/APT Number: Room 305 ()


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Locative markers - and -

So far, we have used - as a marker indicating a place. We now have a

new location marker: - . The meaning of - is 'in', used after a

noun, like a postposition (the opposite concept to English 'preposition'). Forexample:

. I work at a bank.

Now it becomes quite puzzling how - and - are different.

(1) Meaning of 'in (or at/on)'

- indicates the place of a state of being (,,, etc.)

- indicates the place of an action (,,,, etc.)

NB) is rather peculiar, being used with both - and - . No

apparent semantic difference is noticed, except that -

with induces more vivid image of 'life' than simple 'dwelling'.

(2) With directional predicates ( , , , etc.)

- means 'to'.

- means 'from'.

NB) (to put) and (to sit) also use - because these verbs are

recognized to be directional.

. Mr. Kim came from Korea.


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We may understand that - still keeps the meaning of 'in' and that it is

the directionality implied by the predicate that produces the sense of 'from'.In the above example, although Mr. Kim may not be in Korea at the timethat the sentence is spoken, his action of 'coming' must have

started inKorea.

The following table summarizes what we have discussed above.

- -

state

( , , )

in ( at)

x

directional

( , , )

to

from

action

( , , ,

etc.)

x

in ( at)

x indicates that the respective marker is not used with the predicates.

Sample Practice

Korean lessons: Lesson 13: Practice

Locative Markers - Practice

Practice the following. Fill in the blanks with either - or - , and

translate the sentences. (Answers are given below.)

1. ______?

2. ______ ?
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3.______. ( : library)

4.______. ( : now)

5.______. ( : Japan)

6.______ . ( : tomorrow)

7.______ ?

8. ______. ( : room)

9.______. ( : class room)

10.______ .

11.______. (: we/our,:

cat, :bed)

12. I work at a bank.

13. goes to the bathroom. (bathroom: )

14. goes to a college this year. (this year: )

15. I eat dinner at a Korean restaurant. (restaurant: )

16. buys a radio at Best Buy. (radio: )

---------------------------------------------------------------------

1. [In which school do you study?]

---- "To study" is an action.

2. or [Where do you live?]

---- "To live" can be understood either as action or as state. This is


44/51

an unusual case due to the two different, but subtle, modes of "living."

Combined with, it sounds to be asking the place where the action

of living--eat, sleep, go to work, pay bills, etc.--takes place, whereas

with, simply asking the place of residence.

3. [My girl friend is at the library.]

---- "Being" is a state.

4. [I am going to the library now.]

---- "To go" is directional.

5. [A friend is coming from Japan.]

---- gives the origin of "coming".

6. [I am watching a movie at a theater tomorrow.]

---- "Watching a movie", though it may not be very 'active', is anaction.

7. [Where is the theater?]

---- Again, "being" is a state.

8. [My older brother is reading a book in the room.]

---- "Reading" is an action.

9. [The teacher is not in the class room.]

---- "", same as " ", is a state.

10. [The book is not in this room.]

---- " (not existing)" is also a state.

11. [Our cat sleeps in the bed.]

---- "To sleep" may not be an active thing to do, but counts as anaction.

12. .

13. .


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14. .

15. .

16. .


Numbers (II)

Native Korean Numbers

Another set of numbers are of native Korean numbers. They areindigenous in Korean, possibly stemmed through a different route from thatof the Chinese-based set. Although they used to have a complete systemof native numbers that can go up to three digits (or more), they now onlyuse the numbers up to two digits (99). The formation of numbers is quitesimilar to that of English numbers in the sense that you have a set ofnumbers for single digits (1-10) and another set for tens (10-90).

Numbers and formation

Single digits

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Nativenumbers

Ten, twenty, thirty....


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1020 30 40 5060 70 80 90 100

Native numbers

The formation is quite simple:

15 = 10+5

21 = 20+1

87 = 80+7

Using with counters and measure words

Such formation as "five birds," however, is not directly applicable in Korean.When you speak of a thing with its amount, the proper formation should be

the following:

**Noun + number + counter**

noun + number + counter

(bird)

(five)

(counter for animals)

Thus, an expression like "" is not used in Korean. It may remind

you of such expressions as "two bottles of wine" in English. It is necessaryin English to specify the measure unit when it comes to uncountable nouns,such as 'water,' 'coffee,' etc. In Korean, this is applied to all nouns. Doesthis mean that they have different counters for all nouns and that you haveto memorize all of them? Probably. Do not panic, though, for there are acertain number of counters that are more frequent and common than the

others, and you could strat by learning them and then move on to the rest.

There is yet another issue of when to use Chinese numbers and when touse native Korean numbers. This will be discussed in the next lesson.


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100 most used verbs

to eat

to drink

to sleep

to wake up / to get up

to work

to rest / relax

to see / to watch

to sit

to say / to speak

to talk

to make a phone call

to walk

to run ,

to sing a song

to drive

to fly

to exercise

to play an instrument / game /

to teach


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to learn

to study

to practice

to do

to pay / turn in

to think

to hear / listen

to read

to write

to know

to not know

to go

to come

to go into / enter

to come into / enter

to go out / leave

to come out / leave

to return from

to transfer to

to cross

to go down

to come down


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to go up

to come up

to ride / to get in

to get off

to travel

to arrive

to leave

to depart

to live

to die

to kill

to love

to laugh / smile

to cry

to believe

to promise

to tell a lie

to like

to dislike / hate

to need

to take / carry ,

to bring ,


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to make

to buy

to sell

to give

to receive

to lend

to borrow

to open

to close

to start

to end / be over

to meet up with

to hang out / to play

to become

to move to a new home

to reserve

to order food

to cut

to take a photo

to look for / find

to marry

to put on clothes


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to take off clothes

to clean

to cook

to turn on / switch on

to turn off / switch off

to be careful / watch out

to show

to prepare

to worry

to wait

to press

to choose / select

to congratulate

to ask

to visit

Pronunciation Tips.docx

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