plate 6 layout - conservancy.umn.edu
1
Prepared and Published with the Support of THE PINE COUNTY BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS, THE PINE COUNTY SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICT, AND THE MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES, DIVISION OF WATERS MINNESOTA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY D.L. Southwick, Director COUNTY ATLAS SERIES ATLAS C-13, PART A Plate 6—Sinkhole Distribution, Depth to Bedrock, and Bedrock Topography GEOLOGIC ATLAS OF PINE COUNTY, MINNESOTA ©2001 by the State of Minnesota, Department of Natural Resources, and the Regents of the University of Minnesota The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity educator and employer INTRODUCTION TO THE BEDROCK TOPOGRAPHIC MAP BEDROCK TOPOGRAPHY By Dale R. Setterholm 2001 GIS compilation and cartography by Joyce Meints Digital base modified from 1990 Census TIGER/Line Files of U.S. Bureau of the Census (source scale 1:100,000); county border files modified from Minnesota Department of Transportation files; digital base annotation by Minnesota Geological Survey. Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, grid zone 15 1983 North American Datum DEPTH TO BEDROCK By Dale R. Setterholm 2001 Digital base modified from 1990 Census TIGER/Line Files of U.S. Bureau of the Census (source scale 1:100,000); county border files modified from Minnesota Department of Transportation files; digital base annotation by Minnesota Geological Survey. Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, grid zone 15 1983 North American Datum SCALE 1:200 000 0 10 MILES 5 5 0 10 15 KILOMETERS 5 5 SCALE 1:200 000 0 10 MILES 5 5 0 10 15 KILOMETERS 5 5 INTRODUCTION TO THE DEPTH-TO-BEDROCK MAP Bedrock in Pine County is mostly covered by glacial sediment that varies in thickness from a few feet to more than 300 feet. The thickness of the glacial sediment is equal to the depth from the land surface to the bedrock surface. To calculate that thickness at any given place in Pine County, the elevation of the bedrock surface was subtracted from the elevation of the land surface. To accomplish this task over the entire county, a grid of bedrock-surface elevations (90-meter cell size) was subtracted from a similar grid of land-surface elevations. The calculation produced a third grid of derived glacial-sediment thicknesses. The grid was supplemented with measured glacial-sediment thicknesses taken from drilling records. Finally, the values of that grid were contoured digitally to produce the map at left, which portrays the depth to bedrock as defined intervals of glacial-sediment thicknesses. As with any map, it is important to note the distribution of available data portrayed on the Data-Base Map (Plate 1) when evaluating the reliability of the derived map. In places, the thickness of glacial sediment changes over short distances, and mapping at this scale (1:200,000) may not provide sufficient detail. The thickest glacial sediment in the county is in areas where the bedrock surface is quite low. These areas are in the central part of the northern border of the county, along the southern boundary of the county, and where channels were cut into the bedrock prior to deposition of the glacial sediment. The thinnest glacial cover is found in a broad northeast-to-southwest band across the center of the county and in areas where present-day rivers and streams have cut into the glacial materials. The most extensive bedrock exposures are along the Kettle River about five miles north and south of Sandstone. Another significant concentration of bedrock outcrops is in the area of Denham in the northwestern part of the county. Most other exposures of bedrock in Pine County are small and widely scattered. LOCATION DIAGRAM MAP EXPLANATION The configuration of the bedrock surface was deter- mined from records of water-well, mineral-exploration, and scientific drilling (including holes drilled for this project), from mapping of bedrock outcrops, and from geophysical investigations. Seismic-refraction surveying was used to find the elevation of the bedrock surface in some areas, and aeromagnetic mapping aided the delineation of channels in the bedrock surface (see the aeromagnetic map of Pine County on Plate 3). The distribution of data as illustrated on the Data-Base Map (Plate 1) should be considered in assessing the reliability of the map at any particular location. The elevation of the bedrock surface in northeastern Pine County exceeds 1250 feet above mean sea level. In places along the southern boundary of the county the bedrock is lower than 650 feet above mean sea level. The total relief on the bedrock surface is more than 600 feet, which is about 100 feet greater than the total relief on the land surface. The shape of the bedrock surface is the end result of depositional processes, displacement (faulting and warping), weathering, and erosion. Faulting may produce areas of weaker rock through which water flows, thereby accelerating weathering and erosion. This relationship is evident where channels on the bedrock surface coincide with the location of faults. Fractures have had a similar effect on bedrock erosion and dissolution. The composition of rock units also has a direct effect on bedrock topography. Rock that is more resistant to ero- sion tends to compose the higher parts of the topography, whereas less resistant rock tends to be located in low areas. For example, the hard metamorphic rock in the northwestern part of Pine County stands relatively high, and the more easily eroded sedimentary rock of the Fond du Lac Forma- tion is relatively lowstanding. Channels in the bedrock surface represent drainage patterns of many different ages. For example, part of the present-day Kettle River flows directly on the surface of the Hinckley Sandstone and occupies a channel cut into that rock. However, this part of the river course is relatively young, and a segment of an older, deeper route can be seen in the bedrock surface a few miles to the east. An even deeper channel is cut into the bedrock north and south of Grindstone Lake. That channel is filled and overlain by glacial sediment and does not affect the course of surface drainage. The narrow and deep flanks of Grindstone Lake are the walls of that bedrock channel. The paths of both modern and buried channels may be largely controlled by fractures in the bedrock. Bedrock topography is also portrayed on the bedrock geology map (Plate 2) using contours rather than color. GIS compilation and cartography by Joyce Meints Depth in feet from the land surface to the bedrock surface Bedrock outcrop 50 or less 50–100 100–150 150–200 200–250 250–300 300–350 MAP EXPLANATION 650 and fewer 650–700 700–750 750–800 800–850 850–900 900–950 950–1000 1000–1050 1050–1100 1100–1150 1150–1200 1200–1250 1250 or more Elevation of the bedrock surface in feet above mean sea level 46 40 52 41 41 61 50 18 39 23 28 26 61 35 70 361 32 30 48 24 35 27 18 61 13 7 7 8 22 5 70 107 11 13 11 35 14 14 23 22 30 32 32 23 21 61 36 61 35 46 46 46 23 20 4 70 18 48 30 31 61 35 40 R. 16 W. R. 18 W. R. 20 W. T. 45 N. T. 44 N. T. 43 N. T. 42 N. T. 41 N. T. 40 N. T. 39 N. T. 38 N. R. 19 W. R. 18 W. R. 17 W. R. 16 W. T. 45 N. T. 44 N. T. 43 N. T. 42 N. T. 41 N. T. 40 N. T. 39 N. T. 38 N. R. 22 W. R. 21 W. R. 20 W. 93°00' 92°45' 92°30' 92°30' 92°45' 93°00' 45°45' 46°00' 46°15' 46°15' 46°00' 45°45' R. 17 W. R. 19 W. R. 21 W. Pine City Hinckley Finlayson Askov Willow River Sturgeon Lake Rock Creek Markville Rutledge Denham Beroun Cloverdale Kingsdale Duquette Henriette Brook Park Cloverton Nickerson Kerrick Bruno Pokegama Lake Rock Lake Cross Lake Cedar Lake Grindstone Lake Bass Lake Elbow Lake Grass Lake Big Pine Lake Little Pine Lake Rhine Lake Miller Lake Fish Lake Indian Lake Wilbur Lake Tamarack Lake Razor Lake Grace Lake Rock Lake Clear Lake Long Lake First Lake McCormick Lake Dago Lake Big Slough Lake Sturgeon Lake Sand Lake Island Lake Oak Lake Pickerel Lake Net Lake Lake Twelve Passenger Lake Stevens Lake Upper Pine Lake Hay Creek Flowage Lake Eleven River Willow River Grindstone River South North River Pine River Creek Mission Creek Bear Sand Creek Fork Crooked Creek Lower Tamarack River Keene McDermott Hay Creek Pokegama Cr. Creek Pokegama Creek Kettle River Slough Hay Creek Little Sand Creek Chain Lakes Wilbur Brook Bangs Kenney Wolf Creek East Fork Crooked Creek Creek Squib Creek Sand Creek Creek Partridge Bear Creek Grindstone Moose Lord's West Creek Thunder Brook Lower Tamarack River Creek East Pokegama Fork Fork Rock Creek Creek Redhorse Snake River Kettle River Snake River River Kettle ST. CROIX RIVER CROIX RIVER ST. CARLTON CO. AITKIN CO. WISCONSIN DOUGLAS CO. BURNETT CO. MINNESOTA WISCONSIN CARLTON CO. KANABEC CO. AITKIN CO. CHISAGO CO. KANABEC CO. ISANTI CO. MINNESOTA 27 Brook Slough River Kettle Sandstone 46 40 52 41 41 61 50 18 39 23 28 26 61 35 70 361 32 30 48 24 35 27 18 61 13 7 7 8 22 5 70 107 11 13 11 35 14 14 23 22 30 32 32 23 21 61 36 61 35 46 46 46 23 20 4 70 18 48 30 31 61 35 40 R. 16 W. R. 18 W. R. 20 W. T. 45 N. T. 44 N. T. 43 N. T. 42 N. T. 41 N. T. 40 N. T. 39 N. T. 38 N. R. 19 W. R. 18 W. R. 17 W. R. 16 W. T. 45 N. T. 44 N. T. 43 N. T. 42 N. T. 41 N. T. 40 N. T. 39 N. T. 38 N. R. 22 W. R. 21 W. R. 20 W. 93°00' 92°45' 92°30' 92°30' 92°45' 93°00' 45°45' 46°00' 46°15' 46°15' 46°00' 45°45' R. 17 W. R. 19 W. R. 21 W. Pine City Hinckley Finlayson Askov Willow River Sturgeon Lake Rock Creek Markville Rutledge Denham Beroun Cloverdale Kingsdale Duquette Henriette Brook Park Cloverton Nickerson Kerrick Bruno Pokegama Lake Rock Lake Cross Lake Cedar Lake Grindstone Lake Bass Lake Elbow Lake Grass Lake Big Pine Lake Little Pine Lake Rhine Lake Miller Lake Fish Lake Indian Lake Wilbur Lake Tamarack Lake Razor Lake Grace Lake Rock Lake Clear Lake Long Lake First Lake McCormick Lake Dago Lake Big Slough Lake Sturgeon Lake Sand Lake Island Lake Oak Lake Pickerel Lake Net Lake Lake Twelve Passenger Lake Stevens Lake Upper Pine Lake Hay Creek Flowage Lake Eleven River Willow River Grindstone River South North River Pine River Creek Mission Creek Bear Sand Creek Fork Crooked Creek Lower Tamarack River Keene McDermott Hay Creek Pokegama Cr. Creek Pokegama Creek Kettle River Slough Hay Creek Little Sand Creek Chain Lakes Wilbur Brook Bangs Kenney Wolf Creek East Fork Crooked Creek Creek Squib Creek Sand Creek Creek Partridge Bear Creek Grindstone Moose Lord's West Creek Thunder Brook Lower Tamarack River Creek East Pokegama Fork Fork Rock Creek Creek Redhorse Snake River Kettle River Snake River River Kettle ST. CROIX RIVER CROIX RIVER ST. CARLTON CO. AITKIN CO. WISCONSIN DOUGLAS CO. BURNETT CO. MINNESOTA WISCONSIN CARLTON CO. KANABEC CO. AITKIN CO. CHISAGO CO. KANABEC CO. ISANTI CO. MINNESOTA 27 Brook Slough River Kettle Sandstone 23 61 23 32 18 30 Bruno Askov Stevens Lake 36 31 31 36 6 6 1 1 1 36 36 31 1 6 BRUNO FLEMING PARTRIDGE Creek Sand Cane Creek Creek Log Drive Sandstone Kettle River 35 T. 43 N. T. 43 N. 46°15' 46°15' R. 20 W. R. 20 W. 92°45' 92°45' R. 19 W. R. 19 W. R. 18 W. R. 18 W. TRACE OF HINCKLEY FAULT FAULT DOUGLAS FAULT U D U D 23 61 23 32 18 30 Bruno Askov Stevens Lake 36 31 31 36 6 6 1 1 1 36 36 31 1 6 BRUNO FLEMING PARTRIDGE Creek Sand Cane Creek Creek Log Drive Sandstone Kettle River 35 T. 43 N. T. 43 N. 46°15' 46°15' R. 20 W. R. 20 W. 92°45' 92°45' R. 19 W. R. 19 W. R. 18 W. R. 18 W. 1100 1050 1050 1000 950 1000 1000 1050 1000 1050 1100 1100 1100 1100 1150 1150 1150 1050 1000 950 mcb mcb mcp mhn mhn mhn HINCKLEY Figure 3. Subsurface profile of the central portion of sinkhole D355, excavated in the city of Askov, north- central Pine County. This sinkhole is medium-sized, bowl-shaped, and has an active drain. The sinkhole is about three times wider than the section shown. SINKHOLE DISTRIBUTION By Beverley L. Shade, E. Calvin Alexander, Jr., Scott C. Alexander Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Minnesota Samuel Martin Pine County Soil and Water Conservation District, Hinckley, Minnesota 2001 INTRODUCTION TO THE SINKHOLE DISTRIBUTION MAPS from it. Southeast of the Hinckley fault, the Hinckley Sandstone is thinner, and the underlying Fond du Lac Formation is closer to the surface. Because of this, the jointing or fracturing of the Hinckley Sandstone may not be as well developed as in the area northwest of the fault, where the sandstone is thicker. Additionally, the Fond du Lac Formation has a higher content of clay and silt that are more likely to clog a developing fracture system. In contrast, the Hinckley Sandstone is composed almost entirely of quartz, and hence, lacks clay or minerals that alter to clay. Sinkholes located immediately northwest of the Hinckley fault appear to drain to wetlands located on the southeast side of the fault, where the landscape is lower and wetter. On the west side of the sinkhole array, the numerous springs shown along the Kettle River are probably fed by water from the sinkholes which has flowed through enlarged joints in the Hinckley Sandstone; however, the connection between the feeder sinkholes and the springs remains to be demonstrated. Two distinct types of springs exist along the Kettle River: those which are clear and those which are rusty orange in color. The clear and orange springs can emerge a few centimeters from each other. The clear springs contain oxygenated water and probably represent shallower, shorter residence-time portions of the flow systems. The orange springs contain water with no oxygen that is enriched in iron; they probably represent deep-flowing, longer residence- time portions of the aquifers. Sinkhole Distribution and Depth to Bedrock Map— The thickness and composition of glacial drift are also important in determining where sinkholes are likely to form. In places where the glacial drift is thin, surface water is able to move relatively quickly into the underlying bedrock. Areas of high transmissivity within the glacial drift, such as sand lenses, gravel lenses, or boulder concentrations, also permit the surface water to move downward rapidly. Thus, areas with thin and highly permeable drift underlain by fractured bedrock are most favorable for sinkhole development. In the area where the sinkholes have been mapped, the glacial drift also contains an abundance of large boulders and slabs of locally-derived Hinckley Sandstone. In many places these are piled on top of one another in a fashion that produces many large openings through which surface water can rapidly move. These scenarios could promote periodic flushing of fine-grained sediment and the development and maintenance of sinkholes. In this way, piles of boulders near joint openings may act as filters that allow fast moving water and its sediment load to pass through at some points, and block passage at others. The process may prevent clay and other fine-grained till transported by water from uniformly clogging the joints. The sinkholes generally lie along a glacial readvancement moraine, but the causal relationship between the moraine and sinkhole distribution is uncertain. Discharge of glacial meltwater off the front of the moraine may have cleared fine-grained sediment from joints in the underlying bedrock, allowing them to act as subsurface conduits over which the sinkholes could form. The movement of surface sediment into the underlying fractures is an ongoing process. Figures 2 and 3—Although the sinkholes in Pine County occur in a variety of shapes and sizes, a common morphology is a sinkhole a few meters in diameter and less than two meters deep that is a concave downward funnel. Figure 2 is a cross section resulting from the excavation of one small funnel sinkhole (MN58:D0144). This sinkhole is located near Log Drive Creek in Banning State Park. The subsurface funnel is larger and deeper than the surface sinkhole. In this funnel, dark, organic-rich topsoil is transported into an underlying open drain. The sinkhole was developed through dark-red till. This excavation did not reach bedrock. A second morphology is a shallow, concave upward, bowl-shaped sinkhole, about 10 meters in diameter and a few meters deep. The morphology may or may not have a smaller diameter drain within the bowl. Figure 3 is a cross section resulting from a backhoe excavation of one of these bowl-shaped sinkholes (MN58:D0355). This sinkhole is located south of the Askov municipal sewage lagoons. Note the change in scales between Figures 2 and 3. In this case, organic topsoil is being transported down through laminated Sinkholes are closed depressions (holes) in the landscape that act as direct conduits for surface water to enter the subsurface. Many sinkholes form when shallowly buried bedrock, through dissolution or mechanical erosion, develops openings of sufficient size to allow surface materials to collapse or be washed downward into the openings. Although sinkholes traditionally occur in areas of a karst landscape underlain by carbonate bedrock, they can also form over quartzite or quartz arenite sandstone (Wray, 1997). In Pine County, the sinkholes have formed above the Hinckley Sandstone. These sinkholes range from less than one meter to more than 100 meters in diameter. Sinkholes present two types of challenges to environmental managers. First, sinkholes represent a direct connection between surface water and ground water, and they bypass the normal cleansing process of flow through the unsaturated zone. Consequently, water from shallow wells near sinkholes commonly shows evidence of surface contaminants. Second, sinkholes raise stability concerns, particularly for water impoundment structures on the land surface near sinkholes. The Superior lobe of the most recent glacial advance produced the current landscape in north-central Pine County. Because a variety of glacial processes can produce closed depressions on the landscape, special effort was made to distinguish glacial features from karst features. Despite this scrutiny, some of the features shown as sinkholes on this map may prove to have other origins. With the assistance of local residents, 245 sinkholes have been mapped in north-central Pine County. This project began as a survey of the sinkholes in Partridge Township, but the study soon expanded northeast into Bruno Township and southwest into Sandstone Township. The full subcrop of the Hinckley Sandstone has not been searched; every sinkhole in the area has not been located, and it is probable that sinkholes may be discovered in other areas of Pine County. The sharp boundary along the southeast side of the sinkhole array appears to be an actual boundary of sinkhole occurrence. The distribution of sinkholes in other directions remains undetermined. Mapping shows that sinkholes tend to form in clusters. One cluster, a single linear array along a northeast-trending ridge east of the Kettle River in Banning State Park, contains almost 20 percent of the 245 mapped sinkholes. This group of sinkholes aligns with Robinson's Ice Cave and adjacent small caves on the west side of the Kettle River, which are thought to have formed by the weathering and erosion of sandstone along fracture sets. The correlation of these caves with the linear array of sinkholes to the northeast provides support for the interpretation of open fractures as significant factors in sinkhole development. The sinkholes in Pine County are believed to have been formed by turbulent surface water sinking through the overburden and transporting fine-grained sediment into an underlying system of open joints in the Hinckley Sandstone, eventually causing the land surface to subside. Once formed, sinkholes that are fed by large surface runoff areas can drain huge volumes of water during spring snowmelt and after heavy rain, at which time large whirlpools form and water can be heard running underground. Several of the sinkholes serve as the terminal sinks of perennial or ephemeral surface streams. The seasonal high water table, particularly in the northeastern part of the array, is in or above some of the sinkholes, and they are drowned during periods of high water (Fig. 1). It is unknown whether the drowned sinkholes continue to accept water during these floods or if they act as springs and intensify local floods. Sinkhole Distribution and Bedrock Geology Map— In outcrops along the Kettle River, the Hinckley Sandstone displays enlarged vertical joints, caves, and horizontal layers with small conduits. If these features persist in the subsurface for some distance away from the valley, they would provide ideal flow paths for the rapid movement of water from the surface into the subsurface, which could induce sinkhole formation. The Hinckley Sandstone underlies all of the mapped sinkholes, and all sinkholes occur northwest of the Hinckley fault. Most sinkholes lie within 5 kilometers of the fault, and none have been mapped more than 8 kilometers Sinkhole Distribution and Bedrock Geology Sinkhole Distribution and Depth to Bedrock 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 MILES 8 KILOMETERS SCALE 1:100 000 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 For map unit descriptions, see Plate 2, Bedrock Geologic Map Contour lines represent equal elevation of the uppermost bedrock surface. mhn Hinckley Sandstone mcb Basalt of the Chengwatana Volcanic Group mcp Porphyritic basalt of the Chengwatana Volcanic Group Bedrock Geology Depth to Bedrock Depth from the land surface to the bedrock surface Less than 50 feet 50–100 feet 100–150 feet 150–200 feet 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 MILES 8 KILOMETERS SCALE 1:100 000 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 laminated lake seds 1 2 2 3 4 4 1. Organic-rich soil 2. Leached organic material 3. Laminated lake sediments 0 1 2 3 seep 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 DEPTH IN METERS 6 6 1 7 No vertical exaggeration EXPLANATION 7. Sandstone boulders Observed ground-water flow path Postulated surface-water flow path 4. Till 5. Till with organic material (inferred) 6. Joints in sandstone bedrock 3 2 7 7 Hinckley Sandstone Hinckley Sandstone S tu dy are a b o u ndary Study a r e a b o u n d a r y 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 METERS LOCATION DIAGRAM lake sediments and underlying dark-red till, into joints in the underlying Hinckley Sandstone. The movement of water follows lenses of till with a higher amount of gravel, which increases their transmissivity. The high transmissivity of these gravel lenses is demonstrated by the presence of ground water flowing through the till and into a bedrock fracture. Small funnels and medium-sized bowls are two common morphologies in Pine County sinkholes. Other sinkhole varieties are discussed further in the accompanying text supplement. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank Terrence Boerboom, Hong Truong, Dick Noyes, Carrie Patterson, the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources at Banning State Park, the Pine County Soil and Water Conservation District, and field assistants Katherine Dalton, Stacy Russo, Jill Leonard, Neal Hines, and Bill Stone. REFERENCE Wray, R.A.L., 1997, A global review of solutional weathering forms on quartz sandstones: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 42, no. 3, p. 137–160. Figure 2. Subsurface profile of sinkhole D144, excavated in Banning State Park, north-central Pine County. This sinkhole is small in size and funnel-shaped. Figure 1. Three sinkholes in section 1, Partridge Township. The sinkholes formed behind a beaver dam (not pictured), and the area floods in the spring. The ponded water then drains through the sinkholes. The pond in the upper left drains into the sinkhole directly in front of it. Photo from May, 1998. Sinkhole Spring Sinkhole Spring 1 2 3 2 4 5 1. Organic-rich soil 2. Till 3. Open drain out of sinkhole 0 2 1 METERS 0 1 1.5 DEPTH IN METERS No vertical exaggeration EXPLANATION 4. Boulders of Hinckley Sandstone 5. Glacial erratic S tudy ar e a bo u n d ary S t u d y ar e a b o u n d ary 4 5 3 4 0.5 1.5 2.5 0.5 3.5
Transcript of plate 6 layout - conservancy.umn.edu
Prepared and Published with the Support of
THE PINE COUNTY BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS, THE PINE COUNTY SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICT,AND THE MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES, DIVISION OF WATERSMINNESOTA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
D.L. Southwick, Director
COUNTY ATLAS SERIESATLAS C-13, PART A
Plate 6—Sinkhole Distribution,Depth to Bedrock, and Bedrock Topography
GEOLOGIC ATLAS OF PINE COUNTY, MINNESOTA
©2001 by the State of Minnesota, Department of NaturalResources, and the Regents of the University of Minnesota
The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity educatorand employer
INTRODUCTION TO THE BEDROCK TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
BEDROCK TOPOGRAPHY
By
Dale R. Setterholm
2001
GIS compilation and cartographyby Joyce Meints
Digital base modified from 1990 Census TIGER/Line Filesof U.S. Bureau of the Census (source scale 1:100,000);county border files modified from Minnesota Department ofTransportation files; digital base annotation by MinnesotaGeological Survey.
Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, grid zone 151983 North American Datum
DEPTH TO BEDROCK
By
Dale R. Setterholm
2001
Digital base modified from 1990 Census TIGER/Line Filesof U.S. Bureau of the Census (source scale 1:100,000);county border files modified from Minnesota Department ofTransportation files; digital base annotation by MinnesotaGeological Survey.
Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, grid zone 151983 North American Datum
SCALE 1:200 0000 10 MILES55
0 10 15 KILOMETERS55
SCALE 1:200 0000 10 MILES55
0 10 15 KILOMETERS55
INTRODUCTION TO THE DEPTH-TO-BEDROCK MAPBedrock in Pine County is mostly covered by glacial sediment that varies in thickness from
a few feet to more than 300 feet. The thickness of the glacial sediment is equal to the depthfrom the land surface to the bedrock surface. To calculate that thickness at any given place inPine County, the elevation of the bedrock surface was subtracted from the elevation of the landsurface. To accomplish this task over the entire county, a grid of bedrock-surface elevations(90-meter cell size) was subtracted from a similar grid of land-surface elevations. The calculationproduced a third grid of derived glacial-sediment thicknesses. The grid was supplemented withmeasured glacial-sediment thicknesses taken from drilling records. Finally, the values of thatgrid were contoured digitally to produce the map at left, which portrays the depth to bedrock asdefined intervals of glacial-sediment thicknesses. As with any map, it is important to note thedistribution of available data portrayed on the Data-Base Map (Plate 1) when evaluating the reliabilityof the derived map. In places, the thickness of glacial sediment changes over short distances,and mapping at this scale (1:200,000) may not provide sufficient detail.
The thickest glacial sediment in the county is in areas where the bedrock surface is quitelow. These areas are in the central part of the northern border of the county, along the southernboundary of the county, and where channels were cut into the bedrock prior to deposition of theglacial sediment. The thinnest glacial cover is found in a broad northeast-to-southwest bandacross the center of the county and in areas where present-day rivers and streams have cut intothe glacial materials. The most extensive bedrock exposures are along the Kettle River aboutfive miles north and south of Sandstone. Another significant concentration of bedrock outcropsis in the area of Denham in the northwestern part of the county. Most other exposures of bedrockin Pine County are small and widely scattered.
LOCATION DIAGRAM
MAP EXPLANATION
The configuration of the bedrock surface was deter-mined from records of water-well, mineral-exploration, andscientific drilling (including holes drilled for this project),from mapping of bedrock outcrops, and from geophysicalinvestigations. Seismic-refraction surveying was used tofind the elevation of the bedrock surface in some areas, andaeromagnetic mapping aided the delineation of channels inthe bedrock surface (see the aeromagnetic map of PineCounty on Plate 3). The distribution of data as illustratedon the Data-Base Map (Plate 1) should be considered inassessing the reliability of the map at any particular location.
The elevation of the bedrock surface in northeasternPine County exceeds 1250 feet above mean sea level. Inplaces along the southern boundary of the county the bedrockis lower than 650 feet above mean sea level. The total reliefon the bedrock surface is more than 600 feet, which is about100 feet greater than the total relief on the land surface.
The shape of the bedrock surface is the end result ofdepositional processes, displacement (faulting and warping),weathering, and erosion. Faulting may produce areas ofweaker rock through which water flows, thereby acceleratingweathering and erosion. This relationship is evident wherechannels on the bedrock surface coincide with the locationof faults. Fractures have had a similar effect on bedrockerosion and dissolution.
The composition of rock units also has a direct effecton bedrock topography. Rock that is more resistant to ero-sion tends to compose the higher parts of the topography,whereas less resistant rock tends to be located in low areas.For example, the hard metamorphic rock in the northwesternpart of Pine County stands relatively high, and the moreeasily eroded sedimentary rock of the Fond du Lac Forma-tion is relatively lowstanding.
Channels in the bedrock surface represent drainagepatterns of many different ages. For example, part of thepresent-day Kettle River flows directly on the surface ofthe Hinckley Sandstone and occupies a channel cut into thatrock. However, this part of the river course is relativelyyoung, and a segment of an older, deeper route can be seenin the bedrock surface a few miles to the east. An evendeeper channel is cut into the bedrock north and south ofGrindstone Lake. That channel is filled and overlain byglacial sediment and does not affect the course of surfacedrainage. The narrow and deep flanks of Grindstone Lakeare the walls of that bedrock channel. The paths of bothmodern and buried channels may be largely controlled byfractures in the bedrock.
Bedrock topography is also portrayed on the bedrockgeology map (Plate 2) using contours rather than color.
GIS compilation and cartographyby Joyce Meints
Depth in feet fromthe land surfaceto the bedrocksurface
Bedrock outcrop
50 or less
50–100
100–150
150–200
200–250
250–300
300–350
MAP EXPLANATION
650 and fewer
650–700
700–750
750–800
800–850
850–900
900–950
950–1000
1000–1050
1050–1100
1100–1150
1150–1200
1200–1250
1250 or more
Elevation of thebedrock surfacein feet abovemean sea level
46
40
52
4141
61
50
18
39
23
28
26
61
35
70
361
32
30
48
24
35
27
18
61
13
7
7
8
22
570
107
11
13
11
35
1414
2322
30
32
3223
21
61
36
61
3546
46
46
23
20
4
70
18 48
30
31
61
35
40
R. 16 W.R. 18 W.R. 20 W.
T. 45 N.
T. 44 N.
T. 43 N.
T. 42 N.
T. 41 N.
T. 40 N.
T. 39 N.
T. 38 N.
R. 19 W.
R. 18 W.
R. 17 W.
R. 16 W.
T. 45 N.
T. 44 N.
T. 43 N.
T. 42 N.
T. 41 N.
T. 40 N.
T. 39 N.
T. 38 N.
R. 22 W. R. 21 W. R. 20 W.93°00'
92°45'
92°30'
92°30'92°45'93°00'
45°45'
46°00'
46°15' 46°15'
46°00'
45°45'
R. 17 W.R. 19 W.R. 21 W.
PineCity
Hinckley
Finlayson
Askov
WillowRiver
SturgeonLake
RockCreek
Markville
Rutledge
Denham
Beroun
Cloverdale
Kingsdale
Duquette
Henriette
BrookPark
Cloverton
Nickerson
Kerrick
Bruno
Pok
egam
aLa
ke
RockLake
Cro
ss
Lake
CedarLake
GrindstoneLake
BassLake
ElbowLake Grass
Lake
Big PineLake
LittlePineLake
RhineLake
MillerLake
FishLake
IndianLake
WilburLake
TamarackLake
RazorLake
GraceLake
RockLake
ClearLake
LongLake
FirstLake
McCormickLake
DagoLake
BigSloughLake
SturgeonLake
SandLake
Island
Lake
OakLa
ke
PickerelLake
NetLake
LakeTwelve
PassengerLake
StevensLake
Upper PineLake
Hay CreekFlowage
LakeEleven
River
Willow
River
GrindstoneRiver
South
North
River
Pine
River
Cre
ek
Mis
sion
Creek
Bear
Sand
Creek
Fork
Crooked
Creek
Low
er
Tam
arac
k
Riv
er
Kee
ne
McD
erm
ott
Hay
Cre
ek
Pok
egam
aC
r.
Creek
Pokegama
Creek
Kettle
Riv
er
Slough
Hay
Cre
ek
Littl
eS
and
Cre
ek
ChainLakes
Wilbur Brook
BangsKenne
y
Wolf
Creek
Eas
tFo
rkC
rook
edC
reek
Creek
Squ
ib
Cre
ek
San
d
Cre
ek
Cre
ek
Par
trid
ge
Bear
Creek
Grindstone
Moo
se
Lord's
West
Creek
Thunder
Bro
ok
Low
er
Tamarac
k
Riv
er
Cre
ek
EastP
okegama
Fork
Fork
Rock
Creek
Cre
ekR
edho
rse
Snake
River
Kettle
River
Snake
River
River
Kettle
ST.
CROIX
RIV
ER
CROIX RIV
ER
ST.
CARLTON CO.
AIT
KIN
CO
.
WIS
CONSIN
DO
UG
LAS
CO
.B
UR
NE
TT
CO
.
MIN
NE
SO
TA
WIS
CO
NS
IN
CARLTON CO.
KA
NA
BE
C C
O.
AIT
KIN
CO
.
CHISAGO CO.
KANABEC CO.
ISANTI CO.
MINNESOTA
27
Brook
SloughR
iver
Kettle
Sandstone
46
40
52
4141
61
50
18
39
23
28
26
61
35
70
361
32
30
48
24
35
27
18
61
13
7
7
8
22
570
107
11
13
11
35
1414
2322
30
32
3223
21
61
36
61
3546
46
46
23
20
4
70
18 48
30
31
61
35
40
R. 16 W.R. 18 W.R. 20 W.
T. 45 N.
T. 44 N.
T. 43 N.
T. 42 N.
T. 41 N.
T. 40 N.
T. 39 N.
T. 38 N.
R. 19 W.
R. 18 W.
R. 17 W.
R. 16 W.
T. 45 N.
T. 44 N.
T. 43 N.
T. 42 N.
T. 41 N.
T. 40 N.
T. 39 N.
T. 38 N.
R. 22 W. R. 21 W. R. 20 W.93°00'
92°45'
92°30'
92°30'92°45'93°00'
45°45'
46°00'
46°15' 46°15'
46°00'
45°45'
R. 17 W.R. 19 W.R. 21 W.
PineCity
Hinckley
Finlayson
Askov
WillowRiver
SturgeonLake
RockCreek
Markville
Rutledge
Denham
Beroun
Cloverdale
Kingsdale
Duquette
Henriette
BrookPark
Cloverton
Nickerson
Kerrick
Bruno
Pok
egam
aLa
ke
RockLake
Cro
ss
Lake
CedarLake
GrindstoneLake
BassLake
ElbowLake Grass
Lake
Big PineLake
LittlePineLake
RhineLake
MillerLake
FishLake
IndianLake
WilburLake
TamarackLake
RazorLake
GraceLake
RockLake
ClearLake
LongLake
FirstLake
McCormickLake
DagoLake
BigSloughLake
SturgeonLake
SandLake
Island
Lake
OakLa
ke
PickerelLake
NetLake
LakeTwelve
PassengerLake
StevensLake
Upper PineLake
Hay CreekFlowage
LakeEleven
River
Willow
River
GrindstoneRiver
South
North
River
Pine
River
Cre
ek
Mis
sion
Creek
Bear
Sand
Creek
Fork
Crooked
Creek
Low
er
Tam
arac
k
Riv
er
Kee
ne
McD
erm
ott
Hay
Cre
ek
Pok
egam
aC
r.
Creek
Pokegama
Creek
Kettle
Riv
erSlou
gh
Hay
Cre
ek
Littl
eS
and
Cre
ek
ChainLakes
Wilbur Brook
BangsKenne
y
Wolf
Creek
Eas
tFo
rkC
rook
edC
reek
Creek
Squ
ib
Cre
ek
San
d
Cre
ek
Cre
ek
Par
trid
ge
Bear
Creek
Grindstone
Moo
se
Lord's
West
Creek
Thunder
Bro
ok
Low
er
Tamarac
k
Riv
er
Cre
ek
EastP
okegama
Fork
Fork
Rock
Creek
Cre
ekR
edho
rse
Snake
River
Kettle
River
Snake
River
River
Kettle
ST.
CROIX
RIV
ER
CROIX RIV
ER
ST.
CARLTON CO.
AIT
KIN
CO
.
WIS
CONSIN
DO
UG
LAS
CO
.B
UR
NE
TT
CO
.
MIN
NE
SO
TA
WIS
CO
NS
IN
CARLTON CO.
KA
NA
BE
C C
O.
AIT
KIN
CO
.
CHISAGO CO.
KANABEC CO.
ISANTI CO.
MINNESOTA
27
Brook
Slough
River
Kettle
Sandstone
23
61
23 32
18
30
Bruno
Askov
StevensLake
3631 3136
6 61 1 1
36 3631
1 6
BRUNO
FLEMING
PARTRIDGE
Creek
San
d
Cane
Creek
Creek
Log
Driv
e
Sandstone
Kettle
River
35
T. 43 N.T. 43 N.
46°15'46°15'
R. 20 W.
R. 20 W.
92°45'
92°45'
R. 19 W.
R. 19 W.
R. 18 W.
R. 18 W.
TRACE OF H
INCKLEY FA
ULT
FAULT
DO
UG
LAS
FAULT
UD
UD23
61
23 32
18
30
Bruno
Askov
StevensLake
3631 3136
6 61 1 1
36 3631
1 6
BRUNO
FLEMING
PARTRIDGE
Creek
San
d
Cane
Creek
Creek
Log
Driv
e
Sandstone
Kettle
River
35
T. 43 N.T. 43 N.
46°15'46°15'
R. 20 W.
R. 20 W.
92°45'
92°45'
R. 19 W.
R. 19 W.
R. 18 W.
R. 18 W.
1100
1050
1050
1000
9501000
1000
1050
1000
1050
1100
1100
1100
1100
1150
1150
1150
1050
1000
950
�mcb
�mcb
�mcp
�mhn
�mhn
�mhn
HINCKLE
Y
Figure 3. Subsurface profile of the central portion of sinkhole D355, excavated in the city of Askov, north-central Pine County. This sinkhole is medium-sized, bowl-shaped, and has an active drain. The sinkhole isabout three times wider than the section shown.
SINKHOLE DISTRIBUTION
By
Beverley L. Shade, E. Calvin Alexander, Jr., Scott C. AlexanderDepartment of Geology and Geophysics, University of Minnesota
Samuel Martin
Pine County Soil and Water Conservation District, Hinckley, Minnesota
2001
INTRODUCTION TO THE SINKHOLE DISTRIBUTION MAPS
from it. Southeast of the Hinckley fault, the HinckleySandstone is thinner, and the underlying Fond du LacFormation is closer to the surface. Because of this, thejointing or fracturing of the Hinckley Sandstone may not beas well developed as in the area northwest of the fault, wherethe sandstone is thicker. Additionally, the Fond du LacFormation has a higher content of clay and silt that aremore likely to clog a developing fracture system. In contrast,the Hinckley Sandstone is composed almost entirely of quartz,and hence, lacks clay or minerals that alter to clay. Sinkholeslocated immediately northwest of the Hinckley fault appearto drain to wetlands located on the southeast side of thefault, where the landscape is lower and wetter.
On the west side of the sinkhole array, the numeroussprings shown along the Kettle River are probably fed bywater from the sinkholes which has flowed through enlargedjoints in the Hinckley Sandstone; however, the connectionbetween the feeder sinkholes and the springs remains to bedemonstrated. Two distinct types of springs exist along theKettle River: those which are clear and those which arerusty orange in color. The clear and orange springs canemerge a few centimeters from each other. The clear springscontain oxygenated water and probably represent shallower,shorter residence-time portions of the flow systems. Theorange springs contain water with no oxygen that is enrichedin iron; they probably represent deep-flowing, longer residence-time portions of the aquifers.
Sinkhole Distribution and Depth to Bedrock Map—The thickness and composition of glacial drift are alsoimportant in determining where sinkholes are likely to form.In places where the glacial drift is thin, surface water isable to move relatively quickly into the underlying bedrock.Areas of high transmissivity within the glacial drift, such assand lenses, gravel lenses, or boulder concentrations, alsopermit the surface water to move downward rapidly. Thus,areas with thin and highly permeable drift underlain byfractured bedrock are most favorable for sinkhole development.In the area where the sinkholes have been mapped, the glacialdrift also contains an abundance of large boulders and slabsof locally-derived Hinckley Sandstone. In many places theseare piled on top of one another in a fashion that producesmany large openings through which surface water can rapidlymove. These scenarios could promote periodic flushing offine-grained sediment and the development and maintenanceof sinkholes. In this way, piles of boulders near joint openingsmay act as filters that allow fast moving water and its sedimentload to pass through at some points, and block passage atothers. The process may prevent clay and other fine-grainedtill transported by water from uniformly clogging the joints.
The sinkholes generally lie along a glacial readvancementmoraine, but the causal relationship between the moraineand sinkhole distribution is uncertain. Discharge of glacialmeltwater off the front of the moraine may have clearedfine-grained sediment from joints in the underlying bedrock,allowing them to act as subsurface conduits over which thesinkholes could form. The movement of surface sedimentinto the underlying fractures is an ongoing process.
Figures 2 and 3—Although the sinkholes in Pine Countyoccur in a variety of shapes and sizes, a common morphologyis a sinkhole a few meters in diameter and less than twometers deep that is a concave downward funnel. Figure 2 isa cross section resulting from the excavation of one smallfunnel sinkhole (MN58:D0144). This sinkhole is locatednear Log Drive Creek in Banning State Park. The subsurfacefunnel is larger and deeper than the surface sinkhole. Inthis funnel, dark, organic-rich topsoil is transported into anunderlying open drain. The sinkhole was developed throughdark-red till. This excavation did not reach bedrock.
A second morphology is a shallow, concave upward,bowl-shaped sinkhole, about 10 meters in diameter and afew meters deep. The morphology may or may not have asmaller diameter drain within the bowl. Figure 3 is a crosssection resulting from a backhoe excavation of one of thesebowl-shaped sinkholes (MN58:D0355). This sinkhole islocated south of the Askov municipal sewage lagoons. Notethe change in scales between Figures 2 and 3. In this case,organic topsoil is being transported down through laminated
Sinkholes are closed depressions (holes) in the landscapethat act as direct conduits for surface water to enter thesubsurface. Many sinkholes form when shallowly buriedbedrock, through dissolution or mechanical erosion, developsopenings of sufficient size to allow surface materials to collapseor be washed downward into the openings. Although sinkholestraditionally occur in areas of a karst landscape underlainby carbonate bedrock, they can also form over quartzite orquartz arenite sandstone (Wray, 1997). In Pine County, thesinkholes have formed above the Hinckley Sandstone. Thesesinkholes range from less than one meter to more than 100meters in diameter.
Sinkholes present two types of challenges toenvironmental managers. First, sinkholes represent a directconnection between surface water and ground water, andthey bypass the normal cleansing process of flow throughthe unsaturated zone. Consequently, water from shallowwells near sinkholes commonly shows evidence of surfacecontaminants. Second, sinkholes raise stability concerns,particularly for water impoundment structures on the landsurface near sinkholes.
The Superior lobe of the most recent glacial advanceproduced the current landscape in north-central Pine County.Because a variety of glacial processes can produce closeddepressions on the landscape, special effort was made todistinguish glacial features from karst features. Despite thisscrutiny, some of the features shown as sinkholes on thismap may prove to have other origins.
With the assistance of local residents, 245 sinkholeshave been mapped in north-central Pine County. This projectbegan as a survey of the sinkholes in Partridge Township,but the study soon expanded northeast into Bruno Townshipand southwest into Sandstone Township. The full subcropof the Hinckley Sandstone has not been searched; everysinkhole in the area has not been located, and it is probablethat sinkholes may be discovered in other areas of PineCounty. The sharp boundary along the southeast side of thesinkhole array appears to be an actual boundary of sinkholeoccurrence. The distribution of sinkholes in other directionsremains undetermined. Mapping shows that sinkholes tendto form in clusters. One cluster, a single linear array alonga northeast-trending ridge east of the Kettle River in BanningState Park, contains almost 20 percent of the 245 mappedsinkholes. This group of sinkholes aligns with Robinson'sIce Cave and adjacent small caves on the west side of theKettle River, which are thought to have formed by theweathering and erosion of sandstone along fracture sets. Thecorrelation of these caves with the linear array of sinkholesto the northeast provides support for the interpretation ofopen fractures as significant factors in sinkhole development.
The sinkholes in Pine County are believed to have beenformed by turbulent surface water sinking through theoverburden and transporting fine-grained sediment into anunderlying system of open joints in the Hinckley Sandstone,eventually causing the land surface to subside. Once formed,sinkholes that are fed by large surface runoff areas can drainhuge volumes of water during spring snowmelt and afterheavy rain, at which time large whirlpools form and watercan be heard running underground. Several of the sinkholesserve as the terminal sinks of perennial or ephemeral surfacestreams. The seasonal high water table, particularly in thenortheastern part of the array, is in or above some of thesinkholes, and they are drowned during periods of high water(Fig. 1). It is unknown whether the drowned sinkholescontinue to accept water during these floods or if they act assprings and intensify local floods.
Sinkhole Distribution and Bedrock Geology Map—In outcrops along the Kettle River, the Hinckley Sandstonedisplays enlarged vertical joints, caves, and horizontal layerswith small conduits. If these features persist in the subsurfacefor some distance away from the valley, they would provideideal flow paths for the rapid movement of water from thesurface into the subsurface, which could induce sinkholeformation. The Hinckley Sandstone underlies all of themapped sinkholes, and all sinkholes occur northwest of theHinckley fault. Most sinkholes lie within 5 kilometers ofthe fault, and none have been mapped more than 8 kilometers
Sinkhole Distribution andBedrock Geology
Sinkhole Distribution and Depth to Bedrock
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 MILES
8 KILOMETERS
SCALE 1:100 000
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
For map unit descriptions, see Plate 2,Bedrock Geologic Map
Contour lines represent equal elevationof the uppermost bedrock surface.
�mhn Hinckley Sandstone
�mcb Basalt of the Chengwatana Volcanic Group
�mcp Porphyritic basalt of the ChengwatanaVolcanic Group
Bedrock Geology Depth to Bedrock
Depth from theland surface to thebedrock surface
Less than 50 feet
50–100 feet
100–150 feet
150–200 feet
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 MILES
8 KILOMETERS
SCALE 1:100 000
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
laminated lake seds1
2
2
3
4
4
1. Organic-rich soil2. Leached organic material3. Laminated lake sediments
0 1 2 3
seep 5
0
1
2
3
4
5
DE
PT
H IN
ME
TE
RS
6 6
1
7
No vertical exaggeration
EXPLANATION
7. Sandstone boulders Observed ground-water flow path Postulated surface-water flow path
4. Till5. Till with organic material (inferred)6. Joints in sandstone bedrock
3
2
77
Hinckley SandstoneHinckley Sandstone
Studyarea
boundaryStudy ar e
abo
unda
ry
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
METERS
LOCATION DIAGRAM
lake sediments and underlying dark-red till, into joints inthe underlying Hinckley Sandstone. The movement of waterfollows lenses of till with a higher amount of gravel, whichincreases their transmissivity. The high transmissivity ofthese gravel lenses is demonstrated by the presence of groundwater flowing through the till and into a bedrock fracture.
Small funnels and medium-sized bowls are two commonmorphologies in Pine County sinkholes. Other sinkholevarieties are discussed further in the accompanying textsupplement.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe authors thank Terrence Boerboom, Hong Truong,
Dick Noyes, Carrie Patterson, the Minnesota Department ofNatural Resources at Banning State Park, the Pine CountySoil and Water Conservation District, and field assistantsKatherine Dalton, Stacy Russo, Jill Leonard, Neal Hines,and Bill Stone.
REFERENCEWray, R.A.L., 1997, A global review of solutional weathering
forms on quartz sandstones: Earth-Science Reviews, v.42, no. 3, p. 137–160.
Figure 2. Subsurface profile of sinkhole D144, excavated in Banning State Park, north-central Pine County.This sinkhole is small in size and funnel-shaped.
Figure 1. Three sinkholes in section 1, Partridge Township. The sinkholesformed behind a beaver dam (not pictured), and the area floods in the spring.The ponded water then drains through the sinkholes. The pond in the upperleft drains into the sinkhole directly in front of it. Photo from May, 1998.
Sinkhole
Spring
Sinkhole
Spring
1
2
3
2
4
5
1. Organic-rich soil2. Till3. Open drain out of sinkhole
0 21METERS
0
1
1.5
DE
PT
H IN
ME
TE
RS
No vertical exaggeration
EXPLANATION
4. Boulders of Hinckley Sandstone5. Glacial erratic
Study area boundary
Stu
dyar
ea
boun
dary
4
5
3 4
0.5
1.5 2.50.5 3.5
