Professional football clubs andcorporate social responsibility

Jens BlumrodtESC Rennes School of Business, Rennes Cedex, France

Michel DesbordesISC Paris School of management, Paris, France, and

Dominique BodinUniversidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Abstract

Purpose – The subject of CSR is nowadays widely discussed, as is its relevance to the sportentertainment industry. The objective of this research was to investigate corporate socialresponsibility (CSR) actions in the professional European football league and its impact on clubs’brand image.Design/methodology/approach – The first part of this research discusses some particular points ofthe world’s biggest sport entertainment, which is soccer. Then a definition of the meaning of CSR forthis particular sector will be outlined. The CSR values adopted by sport clubs are observed in firstdivision football in France. This approach has been combined with brand theories.Findings – The specific research protocol evaluates consumers’ perceptions. The method which isdeveloped measures and analyses the impact of CSR commitment on spectators’ brand perception.In linking CSR to brand image, two managerial viewpoints are discussed. CSR is synonymous witha company’s social and ethical commitment. Brand theories outline the nature of brand equity. Theauthors apply these two complementary considerations to professional football clubs and argue thatKeller’s model of customer-based brand equity has to be reconsidered for football clubs.Practical implications – This research highlights that CSR has to become part of managementstrategies.Originality/value – The authors draw attention to the argument that the professional sportentertainment industry requires a specific CSR management strategy which goes beyond the locallevel or the operational level of one single club. These clubs have to perform well in competition. But,as in no other industry, they have also to be “good” brands.

Keywords Professional football clubs, CSR, Brand image, Strategic brand management,Sport entertainment, Customer-based brand equity, Football, Social responsibility

Paper type Research paper

1. The sport entertainment industryBig “business” and how it can go wrongThe sport entertainment industry has, as its highly renowned flagship, soccer(football). Media exposure has given a high degree of notoriety to football clubs, so agood reputation and a positively perceived brand image have become increasingly keyissues for these businesses. The critics of the sport industry target certain actors aswell as at its many sponsors. Their primary concern is the marketing strategiesemployed, but they have also been concerned with the objectives of the sportentertainment business (cf. Katz-Benichou, 2004; Tribou and Auge, 2006). Sport, inparticular football, has not been spared from scandals such as fraud (Jessel andMendelewitsch, 2007). It is considered that judicial punishment is lenient in such casesand spectators seem to forgive the sport entertainment industry for its unscrupulousbehaviour. Fans seem to differentiate between the intrinsic values of sport and thosewhich are practised by the industry itself (Bourg and Gouguet, 2007).

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available atwww.emeraldinsight.com/2042-678X.htm

Sport, Business and Management: AnInternational Journal

Vol. 3 No. 3, 2013pp. 205-225

r Emerald Group Publishing Limited2042-678X

DOI 10.1108/SBM-04-2011-0050

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Football remains the most popular sport entertainment activity in Europe, with ahigh potential for future development (SportþMarkt, 2007; Sportfive, 2007). However,recent studies have demonstrated that positive values linked to sport in generaland to professional sport in particular have been replaced by words as “cheating” or“doping”. Professional sport has become associated with a negatively perceived image(CSA, 2002, 2007). These findings have shown that the management in professionalsport is actually not perceived as practising the basic principles of responsibility. Thescandals surrounding the French national football team during the Soccer World Cupin South Africa 2010 have had a significant impact on the image of football, even at theamateur level. In 2010 for the first time in the French Football League’s (FFF) historysport’s club membership fell. Sport spectators’ attendance in FFF matches went downfor the second season in 2011. Hope for improving French football’s image lies in theUEFA Euro 2016 cup.

The commitment of sport’s clubs facing their responsibilities as corporate entitiesis also named corporate social responsibility (CSR). This responsibility might beobserved on various levels, including environmental issues, legal aspects, socialcommitment and other business relevant concerns. From this broad framework, theresearch objectives have been formulated, i.e. investigating the degree to which CSRactivities are perceived by the public, especially by the sport spectators attending thegames. We also wish to consider whether the understanding of CSR for this specificindustry has to be reconsidered. Our research question was:

“Do specific elements exist in the spectators’ collective consciousness that are relatedto CSR?”

2. The relevance of CSR to the sport entertainment industryCorporate responsibilitiesThe term responsibility has taken on a philosophical meaning that detaches it fromfault so as to become synonymous with obligation or commitment (cf. Jonas, 1990). Theprinciple of responsibility is to act so that actions are not destructive. Responsibilityitself becomes a form of action, i.e. acting responsibly means thinking about theconsequences of ones actions for oneself and especially for others (Ewald, 1997).

In international discussions on corporate responsibility, confusion stems fromthe fact that responsibility may be experienced as the result of an obligation, or, on theother hand, recognized as a commitment. The Anglo-Saxon tradition tends tounderstand CSR as a voluntary commitment, while the continental traditions interpretit rather as a binding obligation. In the former tradition the concept is based onvoluntary approaches, in the latter, it requires government regulation. The EuropeanCommission has adopted a definition of CSR that leans towards the Anglo-Saxon,while trying not to offend the continental countries. The European Commissiondefines CSR as “A concept whereby companies integrate social and environmentalconcerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholderson a voluntary basis” (European Commission, 2011). This definition is quite close to theacademics’ definition in which CSR is popularly defined “as the responsibilityof an organisation to be ethical and accountable to the needs of their society as wellas to their stakeholders” (Bradish and Cronin, 2009, p. 692). The definitions areupheld by theories and supporting concepts, whereby responsibility is at the centreof observations. Words such as social, ethical, stakeholders and society borderthis semantic field. Literature tends to define responsibilities, into three mainstreamcategories.

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Carroll (1979) presented the first consistent model of CSR. Carroll’s framework(Carroll, 1979, 2004; Carroll and Buchholtz, 2006) distinguishes four levels of corporateresponsibility. First, there is the basic economic imperative (to be profitable, i.e. to dowhat is required by capitalist economics). Second, there is a legal responsibility (i.e. toact as required by stakeholders). It was acknowledged by him/her that economicprofitability is a fundamental social responsibility. On the other hand managers havealso an obligation to confirm to ethical roles of business in their environment. There areethical considerations (i.e. to do what is expected by global stakeholders). Finally,and at the top of the pyramid, there is a philanthropic responsibility (to be good, i.e. todo what is desired by stakeholders).

For Freeman (1984) the firm has to be attentive to groups it affected or groups thatcould affect it. According this approach, businesses should be particularly attentivewith regards to their stakeholders. We base our meaning of “stakeholder” on Freeman’sdefinition: a stakeholder is “any group or individual who can affect, or who is affectedby the achievement of the firm’s objectives” (Freeman, 1984, p. 25). Stakeholdermanagement can be derived from Freeman’s pragmatic approach or be seen as a moralobligation (Wood and Logsdon, 2002; Waddock, 2001). From a pragmatic point of viewmanagers might prioritize stakeholders as regards their importance to the firm, suchas shareholders, investors, customers, suppliers or media (Agle et al., 1999).

The effectiveness with which firms are dealing with stakeholders is a measurementof corporate social responsiveness whereas the intentions, objectives and commitmentsof social engagement are called corporate social performance (Wood, 1991).

These three mainstream principles in CSR can be implemented in various businesspractices and initiatives such as financial aspects, marketing concerns or brandmanagement aspects.

CSR and sportIn order to recognize the link between CSR and sport brands, and more specifically thepotential impact of CSR on brand image, we shall attempt to make the distinctionbetween the two apparently paradoxical perceptions regarding the business of sportand CSR. The importance of CSR and its’ impact on sport brands has become clearwith the example of the sport manufacturer Nike and “if the global brand had a goodCSR image, it could avoid adverse publicity, boycotts, and media exposes that wouldnegatively impact sales” (Lim and Phillips, 2008, p. 149). The negative impact oforganizations’ behaviour has been measured in the context of the manufacturingindustry or, for example, the sport entertainment industry (Blumrodt and Roloff,2009a). Brunk’s (2010) study provides a consumer perspective of corporate ethicsand introduces the construct of consumer-perceived ethicality (CPE) of such a brand inthe sport entertainment industry such as NBA.

The majority of CSR research in the sport environment related to CSR addressed“cause-related” sport marketing. Therefore partnerships between sport organizations(leagues, clubs) and charitable causes have been examined, from an organizationand a consumer perspective (cf. McGlone and Martin, 2006; Roy and Graeff, 2003).Various authors have pointed out the need for further research on CPE (Brunk, 2010;Cohn, 2010; Shea, 2010). Empirical studies assessing CSR or corporate ethics andthe impact on customers’ overall perception of a sport brand are included in the scopeof this research.

Some football clubs have a brand image which can be compared to a mega brand,such as Nike. These businesses are observed, analyzed and judged. The sport

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entertainment industry must satisfy local as well as international requirements and,as mentioned, they must also meet expectations from different stakeholders. Clubs,however, are seemingly blinded by the sole criterion of the quality of their primaryproduct, the competition on the playing field. They exclude CSR issues, consideringthat by doing well in CSR, the main business of the sport entertainment industrymight be impaired, i.e. the entertainment based on athletic performance. On theother hand, professional sport clubs are like few other businesses involved inthe community, they are part of citizens’ daily life. The guiding concept proposed byCapron and Quairel-Lanoizelee (2007), a sociological conceptual framework ofCSR, is perhaps a more adapted framework when taking into account the social valueswhich prevail in the industry’s activities. These values underline the importanceof symbolic and cognitive categories and integrate the conflicting expectations of thedifferent stakeholders. Top management implements strategies of fighting andimagery and uses effective symbols in accordance with these values in order to assurethe company’s legitimacy (Capron and Quairel-Lanoizelee, 2007). The legitimacy of abusiness appears as a result of the institutionalized environment leading to social andcultural expectations that constrain businesses to play a predetermined role and torespect certain appearances.

The sport spectacle is just entertainment and the homogenous brand imagemust be based on positive recognized values. In general, corporations try to generatea brand image that corresponds to their desired image (Meffert and Burmann,1996, 2002).

The importance of brand imageProfessional football clubs can be considered as brands. The idiosyncrasies of sportand sport brands require a specific sport brand management approach (Bouchetand Hillairet, 2009). In no other sector does the theme of identity, image and reputationplay a role as central as in the sport arena (Parent and Foreman, 2007). Brand image isa predominant concern for all European soccer teams (Richelieu et al., 2008). In relationto our research objective, the classic theoretical framework of CSR seems only partiallyapplicable since shareholders expectations are different from those compared tobusinesses in general. The sport industry appears immune to traditional expectations.For the average consumer, it is sufficient to glance in the daily or specialized pressin order to understand the range of issues which are contrary to stakeholders’expectations. Sport entertainment follows its own rules. These firms are not managedrespecting basic principles of business. They find themselves deeply in debt throughthe purchase of their employees, the players and they do nothing to change thisposition (Bayle and Francois, 2009). Clubs do not respond to society’s legal framework.Basic security rules are not consistently applied in order to avoid offences and acts ofviolence. It is not necessary to make an exhaustive list here of the shortcomingsand responsibilities linked to sports, sport organizations and sport clubs whichdeliver sport entertainment. An overview of the state of sport ethics has been carriedout by Bayle and Mercier (2008). Clubs act according to different principles andto the different levels of the responsibility of the firm itself. Can these brands actagainst customers’ expectations on CSR? Are sporting results the centre of spectators’interest in football? Does the end justify the means?

When Aaker (1991) developed his concept of brand management, CSR had not beenmentioned as a category entering into consumers’ perceptions. Further studiessuggested that there was no measurable impact of CSR on the brand image of sport

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manufacturers (Chen, 2001). Since that time, the public’s opinion has grown moresensitive to CSR issues. It is recognized as being part of consumers’ brandperception and having an impact on brand image and customer-based brand equity(Keller, 2008).

Responsibility for corporate, more specifically CSR, issues could be an elementwhich is present in the spectators’ consciousness. Previous studies have shown thatthere are different elements building the clubs’ brand image. The authors described,defined and measured a certain number of factors. Their specific content dependson the brand and its environment (cf. Beccarini and Ferrand, 2006; Gladden and Funk,2002; Ross, 2006; Ross et al., 2006). Keller (1993) classified brand associations in threemajor categories, attributes, benefits and attitudes.

Attributes. These are descriptive features linked to the product: they are productrelated or non-product related.

Even if attributes can be looked at in various ways, we follow Keller’scategorization. Product-related attributes are ingredients necessary for performingthe product or service function for consumers. Non-product-related attributesare the external aspects of the product or service that relate to its purchaseor consumption.

Customers’ benefits. There is a personal value the consumer attaches to the productor service attributes – that is, what consumers think the product or service can dofor them.

Brand attitudes. They are often the basis of consumer behaviour, and are the overallevaluation of a brand.

Sport is an important social institution (Giulianotti, 2005) and its’ values are takenas a fixture of social life and are present at the most important social functions(Pociello, 1997). Sport by itself becomes part of the fabric of social values and this willbe reflected in sport consumers’ perceptions. We assume that there are three categories,the product and non-product-related attributes, the benefits and the last category,spectators’ CSR-ethical perceptions.

HypothesisThe first hypothesis aims to determine all relevant brand image factors. Therefore weinventory brand image perceptions.

H1. The sport clubs’ brand image is based on sport spectators’ brand associations,i.e. the attributes, benefits and CSR-ethical perceptions.

As in other research we aimed to detect and measure sport spectators’ perceptions. Theframework provided includes CSR, which might have an impact on brand image, as wehave seen for other industries (John et al., 2006).

H2. CSR is an integral category of clubs’ brand image.

If the second hypothesis is accepted, the research question can be answered. We willknow that there is a specific category in sport spectators’ collective consciousness thatis related to CSR. In measuring these perceptions, we wanted to gain an understandingof the external brand image of the club. The impact of sport spectators’ brandassociations on sport spectator-based brand equity is essential, and adds to or detractsfrom the value of the brand (Ross et al., 2007).

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3. MethodsFor the research-selected clubsThe European football system is an open system. Performance decides on each club’scompetitive level (first and second professional league, and/or amateur level). Oursampling has been based on two French football clubs, both placed in the first professionalfootball league (League 1) and both based in the region of Brittany, France. Both clubs arerepresentative of hundreds of professional UEFA soccer clubs which do not figure inForbes’ top sport brands, such as Manchester United or Olympique Lyonnais (Forbes,2011). All clubs have one point in common, they are medium-sized companies. The finalcriterion of choice for these clubs was that they were at a different stage of development intheir business. This provided potential variability in their commitment to CSR.

The Stade Rennais Football Club (SRFC) is a club with a history going back to 1901,initially with the legal statute of a non-profit making association. In the beginning, theassociation offered soccer and other athletics activities to its members. From 1904onwards the colours of the club became its distinctive red and black. Francois Pinaultbecame the principal shareholder in 1998. The legal form of the club is now SocieteAnonyme Sportive Professionnelle (SASP), a profit making status similar to a limitedliability company (Ltd). The club soon succeeded in achieving top ranking for severalweeks in League 1. The media and spectators have followed the club as it hasprogressed steadily upwards. It is also holding its own on the international scene.However, the summit of League 1 is still out of their reach.

The choice of the neighbouring Football Club of Lorient (FCL), the second sports clubstudied during this research, is due to its fundamentally different characteristics. Theclub has only played a short time in League 1, and it is only since 2006/2007 that it isplaying at the highest level of professional football. Since the club’s change in statute intoa SASP many of the association’s volunteers were brought on-board as employees. It’suseful to emphasize two essential aspects of the club’s management. First, the paternalmanagement style of the former president, Alain Le Roch – principal shareholder of theclub up until 2009 – contrasts with the hands-off style of Francois Pinault of the SRFC.Second, the exceptional performance of the coach, Christian Gourcuff, whose personalityand style has made a positive impression on the club over the last 20 years.

The stadium and the offices of the employees are less convivial than those of theirRennes neighbours. The Lorient club has one of the smallest budgets in League 1(Ligue de Football Professionnel (LFP), 2009). Since 2005, the two clubs have postedpositive financial results, and in 2006, the SRFC was able for the second consecutivetime to pay dividends to its shareholders. In Lorient, the marketing communicationfocuses both on its players and the capacities of its management. Prior to each match,the city is flooded with the game-day posters (3� 4 m). They display the playersengaged in acts of direct confrontation. It is a message and a communication strategythat the management in Rennes have fervently avoided. The SRFC marketingcommunication strategy focuses upon a message centred on its tradition, its regionalcommitments and the attractiveness of the stadium.

In both clubs, top management defines the marketing communication strategy.Other clubs outsource them to specialized agencies (i.e. Sportfive).

Research designThe research started with a literature review which includes also an overview ofexisting measurement methods of evaluating brand image in the sport entertainmentindustry. It was similar to previous research.

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Semi-guided interviews with spectators were conducted. These interviews havebeen recorded and transcribed during the 24 hours following the interviews(cf. Brunk, 2010).

This initial qualitative approach and relevant issues from literature on this subjectwere used to design the questionnaire. Results gathered from both interviews and theliterature review provided the fundamental data for determining the brandassociations which reflect the brand image in customers’ perceptions (Aaker, 1991).If the associations are assessed, different elements appear corresponding to categories.They are named factors. The factors are described by items figuring as intelligiblequestions in the questionnaire.

The brand image has been assessed with a principal component analysis (CPA)and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) (cf. Gladden and Funk, 2002; Ross, 2006;Ross et al., 2007). The number of factors has been limited (cf. Bauer et al., 2008, p. 211).

The factor identification process for our research has been summarized (cf. Table I).Knowing that the clubs are different but have common traits, the literature providesthe questionnaire framework. Previous studies identify various specific items(cf. columns I-III in Table I). One product-related attribute is for football clubs thematch on the field. Factors reflecting this specific core product are linked to players,team success and the management of the club. The interviews deliver variations andthe factors have been adapted (cf. column IV in Table I).

Our research takes these findings into account. It was expected that the items wouldform groups during factorial analysis and reflect significant factors. These factorsexplain brands’ key traits. Cooper and Schindler (2006) and Malhotra (2007) had arguedthat only a small number of factors can determine key traits. The categories (cf. columnIV: D1-4) contain the different factors (cf. column IV: FA1-8) of sport spectators’ brandperceptions (cf. column IV: items). While former studies focused on D1-3 category 4needs some further comment, and the items focusing on the responsibility of a sportclub, have to be explained. The items have been generated by a literature review(cf. Bauer et al., 2008; Brunk, 2010) and by interviews with sport spectators. We definethe fourth category Brand attitudes as consumers’ overall evaluation of the brand(Wilkie, 1986). Attitudes are a function of the associated attributes and benefits that aresalient for the brand. They serve the consumer by reflecting her/himself in the brand,their self-concept (Keller, 1993).

Category number 1/D1: core services (or product-related attributes)FA1: game-team, success, and players (Items: team and quality of the game, team

success, team loyalty, quality of players); andFA2: management (items: quality of coach, management of the club, shareholder’s

involvement).

Category number 2/D2: other attributes (or non-product-related attributes)FA3: stadium (items: modernity of the stadium, atmosphere and personality of the

stadium, location of the stadium);FA4: history and tradition (items: club has a long history, the clubs history is a

success story);FA5: entertainment (items: a giant screen contributes to entertainment, pompom

girls, speaker, P.A. system); andFA6: other services (items: friendliness of the service staffs, services efficiency,

quality of the catering).

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Table I.Assessing the relevantfactors

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I.II

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Table I.

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Category number 3/D3: customers’ benefits (benefits)FA7: brand benefits (items: escape, emotion linked to the game, peer group acceptance).

Category number 4/D4: CSR-ethical perceptions (or Keller’s brand attitudes)FA8: CSR (items: commitment within the region, club’s transparency and honesty,

social responsibility and engagement, instruction of young players, security).

Final questionnaireThe pre-testing questionnaires phase determined the final number of relevant items foreach club. Participants of pre-testing groups were allowed to formulate theirsuggestions or other comments, which were then taken into account in developing thefinal questionnaire. We began with 36 items focusing on brand association, 30 of whichwere integrated into the final questionnaire. The sport spectator brand associationswere measured using items in a questionnaire. We obtained three-seven items perfactor and used the items on a six-point Likert scale.

The questionnaire items were developed taking into account the marketingcommunication strategies and perceptions of the club management. The topmanagement team of the SRFC and of FCL were interviewed during several separateindividual interviews. These interviews were useful in comparing sport brandassociations and club’s brand management.

The final questionnaire was divided in three parts. The first part focused onspectators’ behaviour (match attendance, status – season ticket holder, VIP, fan as amember of a fan association, or occasional spectator – purchase of merchandisingproducts and sponsor perceptions). The second was linked to the brand imagemeasurement. The third part of the questionnaire was linked to spectator profile (sex,origin and socio-professional category).

SamplingThe time available for the face-to-face interview between the interviewer and theinterviewee at the time of a game was an important constraint. The questionnaireswere administrated by face-to-face interviews before the game and during thehalf-time (10-12 minutes per questionnaire). Totally, 500 questionnaires were filled infor the football club in Lorient and 496 questionnaires for the club in Rennes. Thequestionnaires, administered in the stadium at different access points to the tribunes,were completed by one-on-one interviews between the spectator and the interviewer.They were all usable.

Brand image measurementThe fifth step contains different approaches and results. The method starts withdescriptive statistics and continues with an analysis of the principal factors. Theanalysis was carried out using SPSS 17. The variables were tested for reliability usingthe a Cronbach test. The variables retained have been utilized for the CFA (cf. factoranalysis with varimax rotation).

4. ResultsWe compared our sampling – the SRFC spectator profile – with statistics known by theclub (age, social situation, origin, occasional spectator, regular or season ticket holders,frequency of visits to the stadium). The club’s statistics are based on the threefollowing observation tools. First, the customer track using CRM software, which was

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put in place in 2005. Then, the benchmark offered by the TNS Sofres institute(specialized in the fields of marketing research and polls). And, finally, the dataobtained from of purchase of tickets online (e-ticket service). The Lorient club did notin fact have any of this data available.

In all, 73 per cent of the spectators of SRFC are between the ages of 30 and 59, whileat Lorient the public is older (62 per cent of the spectators are older than 40 yearsand 18 per cent were older than 60). The two clubs have a high percentage of liberalprofessions or employees among their fans. The public of SRFC and of FCL isdiversified and shows that nowadays soccer has a following among a wider spectrumof the population than before.

Different factors can be observed after CFA with varimax rotation. They areessential for all sport brands and these results correspond to those developed inprevious research. In all, eight different factors are observed (FA1-8). They are linkedto product-related and non-product-related attributes (D1 and D2), brand benefits (D3),as well as CSR (D4). The different items are indicated (e.g. FA (1) items 1-4) with theiraverage/mean (Likert 1-6). The first item “team and quality of the game” obtainsfor both clubs (FCL and SRFC) 4.1 out of 6. The overall performance on FA1 isnevertheless better perceived (þ ) for FCL than for SRFC (o). All the values (means)are perceived positively (except SRFC: (FA 6) other services; FCL and SRFC: (FA 5)entertainment).

After these descriptive statistics the Cronbach (a) test (cf. Figure 1: a) indicates theseparate reliability analyses in order to determine their usefulness as scales. After theScree-test, eight factors explained the total variance (cf. Figure 1: FA 1-8 AVE) of FCL’s84.2 per cent brand image and for SRFC (total AVE: 68.4 per cent). The differingscores reflect two distinct brand images. D1 (product-related brand attributes) explains31.39 per cent of FCL brand image and constitutes the most important category. ForSRFC, it only has third place. D2 (non-product-related brand attributes) represents thebiggest AVE for SRFC (29.34 per cent) and an important part of the AVE for FCL (27.27per cent). D4 (CSR) is for both clubs an important part of the customer perceived brandimage (SRFC: 18.20 per cent and FCL: 16.02 per cent).

The results supported the view that spectators expect and desire more. Their sportteam has to present its best performance and the sport brand has to be “good”. TheCSR items are reflected in category 4. This category explains the club’s CSRinvolvement and its perception by spectators. The items design an integral factor.

The results are consistent. We confirmed H1:

The sport clubs’ brand image is based on sport spectators’ brand associations, i.e. theattributes, benefits, and CSR-ethical perceptions.

We also confirmed H2:

CSR is an integral category of clubs’ brand image.

In other words, and in answer to our research question, there are specific elements inthe spectators’ collective consciousness that are related to CSR.

5. DiscussionOur research involved two clubs/brands which perform differently in terms of brandimage. The SRFC has a specific brand image which is perceived as mostly positive tospectators. The marketing communication department has put communicationstrategies in place focusing on the stadium (FA 3), tradition (FA 4) and family attraction

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(FA 7). For those who have put a marketing communication strategy in place the items’mean corresponds with those expected by the club.

FCL did not have a clearly established strategy. Variables of the association staynevertheless equally positive for the club and a large part of the total variance of brandimage is explained. This might be explained by facts such as historical evolution aswell as the stability of the coach, management by the president (majority shareholder),and a specific public.

One factor contains two variables of a rather weak average. It is a non-product-related attribute, entertainment. Spectators are dissatisfied with the level of theentertainment and the Bretons (habitants of the region) expect more real entertainmentlike a real show similar to the NBA. Former studies pointed this problem out (Besson,2008; Ipsos, 2008).

I. II. III. IV.

FA

Gladden andFunk

(2001 and2002)

Ross, Hyejin andSeungum (2007)

Bauer, Stokburger-Sauer and Exler,

(2008)Recognition of relevant factors

1 Success 1 Team Success 1Product relatedattributes (5 items)

D1 - Product related attributes:FA1: Game-team, success, and players:Items: Team and quality of the game, Teamsuccess, Team loyalty, Quality of players

2 STAR Player – –

FA2: Management: Items: Quality of coach,Management of the club, Shareholder’sinvolvement

3 Head Coach 2Non-PlayerPersonal

4 Management 3Organizationalattributes

5 Logo design 4 Brand Mark

6 Stadium 5Stadiumcommunity

2Non product relatedattributes (4 items)

D2 -Non product related attributes:FA3: Stadium: Items: Modernity of thestadium, Atmosphere and personality of thestadium, Localisation of the stadium

7Product delivery

6 Team Play 1FA4 History and traditionItems: Club has a long history, Clubs historyis a success story

8 Tradition 7 Team history 1FA5 Entertainment: Items: The giant screencontributes to entertainment, pompom girls,Speaker, P.A. system

– 8 ConcessionsFA6 Other services: Items: Friendliness ofthe service staff, service efficiency, Quality ofthe catering

– 9 Rivalry cf.FA1

9 Escape 10Social Interaction 1

3Brand benefits(7 items)

D3 –Brand benefits:D3=FA7: Brand benefits: Items: Escape,Emotion linked to the game, Peer group

acceptance

10 Pride in place –

11Fan identification

–

12Peer group acceptance

Social Interaction 2

13 Nostalgia 11 Team history 2 cf.FA4

– – 4Brand attitude(4 items)

D4 -CSR:

14 Importance 12 Team success

cf. FA115 Knowledge – 5

Brand loyalty(2x2 items)

16 Affect 13 Commitment

14 Team Play 2

D4=FA8: CSR: Items: Commitment withinthe region, Club’s transparency and honesty,Social responsibility and commitment,Instruction of young players, Security

Figure 1.Items, means of items, andreliability of constructs

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The most important aspect still remains the product-related attributes for FCL andnon-product-related attributes for SRFC. Sport entertainment is based on the stadiumexperience.

The factors reflecting corporate responsibility can clearly be distinguished in sportspectators’ brand associations (D4: SRFC/18.198 per cent; FCL/16.020 per cent), fivedifferent items indicated CSR for SRFC and four items reflected FCL’s CSRinvolvement.

Instruction of young playersFrench clubs are obliged to train their young players aged 15-22 years both insoccer and in the classroom. This variable was not maintained for FCL. The creationof a training centre has not yet been approved by the League. The public knows itand the pre-test led us to remove the variable. The study with SRFC also showedthat the players who grew up within the club are the spectators’ favourite players;three young players are originally from the club’s training centre and figuredamong five star players mentioned spontaneously. The fans expect a real involvementby the club.

SecurityIn Rennes, the acts of violence or other forms of anti-social behaviour, attributed tosupporters are rare and hooliganism is non-existent. The security of the stadium and ofits surroundings is the responsibility of the club’s management. The security staffcheck spectators before entering the stadiums (physical check and electronic check –similar to airports); and following the new security rules fans are searched. We noted astrong correlation between security and a family outing.

The CSR factor constitutes an integral category for SRFC along with security andyoung players’ education.

Commitment within the region, club’ transparency, social responsibilityThe spectators are aware of clubs’ commitment in the region. One explanation is foundin the club’s behaviour as a corporation. SRFC represent values that go beyondeconomic and legal requirements. They add to the category of ethical values. Thesevariables are part of brand attitudes, which is, according to Keller (1993), the basis ofconsumer perception of the brand. They are perceived as “honest” and FCL hasobtained for the fifth time the League’s trophy for fair play. The clubs appear to bedoing their job well as corporations. Both clubs have a direct relationship with regionalamateur clubs. Their members are regularly invited to attend games. SRFC alsoorganizes games with humanitarian and health objectives for an association namedEuropean Leukodystrophy Association (ELA). Zinedine Zidane, a former footballplayer in the French national team, is an ambassador of this association (EuropeanLeukodystrophy Association (ELA), 2011).

Since the 1980s, the theme of social responsibility has suggested that thepermanence of a business depends not only on its purely economic capacities, but alsoon its mastery of the sociological contingencies and surrounding politics (Martinet,1983). The corporations of sport entertainment – especially soccer – are observed veryclosely by many audiences. These businesses have obtained visibility thanks to themedia, which assures the presence of sport spectators in front of the screen and inthe stadium (Merten, 2003; Riedl, 2006). The issues of CSR have made their entranceinto the stadiums of professional football leagues.

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The measurements of this present research go beyond reporting the spectator’sperceptions. This empirical study can be considered as the pursuit of existing researchinto the consumer perspective of corporate ethics and CPE. We have put forwardevidence of characteristics in the industrial sector of sport entertainment, and we haveunderlined the point that the actors compete and collaborate together. This is oneof the characteristics of the sport product (Mason, 1999). The level of competitiongoes beyond a simple local or regional context and clubs such as SRFC and FCL whichare less well known than Lyon, Bayern de Munich and Manchester United,nevertheless find themselves confronted with this European competition level(Boniface, 2006). They are representative of a lot of the European football clubs.A more critical review of the assessed items shows that they have to be adapted forthe selected brand. The research protocol only considered those items mentionedby spectators in the questionnaire. The items specifically focused on the brand imageof the two clubs.

6. Conclusions, recommendations and perspectivesThe entertainment part of the sport industry is primarily an interesting show on thefield, which includes high team performance. Our research has shown that spectatorsnevertheless expect other accomplishments from the club. One of these is reflected inCSR commitment. Specific factors exist in the spectators’ collective consciousness andthey are related to CSR. We underline some essential elements of professional sportclubs’ brand image. What makes a successful and “good” brand?

Entertainment (SRFC/FCL) and the stadium’s quality (FCL) have been negativelyperceived by spectators. The visit to the stadium is a central part of the brandexperience. French stadiums are actually not competitive working tools and equipmentis often in poor condition, as different government reports have shown (Besson, 2008;Commission Euro, 2008). The conviviality of stadiums and their perceived quality maybe subject to discussion. These facilities have to be an attractive place for sportcompetition at the highest level and also for entertainment in general. The buildingshave to permit spectators to spend their leisure time before and after matches aroundthe stadium, to become an integrated part of the customer amusement experience(Desbordes and Hamelin, 2010). Nowadays, they must also reach Energy StarStandards (high environmental quality standards). There is a significant correlationbetween spectators’ stadium attendance and the quality and size of the stadium (Ipsos,2008). Football does not hold the same importance for Germans, British and Frenchsport spectators (Sportfive, 2007). Since the last soccer World Cup, German stadiumshave been renovated and are more attractive. Even the German second football leagueattracts more and more spectators, reaching nearly the number of the French League 1(Blumrodt, 2011). The various projects for new stadiums in France are facing Europeancompetition standards. They will contribute to the survival of the greatest sportentertainment in France.

The second aspect is linked to international competitiveness. Organizations whichexpose their art at the highest athletic level need an excellent quality of game toguarantee the quality of their entertainment. The purchasing of top players makesit more probable that a better level will be achieved in international competition.In 2006-2007, the value of these transactions increased dramatically, drawing on anddraining the majority of clubs’ budgets. League 1 in France is at the top of the list ofEuropean clubs for the purchases and sales of players (Fenton, 2008). Players’ transferperiods broke records in 2009, achieving levels which have never been seen before.

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After Kaka, Real Madrid bought Cristiano Ronaldo for 93 million euros at a momentwhen football is facing dangerous financial challenges and President of UEFA isreiterating the issues of financial fair play. These clubs follow the attractiveness ofbroadcasting rights and their shareholders inject money which is lacking. Frenchclubs do not operate the same way. They have to face a different legal environment.Clean and positive accounts are a sign of a well-managed business; it’s one of thebasics of business and this has been perceived by spectators. Whilst researchers(i.e. Desbordes, 2006), sport journals (i.e. L’Equipe, 2008) or the UEFA (PresidentPlatini) are asking for positive accounts in France, they are also demanding the samebase requirements for all European clubs. Some managers dream of and plead for atotal liberalization of the market. During the interviews fans were clear that their clubshould do as well as possible in this “unequal” European competition. Other, foreignclubs are cheating and deep in debt, although their club is well managed. Theirhomegrown players, their favourite players, leave the club after a few years and thebest French players develop in other international clubs. They contribute greatly to thebetter field performance of foreign clubs. French clubs do not perform as expected ininternational competitions.

However, as for other obligations imposed on the sport industry, e.g. the regulationof the level of doping, where the World Anti-Doping Agency acts as an independentorganization, the sport entertainment industry should have international rules andmechanisms. Such rules would target the banning of cheating (Blumrodt and Roloff,2009b). Financial aspects are part of regular driven businesses. The UEFA principles offinancial fair play are also meeting French spectators’ expectations.

Our last recommendation is closely linked to the first, and concerns the clubs’involvement in communities’ daily functioning. Our research results have shownthe importance of corporate involvement in its environment. These businesseshave a duty to face up to the expectations of social commitment (Hamil et al., 2004).The clubs presented provide different efforts in terms of social commitment.Therefore they have to develop a real CSR strategy and have to communicate theseefforts to the public. Sport brands have to perform well by respecting rules andcommunity engagement. Clubs have to integrate social and environmentalconcerns in their business operations. It is expected by their stakeholders. We haveshown that consumers perceive the ethical nature of a brand. It becomes anintegral element of clubs’ brand evaluation. In other words, CSR contributes tocustomer-based brand equity. We adapted therefore Keller’s model for the sportentertainment industry.

Textbooks explain that social responsibility is omnipresent at all levels andfunctions inherent in businesses (De George, 2006). Sport organizations are subject todifferent constraints from media, fan clubs and other political pressures. Stakeholdersdo expect that these brands perform well in all business areas. They also have to facereal customer expectations in CSR. However, the managers of our two clubs seem tounderrate the importance of CSR. The evaluation from sport spectators’ CSR rankingand top managers self-assessment of brand image values obtained during interviewsshowed a real gap. From the viewpoint of managers, CSR is considered as important,but not estimated as a relevant communication issue and, what is more disconcerting,as a real management strategy. The CSR category is present in spectators’ brandimage. These findings require managerial applications as demanded by Janet andQuarterman (2003). The impact of CSR on sport spectator-based brand equity isessential. It adds value to the brand.

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Future workOur observation protocol could be enlarged. The model has to be confirmed. Theimpact of CSR perceptions on consumers’ purchase behaviour, such as buying entrytickets or merchandising products, has to be tested. We encourage future work inapplying the same research protocol at other clubs, notably outside of France.

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(The Appendix follow over leaf.)

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Appendix

About the authors

Jens Blumrodt is Assistant Professor at the Department of Management and Organization at theESC Rennes School of Business in Brittany (France). He teaches in the area of sport and tourism.He studied sport sciences at the University in Bielefeld (Germany) and holds a Doctorate in

D1: Produt-related brand attributes

D1: �FCL

0.912SRFC0.788

D1: AVE

FCL31.39%

SRFC13.40%

FL (>0.50)SRFC:FA4

0.9370.8450.6650.777

0.9240.9060.7300.936

FCL: FA1FA (1): � FA (1): AVE

FCL25.85%

FCL0.912

SRFC0.788

SRFC7.96%

FCL.+ SRFC O4.14.34.44.34.1

4.13.83.73.84.0

Mean

1 Team and quality of the game2 Team success3 Team lovalty4 Quality of players

FA (2): Management1 Quality of coach2 Management of the club3 Shareholder’s/Presidents involvement

Mean:FCL. +

4.74.44.2

SRFC+4.14.34.0

FCL0.912

SRFC0.788

FA (2): � FA (2): AVE

FCL5.55%

SRFC5.44%

FL (>0.50)FCL: FA6

0.8650.7870.740

SRFC: FA70.5540.7540.708

D2: Non-product-related brand attributes

Mean:

D2: �FCL0.806

SRFC0.812

D2: AVEFCL

27.27%SRFC

29.34%

FCL: FA5 SRFC: FA20.8270.8270.644

0.6840.7930.842

FL (>0.50)FA (3): AVE

FCL SRFC5.80% 8.93%

SRFC0.649

FCL712

FA (3): �FCL O SRFC++3.54.13.9

5.35.05.0

FA (3): StadiumModemity of the stadiumAtmosphere and personalityof the stadiumLocalisation of the stadium

FA (4): History and traditionClub has a long historyClubs history is a success story

FA (5): EntertainmentThe giant screen contributeto entertainmentPompom girlsSpeakerPA. system

FA (6): Other servicesFriendliness of the serversServices efficiencyQuality of catering

D3: Brand benefits

D3=FA (7): Brand benefitsEscapeEmotion linked to the gamePeer group acceptance

D4: CSR

D4=FA (8): CSREngagement within the regionClub’s transparencyand honestySocial responsibility andengagementInstruction of young playersSecurity

Mean:FCL +

–4.4

SRFC +4.83.8

FA (4): �FCL

–SRFC0.634

FCL–

FA (4): AVE

SRFC4.55%

FL (>0.50)

FCL:- 0.9870.768

SRFC: FA8

Mean:FCL -

–2.83.53.3

SRFC-2.6–

3.93.2

FCL0.623

FA (5): � FA (5): AVESRFC0.744

FCL4.44%

SRFC7.50%

FL (>0.50)FCL: FA7

–0.7660.8760.825

SRFC: FA50.784

–0.5760.625

Mean:FCL + SRFC-

4.54.24.2

2.22.32.5

FCL0.911

SRFC0.768

FCL17.03%

SRFC8.36% 0.902

0.9140.924

0.8710.8460.625

FCL: FA2 SRFC: FA3FL (>0.50)FA (6): � FA (6): AVE

D3: �

D4: �

D1: AVE

D4: AVE

FCL SRFC0.644 0.647

Mean:FCL + SRFC +4.54.64.6

5.04.84.8

FCL9.59%

SRFC7.45%

FCL: FA4 SRFC: FA6

FL (>0.50)

0.8780.8340.719

0.7330.7810.887

FCL0.912

SRFC0.789

FCL16.02%

SRFC18.20%

FCL:FA3 SRFC:FA1

Mean:FCL +

4.84.44.6–

4.8

SRFC++4.44.24.55.65.2

FL (>0.50)

0.9610.9130.896

–0.936

0.8250.7650.7870.7550.723

FA (1): Game-team;success; players

Figure A1.

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Sociology from the University of Rennes 2 Brittany (France). He is the programme manager ofthe MSc in Sports, Leisure and Tourism Management. His recent research is linked to strategicbrand management and CSR issues. He is a researcher at the ESC Research Centre “Centre ofResponsible Business”. He is acting as a consultant for companies in the sport and tourism area.Jens Blumrodt is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: jens.blumrodt@esc-rennes.fr

Michel Desbordes is Full Professor at the University of Paris South 11, Paris (France). Heholds a PhD in Management Sciences from the University Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg (France),1998, and then completed a Habilitation, Management Sciences, at University of Paris-AssasPantheon-Sorbonne, France. He is a specialist in sport marketing (sponsorship, management ofsport events, public policies and sport, methodology and surveys) and is currently both anacademic and a consultant. Michel holds professorships at both the University of Ottawa(Canada) as an Auxiliary Professor and as a Full Professor at the University of Paris South 11,Paris (France). He is also the Editor of the International Journal of Sports Marketing &

Sponsorship.Dominique Bodin is Full Professor at the European University of Brittany (Rennes 2 –

France). He also currently occupies an International Chair in the University Polytechnic ofMadrid (Spain) and manages the laboratory of investigation VIP&S (Violence Policy Identities &Sports). He is Director of three Masters: Master of Sport Management; Master of Security; andInternational Master “Sports and Humanities in Europe” organized jointly with the Universitiesof Lausanne, Madrid and Rennes 2. His teaching area is sociology of sport. His research focuseson the relationship between sports and violence.

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