Personality and Communication Media? Meta-analysis Towards the Relationship between Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience with Email Usage1

By:

Neila Ramdhani2

Abstract As communication technologies such as e-mail have becoming indispensable for business communication, the study of the use and effects of technologies is increasingly relevant. This study is aimed at analyzing the correlation between personality traits and the choice of communication media. Research data from 22 studies published in the journals and the articles posted in the internet in the years of 1999 – 2006 were analyzed using meta analysis technique. The total of 4267 participants were involved in the research. Analysis was focused only on the correlation between three personality traits: extraversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, and the use of email. Two statistical technique error corrections were applied in analyzing the data, namely sampling error correction and measurement error correction. It was found that after sampling error correction was calculated the correlation between extraversion and email usage was (ř ) = 0,33. Further, when measurement error was also calculated, the correlation between those two variables increased to (ρ) = 0,38.

When sampling error corection was applied, the correlation between neuroticism and email usage was (ř ) = 0,13. Similar to extraversion when measurement error was corrected, the correlation between these two variables increased to (ρ) = 0,14. The correlation between openness to experience with email usage was (ř ) = 0,30 when sampling error correction was calculated. Further when the measurement error correction was applied the coeficient correlation was increased to (ρ) = 0,33. These findings indicated that personality traits correlate with email usage.

A. Introduction The utilization of Information Communication Technology (ICT) as a means of communication has increased in various aspects of life. ICT allows every person to communicate with other people through the internet even where locations are distant to one another. Several facilities are offered by the internet to its users. Apart from browsing, the internet allows people to send electronic correspondence (email). By using the email a written message could be sent beyond the limitations of time and space. Although this method is not as complete as face to face communication, where verbal and nonverbal communication takes place, however the presence of the email has been sufficient enough to deliver messages in high speed.

1Published in printed version by Jurnal Psikologi, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 112-129, December 2007.

Corespondence concerning this articles should be addressed to Neila Ramdhani, Department of Clinical Psychology, Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta Indonesia. Email: neila_psi@ugm.ac.id 2Teaching staff of Faculty of Psychology and Magister of Management at Gadjah Mada University,

Indonesia.

Although internet facilities have already been provided and its access have been broadened, however not everybody takes advantage of this technology. This fact led researchers to discover why this occurs. According to Lewin (1951), the emergence of a behavior is caused by two factors. The first factor is within the person, for instance personality traits, values and physical conditions. The second factor is the things beyond the person, including all of the things surrounding the individual for instance, tools, weather, and surrounding people. Lewin mathematically formulated his theory into an equation B = f (O,E). B refers to Behavior (using the internet to email); f (function); O (Organism, referring to the things within a person e.g. personality traits, values and physical conditions); E refers to the environment or everything beyond the individual (internet facilities, social contact, encouragement from others to use the internet etc). Both of these internal and external factors influence one another. If we relate Lewin’s formulation with behaviors of email usage, thus we could suggest that one of the factors that influence email usage is the individual factor (personality traits). As for the external factors, this could refer to social contact, the rich display of communications media, availability of internet facilities and ease of internet use to send emails. Fulk, Schmitz and Steinfeld (1990) studied individual factors of email users through a social influence theory approach. Fulk et al suggested that choosing a media is not merely influenced by the characteristics of the media but also characteristics of the individual and the social context referring to whom an individual interacts with. Individual characteristics include personality (Minsky and Marin, 1999), perception (Davis, 1989; Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1989), and experience (Carlson and Zmud, 1999). As for the external factors that influence choice of media (using email or other methods), this has been largely discussed by experts. One of the external factors influencing internet usage is other people, which are considered a part of social contact. Social context refers to working colleagues (Minksy and Marin, 1999), superiors, and other people within the social network that have great behavioral influences in choosing the communication media (Fulk, 1993; Markus, 1994; Walther, 1996). Apart from social contact factors, superior methods to communicate in delivering a message also influence the choice of communications media. There are two communication theories that have been largely used to discuss ICT usage as a means of communication, the first theory, Social Presence Theory (Short, Williams and Christie, 1976) and the second, Media Richness Theory (Daft and Lengel, 1984; Trevino, Lengel and Daft, 1987. Social Presence Theory (SPT) focuses on the media’s ability to accommodate an individual’s social presence. This social presence does not merely consist of physical presence but also emotional expressions to indicate increasingly meaningful communication. Good communication gives a sense of presence to the agents of communication. Media Richness Theory (MRT) analyzes communications media based on the media’s ability to deliver information (Trevino et al, 1987). MRT according to Sitkin, Sutcliffe, and Barrios-Choplin (in Minsky and Marin, 1999) proposes two components, the ability to deliver information and the ability to deliver information

concerning the individual. This implies that this MRT approach focuses on feedback, non verbal cues, maintaining the totality of the message, and displaying emotional expressions. Based on the criteria above, SPT and MRT positions face to face communication as the most enriched form of communication, followed by video conferencing, synchronous audio (telephone), text based chat, asynchronous audio/ email, and threaded discussion. On the earlier developments of usage of computer based communications, both of those theories have been widely used to study human communication behavior (Short, Williams, and Christie, 1976); Daft and Lengel, 1984; Trevino, Lengel and Daft, 1987), however these theories do not cover the reasons a person uses the email as a means of communication. Based on the fact that email usage is increasing from time to time3, thus it is important to carry out studies analyzing the personality factors that influence email usage. B. Research Objectives The correlation between personality with its various dimensions and email usage has been studied and published in several scientific journals. The author implements meta-analysis towards the correlation patterns between those two variables. 16 articles, either results from published scientific journals or thesis/ dissertation published through the internet from 1999 until 2006 was analyzed in this study. The objective is to see whether the personality variable, if summed up into one will display consistency and could be used as a basis to answer the question of whether personality determines a person’s choice of communication media. C. Email and Various Characteristics Email was earlier used only for office purposes. In line with the increasing purchase of computer for home purposes and the easier access to the internet, the emails use was then beyond business communication or office purpose and has developed to cover interpersonal communication (McKenna and Bargh, 2000; Hampton and Wellman, 2001; Minsky and Marin, 1999). The increasing use of email in everyday life cannot be separated from the characteristics of email itself:

1. Email is able to create a community without a geographical basis (Williams, Strover, and Grant, 1994). Email could be written and read everywhere so that a person does not have to be in a certain location to communicate.

2. The message could be short or long. Additional documents could be attached.

3. Archive. Already read emails could be saved for archive purposes and could be reopened if needed.

3 Jupiter Media Metrix, a technology based research institute in U.S., reported that the increasing number of

email users is 138% from 505 million in 2000 (Ongo, in http://www.bjconsulting.com). The total is

relevant to survey data reported by Internet World Statistic on the 19th

of March 2007

http://www.internetworldstats.com that the number of internet users around the world (assuming that

internet users also use the email) total 1.114.274.426, with a penetration of 16,9% per annum.

4. Destination: Message could be sent to one person (private email), but could also be sent to groups (group mail) increasing, time, printing, and delivery cost efficiency.

5. Expression: Because email is in the form of written message, the message does not contain non verbal cues although email technology has included smiley icons which are expected to display emotional cues. This may become an advantage of using email as it allows a person to express their ideas and feelings without being known by anyone else. On the other hand, this absence of emotional cues may lead to misperceptions between the sender and receiver.

6. Asynchronous, in other words the process does not occur in one moment, so it is possible to have space between the moment of delivery and receiving the reply.

7. Anonymity, the social status, emotional life and personal identity of the sender is anonymous to the receiver.

8. Polychronocity. Email users may send their emails while communicating with other people, for instance answering telephones or having conversations with others.

9. Dialogue. When replying, the sender could display the previous email to quote from. Munter, Rogers, and Rymer (2003) stated that this becomes the advantage of email compared to written letter because it could give an impression that a dialogue is occurring between two people. Blackman and Clevenger (in Sullivan, 1995) stated that people like using emails because it allows them to attach their communication activities to have virtual dialogues. El-Shinnaway and Markus (1992) stated that this particular advantage is

what led people to prefer the email even though according to media richness theory, the voice mail is richer. This study focuses of email usage in a wider coverage. Considering that internal conditions are more difficult to perceive compared to interpersonal behaviors, a number of researchers describe that the variables of email usage is not merely caused by preferences of communications media (Minsky and Marin, 1999; Amiel, 2002; Birnie and Hovarth, 2002; Emmons, 2003; Hamburger and Artizi, 2003) but also the total messages sent, the total words and length of message (Maldonado, Mora, Barcia, and Edipo, 2001), involvement in collaboration through the internet (Brown, 2004; Mukahi and Corbitt, 2004), and the desire to build more intensive interpersonal relationships through the internet (Mount, Barrick, and Stewart, 1998; Birnie and Hovarth, 2002; Mckenna, Green, and Gleason, 2002). D. Personality: Does it Really Determine Choice of Media? Personality is a dynamic and organized characteristic of an individual affecting their cognition, motivation, and their behavior. Personality is unique and consistent allowing it to be used to distinguish one individual to another (Greenberg, 2003; Ryckman, 2004). This uniqueness is frequently used to describe an individual and how they differ from others. Why do some people

perform certain behaviors while others don’t? Why do some people frequently use the internet while other people don’t? Extraversion and Neuroticism are the traits that become the focus of discussion in personality theory. Eysenck’s Three Factors Model (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1991) and Five Factors Model developed by Costa and Mcrae (Costa and Mcrae, 1992) mentioned both of these traits as central to personality dimensions located in two different conflicting poles. Among these two traits, Eysenck includes psychoticism, while Costa and Mcrae inserts Conscientiousness, Agreeableness and Openness. Extraversion is strongly related with social interaction and socialization capacities. Extraverted individuals, when interacting with others are likely to easily build social relationships, take the opportunity to meet others, easy going and optimist. Vice versa, introverts are described as silent, likely to withdraw from social interaction, careful in taking action, likely to make relatively detailed planning, and dislikes expressing emotion (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1991). Neuroticism is generally related to the inner emotions of an individual. High levels of neuroticism are considered as anxious, afraid, lacking in ability to control emotion and frequently considered as depressive individuals. Individuals with low levels of neuroticism display characteristics of calm, less temperamental, and uneasily anxious (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1991). In relation to personality traits and the characteristics of email, personality is considered to influence the choice of the means of communication. Although extraversion and neuroticism are the dimensions dominant in explaining email usage (Maldonado, et al., 2001; Amiel, 2002; Hamburger and Artizi, 2003; Witt and Burke, 2003, Mukahi and Corbitt, 2004), some researchers related other personality dimensions in explaining email usage. Some of personality variables previously studied include self efficacy (Eastin and La Rose, 2000), loneliness (Hamburger and Artizi, 2003; Engelberg and Sjoberg, 2004), emotional intelligence (Engelberg and Sjoberg, 2004), shyness and sociability (Birnie and Hovart, 2002; Mckenna, Green, and Gleason, 2002). For the interests of the analysis, the Big Five theoretical framework will be used to classify the variables into dimensions, including extraversion, neuroticism, and openness to experience. The classification was made based on the definitions of each variable. Should a variable originate from one dimension or in other words have high correlation, than one of the variables would be included in the study. E. Hypothesis

1. There is a correlation between extraversion and email usage. 2. There is a correlation between neuroticism and email usage. 3. There is a correlation between openness to experience with email usage.

F. Research Procedure 1. Methods of Data Collection

Lipsey and Wilson (2001) explained that meta-analysis is a survey method conducted towards several data, as results of previous research. Meta-analysis

aims at concluding, integrating, and interpreting data gathered from previous research. Therefore, apart from acting as primary research, the data to be analyzed through this method must have the same constructs and correlation patterns so that it could be compared with one another. Correlation Meta-analysis is a description of the correlation distributions reported from various research results concerning the correlation between the independent variable with the dependent variable (Hunter and Schmidt, 1990). This study is aimed at discovering whether previous research concerning correlation between personality and email usage could be used as predictors of those two variables. Several studies concerning personality related with email usage have used different dimensions. Thus before initiating data collection, the variables of the research must be defined. This study is aimed at testing the correlation between personality and email usage. The personality variable will be tested in this study with unique and consistent individual characteristics allowing to distinguish one individual with another, for instance extravert/introvert, neuroticism, emotional stability, emotional intelligence, openness to experience, agreeableness, psychoticsm, self efficacy, loneliness, shyness and sociability. The variable of email usage consist of the behaviors of using email for instance the time length to receive and write emails, total and length of sent email messages, preference of email use over other means of communication, and desire to use the email as a means of communication reflected by the willingness to join trainings and involvement in collaborations tasks using computers. Because this study aims at making an analysis using a quantitative meta-analysis approach, thus the research documents must include the following:

a. Total number of subjects (N) b. One of the correlation values (r), F or t c. If point b was not present, the document must include mean scores (M)

and standard deviations (SD) Based on the conditions above, data collection is conducted from several

journals downloaded from INFOTRAC, EBSCO, PROQUEST, ERIC, Thesis and Dissertations from the Networked Digital Library on Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD). The key words to access the journals vary, for instance computer mediated communication (CMC), email, internet, ICT, and other words related to personality for instance personality, extraversion, Big Five, MBTI, introvert, shy, and loneliness. These stages of implementation gathered a number of 16 documents (Table 1).

Tabel I. A number of Studies concerning the Correlation between

Personality and CMC usage

2. Data Analysis Methods Analysis of the research data is conducted through 5 stages:

a. Data Management. The numerous research results concerning the correlation between personality and email usage does not only test one personality dimension, thus coding of the data is required.

b. Coding is conducted by classifying the data of the personality variables. In this study the personality dimensions will be classified into 5 dimensions using the Big Five personality theory (Costa and McCrae, 1991) as reference. Coding is done based on the definition similarities or consistent correlations as previously reported in the research results.

c. For data using the values of F, t or d thus this must be converted earlier into r to be able to compare the data

d. Sampling error correction and measurement error correction G. Results of Data Analysis Analysis of the data displayed in table 1 result in data that fulfill the conditions to conduct meta-analysis (table 2).

Table 2. Research Data Tabulation fulfilling the conditions for analysis

Twenty two data concerning personality and email usage has been gathered by 16 research results (table 2), 11 of the studies tested the extraversion variable, 6 studies tested the openness to experience variable, 5 studies tested for neuroticism, 2 for conscientiousness, and one for agreeableness. Considering the availability of data, this study will only test 3 personality dimensions, extraversion, openness to experience and neuroticism. 1. Correlation of Extraversion with Email usage Extraversion is the personality dimension most frequently used to relate to email usage (Engelberg and Sjoberg, 2004; Mukahi and Corbitt, 2004; Hamburger, 2005; and Hertel, 2006). With its characteristic to likely make friends, sociable, likes to seek for stimulus external to themselves, extravert individuals are assumed to prefer using email in communicating. The presence of email gives the wider opportunity for extravert individuals to develop relationships with other people. Eleven studies concerning the correlation between extraversion and email usage published from 1999 – 2006 involved 2067 subjects. Correlation coefficients of r ranged from 0,01 – 0,47. Coefficients r = 0,01 was reported by Witt and Burke (2003) conducting studies on workers in a IT company, as for the highest r coefficients (r = 0,47) was reported by Emmons (2003) testing the correlation between personality and email usage among the general public. The varied research results, raises the question on the correlation patterns between extraversion in email usage. Two corrections were made on the data, sampling corrections and measurement corrections. Sampling error is the artifact that largely distorts research results. Hunter and Schmidt (1990) stated that this

sampling error results in unstructured implications and is largely caused by the size of the sample. Therefore corrections on sampling error is very important to be conducted to research data related to similar variables to obtain correlation patterns that are consistent with the tested variables. Corrections towards sampling errors in this research were conducted on the data displayed in table 3.

Table 3. Data to calculate correction artifacts of sampling error to test the correlation of extraversion with email usage

Based on the data above, it is estimated that the mean correlation for the

research population is ř= 0.33 (σ2r=0.13), while the variance caused by sampling

error is: σ2e= 0.004 (SD=0.123). If this is further analyzed, the estimated correlation is

within the confidence rate of 95% (-0,36 ≤ř ≤ 0,34), meaning that the sample is representative. Only 3,34% of the correlation variance was caused by sampling errors, while 96,66% was caused by other unspecified artifacts. The other artifact needing to be corrected in conducting meta-analysis is the correction on measurement (Hunter and Schmidt, 1990). To conduct corrections on measurement, a reliability coefficient is required from the instrument used to measure the research variables (Table 4).

Table 4. Data to calculate measurement corrections to test correlations of extraversion with email usage

After conducting measurement corrections, the estimated mean

correlation for the population is 0.009 (var ρ=0.00003;SD=0,0056). If the confidence rate was 95% then the confidence interval would range from -0.0025≤ ρ ≤0.020, in other words the measurement errors are still within the range of confidence (Calculation of correction on measurement for the extraversion variable and email usage is displayed in attachment I). This analysis leads to the conclusion that there is a correlation between extraversion and email usage. 2. Correlation between Neuroticism with Email Usage Besides extraversion, neuroticism is also frequently correlated with IT usage. Kraut et al (1998) suggested that internet could influence a person’s behavior. The more a person uses the internet, the more neurotic they become. This assumption led Hamburger and Artzi (2003) to conduct research to test the model of causal relations between internet use and neurotic personalities. Hamburger and Artzi’s study reported that the internet does not cause neuroticism, however neurotic personality that avoid face to face social contact drives these people to use the internet, especially for socialization purposes. Moreover Hamburger and Artizi argued that there is no specific pattern for using the internet, because every person, either extravert or neurotic will use it based on different purposes. If an extravert uses the email for expanding social

networks, including using email, neurotics prefer to use IT for solitary activities, for instance browsing information and reading news (Maldonado, 2001). Table 5. Data to calculate sampling errors to test correlation between neuroticism

and email usage

The varying research results concerning the correlation between neuroticism and email usage gives a strong reason to conduct meta-analysis. As with the case with extraversion, the correlation between neuroticism and email usage will be corrected for sampling errors and measurement errors. Based on the data gathered from table 5, mean correlation on the

research population was ř= 0.129 (σ2r=0.028), as for the variance which was caused

by the sampling error: σ2e= 0.01 (SD=0.017). Further analysis indicate that

correlation estimates are within the confidence rate of 95% (-0,130≤ ř ≤ 0,145), in other words we could conclude that by conducting sampling corrections, there is a correlation between neuroticism with email usage. As large as 38,17% of the correlation variance was caused by sampling errors, while 61,83% was caused by other unspecified artifacts. Other artifacts that need correction are measurement errors. Measurement errors reduce the correlation coefficient gathered from research data (Hunter and Schmidt, 1990). To conduct corrections on measurement, a reliability coefficient is required from the instrument used to measure the research variables. The table summarizing data in correcting the measurement errors is displayed in table 6.

Table 6. Data to calculate measurement corrections to test neuroticism with email usage

The results of the calculation on the measurement errors ρ = 0.0236 (var

ρ=0.00003;SD=0,0056), if the confidence rate was 95% then the confidence interval

would range 0.001 ≤ ρ ≤ 0.03 making the measurement errors still within the range of confidence. Therefore it could be concluded that there is a correlation between neuroticism and email usage (the complete calculation is displayed in attachment II). 3. Correlation between Openness to Experience with Email Usage The openness to experience personality dimension is related with intellectual capacity, interests to novelty, innovativeness, and openness to new experiences (Srivastava, 2006). An open individual has the desire and the belief that he/ she is able to complete the tasks that they deal with. Email as a computer based technology system proved ease for individuals to communicate. However, not everyone that has access to this technology uses it as a means of communication. A person’s belief that they do not have the capacity to use the

email (computer efficacy) is one of the reasons for a person’s reluctance in using the email. Self efficacy is one of the indicators of openness to experience, making open individuals able to use the email without any difficulties. Eastin and La Rose (2000) suggested that self efficacy positively correlated with email usage (r =0,63; p<0,01). Similar results were reported by Thatcher (r = 0,185; p<0,01). Other individual characteristics frequently related to technology acceptance are openness to accept innovation (Minsky and Marin, 1999)and perceived ease of use of email (Davis, 1989; Davis and Bagozzi, 1989).

Table 7. Data to calculate correction to sampling errors to test correlation with Openness to Experience with Email usage

The next test is to discover the consistency of the correlation between openness to experience with email usage. Six research results (table 7) reported correlation range between openness to experience with email usage moving from r = 0,139 (Lomax, NA) to 0,63 (Eastin and La Rose, 2000). Corrections on sampling and measurement error will be conducted on the correlation of both these variables. Based on the data gathered in table 7, estimated mean correlation for the

research population was ř= 0.302 (σ2r=0.093), while variance caused by sampling

error: σ2e= 0.003 (SD=0.09). Further analysis indicate that correlation estimates are

within a confidence rate of 95% (-0,286 ≤ r ≤ 0,308), making it possible to conclude that the sampling is representative and that the correlation was significant. Only 3,09% of the correlation variance was caused by sampling errors, while 96,91% is caused by other unspecified artifacts.

Based on measurement corrections, analysis towards the data revealed ρ

= 0.06 (var ρ=-0.00;SD=0,00). If the confidence rate was 95% thus the confidence interval ranged from 0.04≤ ρ ≤0.07 therefore the mean correlation remains within the confidence range. Therefore it could be concluded that there is a correlation between openness to experience with email usage (the calculations are displayed in attachment III). H. Discussion Analysis towards the data gathered from various research results provides integrated description of the correlation between personality dimensions of extraversion, neuroticism, and openness to experience with email usage. Extraversion, neuroticism, openness to experience significantly correlates with email usage. Corrections towards sampling errors and measurement errors indicate that they are still within the rate of confidence. Extraversion and neuroticism are the two dimensions frequently correlated with technology usage (Maldonado, 2001; Mackenna et al, 2002; Hamburger and Artizi, 2003). According to the Big Five theoretical framework, Costa Mcrae (1992) suggested that extraversion is analogous to sociable (gregariousness), assertiveness (forceful), active (energetic), excitement –seeking (adventurous),

and warmth (outgoing). A number of behavioral examples of extraversion which are easy to observe include the experience of positive emotions when in the presence of others. Email is a technological product that allows an individual to connect with other people even though positioned in time and space that are impossible for interaction to take place. This seems to become a positive opportunity for extraverts. Its enjoyment of seeking external stimulus from the environment makes extroverts able to take advantage of email facilities. Every opportunity to access the email would be used to interact with other people. The opportunity to build interpersonal relationships through the email is also used by neurotics but with a different purpose. Neuroticism is indicated by the tendencies to easily feel angry, disappointed, and depression that usually lead to disturbed interpersonal relationships with others. Change of mood and emotional patterns are felt by neurotics and frequently does not relate with the presence of others (Costa and McCrae, 1992). Internet based communications technology, where individuals are detached from geographical barriers are favored by neurotic individuals (Emmons, 2003). By using asynchronous means of communication, an individual is not required to directly confront with other people when performing communication activities, they are able to conceal social status and emotional expression from other people. Therefore the tendencies for a neurotic person to experience negative emotions, anxiety, anger or depression does not directly affect the quality of their communication. Openness to experience is the personality dimension indicated by openness to conduct and seek new experiences and related to creative imagination personality dimensions (Srivastava, 2006). This trait is contrary to simple and conventional. Open individuals have large curiosity and a wide perspectives. Email is used by these individuals to explore resources that have not been able to be previously explored due to time and spacial barriers. E-mail’s advantage to breakthrough geographical barriers, has given the opportunity for extraverts to stay in contact with others. Email gives the opportunity for neurotic individuals to conceal their social status and emotional. For individuals that open to experience, the email challenges them to try out new experiences that were previously impossible to carry out in order to increase their individual capacity. Therefore it could be concluded that extraversion, neuroticism, and openness to experience significantly correlates with internet or email based communication technology. I. Reference Amiel, T., 2002, “Individual differences and Internet Usage Motives”, Master

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