Personal and Social Development Chapter Three Educational Psychology: Developing Learners 6th...

Personal and Social Development

Chapter ThreeEducational Psychology: Developing Learners

6th editionJeanne Ellis Ormrod

Personality Development

Temperament Parenting Culture Peers Self-socialization

Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

All rights reserved.

Temperament

Temperament is the genetic predisposition to respond in particular ways to one’s physical and social environments.

Certain cultural groups encourage certain types of behaviors.

In the classroom, there may be multiple temperaments.




Accommodating Students’ Diverse Temperaments

For students with high energy levels, minimize downtime between activities

Be especially warm and attentive with very shy students When students have trouble adapting to new

circumstances, give them advance notice of unusual activities and provide extra structure and reassurance

If students seem overwhelmed by noisy or chaotic situations, find or create a more calm and peaceful environment for them

Teach self-regulation strategies to students who act impulsively




Parents’ Influences

Attachment Children with secure attachments to their parents are more

likely to be amiable, affectionate, independent, self-confident, and cooperative than those with insecure or no attachments.

Parenting Style Children of authoritative parents (characterized by

emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making) are more apt to be happy, energetic, self-confident, likeable, and popular.




Cultural Expectations and Socialization

Culture is the behaviors and belief systems of a long-standing social group.

Children develop a cultural “lens” through which appropriate values, behaviors, etc… are determined. Socialization

Not all cultures endorse the same values and behaviors. When expectations at school differ from those

within culture or at home, students may experience culture shock.




Peer Influences

Peers define options available for leisure time. Peers serve as role models for acceptable

behavior. Also provide reinforcement for acceptable

behavior and sanctions for not engaging in acceptable behavior

Peer pressure is greatest during junior high Peers can encourage fairness and cooperation

but may also encourage aggression, criminal activity, and other antisocial behaviors.




Self-Socialization

Self-socialization is the tendency to integrate personal observations and others’ input into self-constructed standards for behavior and to choose actions accordingly. “Do I really want to do that? I don’t think I

agree with that, and therefore I won’t engage in that behavior.”

The decisions a child makes are dependent upon his/her experiences and developmental level.




Development of a Sense of Self

Sense of Self: Perceptions, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about who you are Self-worth Self-efficacy

Factors influencing the development of self views Previous performance Behaviors of others Group memberships and achievements




Developmental Changes in Sense of Self Childhood

Children focus on physical, concrete characteristics.

Early Adolescence Children’s focus turns to more general traits,

not as much emphasis on the physical. Late Adolescence

Majority of older adolescents have positive self-concepts and overall mental health.




Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development

Trust vs. mistrust (infancy) Is the world a trustworthy place?

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (toddler years) Am I capable of doing things on my own?

Initiative vs. guilt (preschool years) Is my growing independence supported?

Industry vs. inferiority (elementary school years) Am I encouraged to make and do things, and

then praised for my accomplishments?Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition



Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence)

Who am I? What do I believe in? What path will I choose for myself?

Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood) Can I fully commit to another person?

Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) What can I contribute to the next generation?

Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood) Do I have regrets, or am I satisfied with how

my life went?




Marcia’s Views on Identity

Different statuses of identity identified by Marcia based on certain patterns of behavior Moratorium

Individual is searching for an identity, considering all the options available for a career and belief system.

Identity Diffusion Individual has not made any commitments to a career or belief

system nor has he/she considered them or engaged in exploratory behavior.

Foreclosure Individual has made a firm commitment to an occupation and

belief system but has not engaged in any exploration of other alternatives.

Identity Achievement Individual has gone through a period of moratorium and has

emerged with a commitment to a career and belief system.




Development of Peer Relationships and Interpersonal Understandings

Peer relationships: Teach important social skills Provide emotional and social support

Different types of peer relationships have different impacts




Friendships

Friends are peers with whom we spend one-on-one time.

Close friends are similar in age and usually the same sex and have the same interests.

Close friendships foster self-esteem and provide a sense of identity.




Larger Social Groups

Initially, the peer group is comprised of a single sex but can be of mixed sex at adolescence.

Peers groups consist of: Cliques

Exclusive in nature 3 to 10 individuals

Crowds Jocks and brains Can take form of subculture

Gangs Cohesive social group characterized by initiation

rites, distinctive clothing, etc




Romantic Relationships

Romantic relationships usually evolve from crushes to real love.

Choices are based on attractiveness or social status. The benefits of romantic relationships include:

Companionship, affection, and security Opportunities to experiment with new social skills and

interpersonal behaviors Romantic relationships may also wreak havoc on

adolescents’ emotions. Adolescence may be an especially confusing time

for homosexual and bisexual students.




Popularity

Popularity vs. high-status Popular students may or may not hold high

status positions but are considered kind and trustworthy by other students.

Rejected students Viewed as being undesirable social partners

Neglected students Almost seem “invisible” Very few positive or negative ratings




Social Cognition

The ability to think about how other people are likely to think, act, and react

Highly developed social cognition skills very valuable

Related to the development of a Theory of Mind




The Theory of Mind

Childhood: Not until age 4 or 5 do children recognize that another person might have “other thoughts.”

Early Adolescence: Children recognize multiple feelings and thoughts, even when they are contradictory.

Late Adolescence: Children are more in tune with others’ intentions, and take time to decipher motives and consider other perspectives.




Aggression and Social Cognition

There are different types of aggressive behavior.

Physical aggression is more common in boys.

Relational aggression is more common in girls.




Aggression and Social Cognition

Proactive Aggression Initiating aggressive behavior to reach a goal Results in difficulty maintaining friendships

and often being labeled as bullies Reactive Aggression

Aggressive reaction to provocation or frustration

E.g., Columbine




Possible Causes of Aggression

Poor perspective-taking skills Misinterpretation of social cues Prevalence of self-serving goals Poor social problem-solving skills Beliefs about appropriateness and

effectiveness of aggression




Fostering Social Skills

Provide numerous opportunities for social interaction Plan cooperative activities Help students interpret social situations in an

accurate and productive way Teach specific social skills, provide opportunities for

students to practice them, and give feedback Label and praise appropriate behaviors when they

occur Describe students as having desirable social

behaviors Establish and enforce rules for acceptable

classroom behavior




Moral and Prosocial Development

Prosocial behavior is behavior directed toward promoting the well-being of another. Includes sharing, helping, and comforting

Morality encompasses prosocial behavior. One’s general standards about right and

wrong Includes such traits as honesty, fairness, and

respect for other people




Developmental Trends in Morality and Prosocial Behavior

Children use internal standards to evaluate behavior at an early age.

Children increasingly distinguish between moral and conventional transgressions.

Children’s understanding of fairness evolves throughout early and middle childhood.

Children’s ability to respond emotionally to others’ harm and distress increases over the school years.

Children increasingly take circumstances into account in their evaluations of behavior.




Development of Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg’s Theory

“Why” of decision is the most important, not “what” (use of the moral dilemma).

Kohlberg drew on Piaget’s two distinct stages of moral reasoning. Morality of constraint: Focuses on

consequences and authority figures Morality of cooperation: Focuses on intent

Kohlberg’s study found stage-like progression of moral reasoning.




Level & Stage Age Range Examples

Preconventional

Stage 1: Avoidance of punishment

Stage 2: Exchange of favors

Preschool – elementary; some junior high; few high school students

Stage 1: “I would cheat if I knew I wouldn’t get caught.”

Stage 2: “I’ll let you copy mine if you do my homework.”

Conventional

Stage 3: Good child

Stage 4: Law and order

Few older elementary children, some junior high, many high school students

(Stage 4 does not typically appear until high school)

Stage 3: “I’m not going to tell because I want her to like me.”

Stage 4: “You can’t do that because the teacher said no.”

Postconventional

Stage 5: Social contract

Stage 6: Universal ethical principle

Rarely seen before college (stage 6 is extremely rare)

Stage 5: “In this case, the rule may be wrong.”

Stage 6: “You shouldn’t lie because it violates the Golden Rule.”




Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

Politically and culturally biased Originally based only on interviews with

individuals from western societies Gender biased

Originally only studied boys and men Carol Gilligan’s criticisms of Kohlberg’s

theory: Doesn’t include compassion and caring for

those in need as “higher development” Females socialized to stress interpersonal

relationshipsJeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition



Factors Affecting Moral Development Level of moral reasoning

People who exhibit more advanced moral reasoning behave more morally.

Guilt, perspective taking, and empathy Prosocial children are often very empathic and have

above-average perspective-taking skills.

Personal motives Children’s needs and goals come into play.

Self-perceptions Commitment to moral values is integrated into the overall

identity.




Encouraging Moral Behavior and Development in the Classroom

Encourage and reward prosocial behavior Discuss the reasons why some behaviors are

inappropriate Model moral and prosocial behavior Incorporate moral issues and dilemmas into

classroom discussions Be sensitive to cultural differences




Encouraging Moral Behavior and Development in the Classroom

Use induction Provide practice in recognizing others’

emotional states Encourage perspective taking, empathy, and

prosocial behavior Expose students to numerous models Talk about moral issues and dilemmas Engage students in community service




Cultural and Ethnic Differences Strength of ethnic identity fluctuates depending

on the context and situation. Some minority students may have high self-

esteem in general but little faith in their academic ability.

Interpersonal skills vary from person to person and culture to culture.

Considering Diversity in Personal and Social Development




Considering Diversity in Personal and Social Development Gender Differences

Boys tend to have more positive perceptions about their physical appearance.

Boys rate themselves more highly in mathematics, while girls rate themselves more highly in reading and literature.

Girls have smaller groups of friends. Boys are more likely to be physically

aggressive, whereas girls are more likely to show relational aggression.




Considering Diversity in Personal and Social Development

Socioeconomic Differences Children from low-income homes are more

likely to have challenges. But may still have positive self-concepts, good

interpersonal skills, and strong moral standards




The Big Picture

Standards for acceptable behavior are essential for the optimal development of our students.

Interaction with others provides the impetus for many of our students’ personal, social, and moral advancements.

Development is best fostered within the context of a warm, supportive environment.

Students’ personal, social, and moral understandings are self-constructed




Personal and Social Development Chapter Three Educational Psychology: Developing Learners 6th...

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