PENETRATING ADOLESCENTS' MEIVTALMODELS OF MP3 WITH ZMET

I-Ling Ling, Chun-Ming Yang, Yi-Fen Liu, and Yu-Hsuan Tsai

ABSTRACT

This article demonstrates the application of the Zaltman metaphor-elicitationtechnique (ZMET) to help adolescent consumers delve into their unconsciousthoughts and provide them with insights into the use of mp3. An analysis ofinterview transcripts and images revealed that the ZMET process providesa description of how the knowledge structures of adolescent consumers are.subdivided and grouped around important themes that frame and motivatetheir involvement with a product. The findings reveal that there are 33 themesof consumer knowledge structure toward mp3. Furthermore, among thesethemes, there are four major concepts: size I form, convenience, relaxation, com-fort, and appearance. The respondents' minds include not only rational compo-nents but emotional ingredients. Notably, the results also show that musiccan be an effective metaphor in the application of the ZMET method.

Knowing what adolescents' want is fundamental for a successfulbusiness. Many techniques have been used by companies to under-stand consumers' thoughts. However, what they think is always hardto measure. For example, many teenagers like to buy silver cell phones.When researchers ask why they choose this kind of phone, they do notknow the reason. It is the subconscious that influences their decision.Silver may represent fashion or pride to the teenagers. Since the sub-conscious often cannot be elicited from verbal communication, it hasbecome a challenge for researchers. There are many shortcomings inthe existing techniques. Qualitative technique is limited by the type

This study was supported by a grant from the National Science Council(NSC 91-2416-H-415-002). The author gratefully acknowledges Yu Hsuan Tsaiin interviewing and transcribing, and coding the data. The authors also thankthe reviewers in 2009 World Marketing Congress for their insightful commentaon earlier drafts of this paper.

Chun-Ming Yang, Department of Tourism, Ming Chuan University, TaiwanYi-Fen Liu, Department of Business Management, National Sun Yat-sen

University, TaiwanYu-Hsuan Tsai, Institute of Marketing & Logistics Management, National

Chiayi UniversityRequests for reprints should be sent to I-Ling Ling, Institute of Marketing &

Logistics Management, National Chiayi University, 580 Shin-Min Rd., ChiayiCity, Taiwan. E-mail: yiling@mail.ncyu.edu.tw

ADOLESCENCE, Vol. 44. No. 176, Winter 2009Libra Publishers. Inc.. 3089C Clairemont Dr., PMB 383. San Diego, CA 92117

of communication. The most qualitative technique uses verbal commu-nication, but Burgoon, BuUer, and Woodall (1989) stated tbat morethan 80% of all human communication is nonverbal using picture,color, and music.

A wide variety of market research methods can be used for investi-gating product innovation. These methods can be divided into fourcategories for (1) understanding customers, (2) idea generation, (3)concept testing, and (4) estimating market size, growth, and composi-tion. The first two categories tend to be more qualitative and requiredivergent thinking. The second two methods are more evaluative. How-ever, many combinations and variations of methods are possible.

One of the methods for understanding customers is a newly patentedresearch tool, the Zaltman Metaphor Ehcitation Technique known asZMET.

Zaltman and Zaltman (2008) point out tbat managers need deepinsights from customers in order to have deep insights about custom-ers. Deep insights are based on the fundamental or core beliefs custom-ers have about a topic such as an activity (snacking), a problem(cleaning floors), or a product (computer software), and the role it playsin their lives. These beliefs operate in largely unconscious ways tostructure, guide, and motivate consumers' conscious interpretationsand choices. To gain access to these core meanings, we need innovativeresearch methodoligies that can help customers delve into their uncon-scious thoughts and emotions and bring them to the surface. The prin-ciple of the ZMET is to tap individuals' underlying emotionalconnections. First, participants collected pictures that symbolized theirthoughts and feelings. Then they had an intense two-hour personalinterview with a researcher. With help from a graphic artist, partici-pants created collages of their thoughts and feelings. Finally, theyreceived multimedia presentations. The ZMET is used mostly in TVadvertising, but also produces ideas for product design (Zaltman &Coulter, 1995).

The ZMET method, developed to understand consumers' subcon-scious thoughts, decisions, and behaviors, was chosen for this studybecause of its unique ability to achieve a deeper understanding of howadolescents are interpreting mp3. The ZMET relies on visual images.However, pictures are not the only communication representation; mu-sic may be another. Based on this view, in order to discover individuals'hidden thoughts about tbe products they use, this article combinedmusic and pictures as tbe metaphors for broadening the ZMET re-search scope. The authors sought to address this problem by promotingan approach that provides deep insights into adolescents' beliefsabout mp3.

950 ,

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Mental ModelThe mental model first proposed by Craik (1943) is a specific, dy-

namic form of mental representation constructed by outside experi-ences. Johnson-Laird (1983, 1989) believed that the mental model wasan abstract, analog representation. Through this representation, onecould infer and forecast an event, and then take appropriate action.Two uses of the mental model exist in past literature. One refers to therepresentation of a given object (Christensen & Olson, 2002; Zaltman,1997), and another refers to the cluster of interconnected neurons thatare fundamental to cognitive processing (Zaltman, 1997). The formeris used in this article because Christensen and Olson (2002) suggestedthat the term mental model is preferred over cognitive structure. Men-tal model includes many meaningful representations such as attitudes,emotions, images, memories of past experiences, and beliefs. Essen-tially, personal relevance in consumption is the meanings consumersobtain from their consumption activities. These meanings are storedin the memory in the form of mental models (Christensen & Olson,2002; Zaltman, 1997, 2003; Zaltman & Coulter, 1995). Such a view ofmental models fit both the current cognitive neuroscience thatthoughts are image-based (Zaltman, 1997, 2003) and the social psycho-logical view that thoughts and feelings are co-mixed (Kahneman, 1994;LeDoux, 1996).

Consumers' concepts can be retrieved from the subconceptual levelwhich originates from the actual stimulus of sound and sight. In otherwords, sound and sight could be two representations of the concepts.A mental model could explain the concepts of illusory natural phenom-ena. For example, heat is an invisible phenomenon, but it can be com-prehended through other concepts, such as feeling hot oruncomfortable. By extension, the meanings of mp3 when representedin the forms of mental models have both cognitive and affective compo-nents. They are interrelated and integrated. The affective and cogni-tive components of meaning representations in mp3 will be addressedjointly in this review. Fundamentally, a mental model includes bothstructure and content (Christensen & Olson, 2002). Content refers tothe actual ideas or concepts represented by the mental model. Struc-ture refers to how the meaning is organized in memory. Content andstructure are closely connected. Consumption meanings are found inthe linkages between the content nodes within the mental structure;any particular node has little meaning in and of itself Also, each con-cept defines its meaning through its linkage with other concepts,thereby forming a structure (Christensen & Olson, 2002). Hence, both

951

meaning content and meaning structure should be examined to under-stand meanings of mp3. Thus, the mental model provides broadermeaning than cognitive structure. ' '

The ZMET Approach to Measuring Mental ModelsEarlier research has shown that ZMET can be effectively applied to

determine consumers' mental images in a great variety of consumptionsettings, including experiences of wearing a certain type of clothing(Zaltman & Coulter, 1995), mountain biking (Christensen & Olson,2002), and perceptions of advertising (Coulter, Zaltman, & Coulter,2001). These previous studies indicate that ZMET is suitable for exam-ining consumption experiences. The ZMET uses respondent-chosenpictures to offer a focused investigation of consumers' thoughts andfeelings. ZMET is considered to be a powerful tool for mapping consum-ers' minds because it is tailored to obtain hidden cognitive and emotivethemes by applying the fundamental principles of human communica-tion and thought formation (Zaltman, 1997, 2003; Zaltman & Coulter,1995). To achieve these purposes, this article uses the Zaltman Meta-phor Elicitation Technique (ZMET) to map adolescents' mental models.By using ZMET to map mental models for both meaning content andmeaning structure in mp3, it is expected that a comprehensive and in-depth view of affective and cognitive constructs that give rise to mean-ings in mp3 can be obtained.

Christensen and Olson (2002) demonstrate that one cannot dissoci-ate structure from content. The structure of such networks of represen-tations is revealed only through the content and the linkages identifiedbetween concepts. Conversely, one cannot understand the content ofmental models without measuring the connections between concepts,thus revealing structure. Strictly speeiking, content cannot be untan-gled from structure, and vice versa. Each is revealed in terms of theother. Taken together, in order to understand meanings of mp3 con-sumption from the perspective of adolescents, we need to map thesetarget consumers' mental models including both the meaning contentand meeining structure.

The mental model of mountain biking in Christensen and Olson's(2002) research illustrates that constructs obtain meanings throughconnections with other constructs. While constructs in a mental modelcan be at different abstract levels, together they reveal the personalrelevance of a consumption experience. The researchers mapped themental model of mountain bikers, and the resulting model identifiedfour major themes: (l)ridingfor challenge, thrill, and a sense of accom-plishment, (2) sharing experiences and connecting with a group, (3)

952

seeking transformational experiences, and (4) escaping to nature. Themain themes were then connected to sub-constructs to form structuresthat give meanings to these themes. For instance, the participantsobtained a sense of accomplishment because they rode in difficult ter-rains, participated in races, and tried to go fast. All these activitiesentail challenges. The experiences of mountain biking in conqueringthese challenges, in turn, gave the participants a sense of accompHsh-ment. The major themes may then contribute to a person's perceptionof his/herself With a sense of accomplishment, the participants re-ported that they were able to live full lives, enhance self-esteem, gainconfidence, feel satisfied, and accomplish other things. Further, thesekey themes are interrelated. For instance, one way for a participantto obtain a transformational experience is to escape to nature.

Steps of the ZMET InterviewThe ZMET, the first patented marketing research tool in the United

States, represents an unusual attempt to put some of the insights ofneuroscience to profitable use as a window into consumer attitudestoward everything from art museums to laundry. It is a multidiscipli-nary technique that allows marketing researchers to analyze whatconsumers want. For eliciting valid information, the interview mate-rial is collected by the interviewees themselves. Participants in theZMET are required to collect pictures which represent their thoughtsabout the object, since the ZMET has been described elsewhere indetail, here we will sketch only the basic process. For more detailedinformation visit www.olsonzaltman.com. More importantly, in orderto make meaningful interpretations of the data and facilitate theorybuilding, it is necessary to examine and integrate the literature thatsheds light on meanings in mp3 consumption by adolescents. This arti-cle not only uses pictures as metaphors, hut adds music as a significantmetaphor for enlarging the ZMETs scope,

A review of the literature reveals the elements which represent in-terviewees thoughts of mp3 and the relations among them. Because allof the interviewees are senior high school students, their educationalbackground allows them to summarize the metaphors. At the end ofthe interview, the researcher is able to make a mental map from theconversation.

The 10 steps of the ZMET interview are listed below. These stepscan be adjusted slightly for different topics. In the beginning of theinterview, the researcher first establishes the tone of the interviewand clarifies what will happen.

Step Î: Storytelling. Human memory and communication are story-based (Schank, 1990). Using the supplied pictures, participants will be

^ 953

asked to describe how each of the pictures they bring to the researcherrelates to their feehngs and thoughts of the objects. During this stepthe researcher will probe for the deep meanings of the visual meta-phors that participants describe. Then the researcher will numberthe pictures.

Step 2: Missed issues and images. Participants are asked whetherother ideas come to mind when they are storytelling or collecting thepictures. Sometimes, participants may have an idea about the topicbut are unable to flnd a picture they think adequately indicates theirthoughts and feelings. In this step, participants will be asked to de-scribe any pictures they wanted to find but could not. The researcherthen probes for the deep meanings of the missed images using a processsimilar to the one described in step one.

Step 3: Sorting task. Participants are asked to categorize the picturesand describe every group. There is no limitation on the number ofcategories. This step helps each participant establish the issues or con-cepts.

Step 4: Metaphor elicitation. The Kelly Repertory Grid techniqueand the Laddering technique (Kelly, 1963; Shaw & McKnight, 1980;Gutman, 1982; Lewis & Klein, 1985; Valette-Florence & Rapacchi,1991) are used in this step. The Kelly Repertory Grid technique elicitsthe constructs of thought and action, and the Laddering techniqueelicits the causal relationship among the constructs.

Step 5: Representative image. Participants are asked to choose apicture which best represents their feelings.

Step 6: Opposite image. The researcher (or interviewer) asks theparticipant to describe the opposite meaning of the pictures he orshe chose.

Step 7: Sensory ¿mages. In this step, the images are taken away. Theresearcher elicits metaphors via all senses except for the visual. Theparticipants are asked to explore their non-visual senses to conveywhat is and is not representative of the meanings of the object.

Step 8: Mental map. In this step, the researcher reviews the pre-viously discussed constructs and inquires if an5^hing has been missed.Afterward, the mental model is mapped.

Step 9: The summary image. In this step, the participant is asked tocreate a summary image that represents a visual overview of his/herthoughts and feelings about the object. Then the researcher scans thepictures into the computer and constructs an overview image. Thisstep is intended to stimulate or at least to express what the partici-pant thinks.

Step 10: The vignette. Finally, the participants are asked to writedown a vignette or create a short movie that helps communicate im-

954

portant issues related to the topic. This step is based on theories andevidence that different areas of tbe brain become active when engagingin moving images (Zaltman, 2003). Many new ideas may emerge as anew area of the brain is activated during the vignette creation and ar-ticulation.

METHOD

ParticipantsFifteen senior high school students were recruited as the interview-

ees. All participants completed the Personal Involvement Inventory(PII). This was done because high involvement often correlates withhigh product knowledge and expertise (Celsi & Olson, 1988; Chris-tensen & Olson, 2001; Mitchell & Dacin, 1996). Thus the highly in-volved respondents are likely to have elaborate and complex mentalmodels. Fifteen interviewees were enrolled but three failed to obtainhigh involvement; therefore, only 12 participants qualified.

However, the definition of mp3 is unclear. There are three possibleways people may think about mp3: mp3 music, mp3 download website,and mp3 digital equipment. To centralize consumers' mental map, theauthors used the first two as the mp3 definition. Participants weretold the definition of mp3 is mp3 music and mp3 download website.

The ZMET ProcessPreparation stage. About seven days prior to the interview, the quali-

fying participants are contacted and given a set of instructions. Eachparticipant is requested to collect 8 to 11 pictures and pieces of musicas metaphors. The ratio of pictures and music is unlimited. Picturesmust be mounted on paper and the music must be provided by theinterviewees themselves.

Interview stage. The interview generally takes 1.5 to 2.5 hours. Itbegins with the interviewee explaining the reason he or she chose thepictures and music. After the interview, participants were thanked andpaid an honorarium (around US $20) for their time and involvement inthe study.

RESULTS

Elicitation of ThemesBy using the Kelly Repertory Grid technique (Kelly, 1963) and the

Laddering technique (Gutman, 1982), the elements which represent

955

consumers' thoughts and the relationships among them are elicited.For the thought to be considered a theme (element), it must be men-tioned by more than one-third of the interviewees. Given the complex-ity of the mp3 structure and the richness of mp3 meanings, anunusually large number of 52 elements were extracted from the ZMETinterviews. Furthermore, in order to avoid overstratification, it is im-portant to unite these 52 elements into a smaller scope. Elements inthe scope are named themes. This study summarized these 52 elements(called sub-themes) into 33 themes.

In view of the holistic nature of the mp3 experience, it is necessaryto consider the themes and categories in the context of one another.To facilitate this approach, all elements and themes are brought to-gether in Table 1 to provide a bird's-eye view of the mp3 landscape.

Verification of Music as the MetaphorsIn this study, the authors tried to demonstrate the effect of the newly

added music-metaphors. Results show that there were nine interview-ees whose use of picture-metaphors outnumber their use of music-metaphors. Eleven interviewees elicited more themes from the picture-based metaphors. There is a slight imbalance in the weight of picture-based and music-based metaphors; however, there is still the samecoverage between the two metaphors in most participants. In addition,more than 90% of the elements are included in the confirmativethemes. The findings reveal that music can be treated as an affectivemetaphor (see Table 2).

Most Representative ImagesIn this step, participants were asked to choose one picture or piece

of music which represented their thoughts toward mp3 most appropri-ately. Two participants chose a song, while the others chose a picture.Appearance, which was mentioned by three interviewees, is the mostrepresentative theme. Other highly representative themes are relax-ation, comfort, selfhood, and happiness. Furthermore, the meaning ofcompanionship, convenience, ease, usefulness, spiritual assistance,economy, and performance are also mentioned by one interviewee. Themeaning of usefulriess is the only one not concluded to be a theme (seeTable 3).

Sensory ImagesIn this step, the images are taken out. The researcher elicits meta-

phors from participants via senses other than the visual. Participantsare asked to explore their non-visual senses to convey what is and isnot representative of the meanings of mp3.

956

Table 1

Summary of elements and themes ofmp3Code.«

1

2

3

4

S

6

7

S

9

10

11

12

13

14

IS

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

2i

29

30

32

33

Initial elenients(9ub-themes)

easy lo Ret. easy lo usemoney-saving, space-saving;cneriív-savmKillusory and invisiblesmall size

good classificalion: widespread variety; save mare

techmcol equipment

poor quolitv; difiicult to use

fashion

Fut

unlimited by time: unlimited itorage

inlemational bnundanes

convenience

time killer, transfer attention

share, the subject of a talk

expectationprevent external influence,personal styleanti-confirmatory

self-choice

nice; enjoy; lovo

iupiration; calm, vent

lelp (0 ihink, help to sleep

coloriU; touch more sonp

users' neftative feeling

labit and needs, custom

pndc

lappiness

relaxation, comfort

memory

eisure. entertainment

egal [»"oblom

viRor

compamonahip

earning songs

resonance

CoDcIuded themes

case

economy

siza'form

perfonnince

technical equipment

tunctitmal problem

fashion

fast

unlimited

intemation&l boundaries

convenience

transfer states

inierpenonal communication

expectation

selfhood

self-choice

appearance

spintual Ulislance

life assistance

broad vision ^

negative feeling

labit and needs

pride

lappineis

relaxation/comfort

memory

ei iurc/entertainment

egal problem

viRor

companionship

earning songs

resoiance

The participants expressed their thoughts through senses other thansight and hearing. There are 11 meanings mentioned at this step.Among these, the theme of relaxation comfort was chosen by 8 inter-viewees and ranked number one. The second was appearance, men-

957

Table 2

Verification of music metaphors

Interviewee

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

Picture-basedmetaphors

No. ofmetaf^ors

7

6

1

6

5

5

5

5

6

5

5

10

No. ofthemes

14

25

20

19

20

15

21

14

21

12

15

24

Music-basedmetaphors

No. ofmetafrfiors

1

3

8

4

3

3

3

6

2

3

6

0

No. ofthemes

5

5

25

8

8

9

3

11

4

6

13

0

Repeatingpercentageof twometaphors

27.78%

25%

36.36%

35%

40%

41.18%

9.1%

19.05%

19.05%

38.46%

40%

0%

Fitness ofmusicmetai^ors(%)

100%

100%

92%

100%

100%

100%

100%

90.91%

100%

100%

100%

none

tioned by six participants. Only the meaning called surprise was notidentified as a theme. Results are shown in Table 4.

Summary of the Mental ModelBy examining these themes and categories, a heuristic mental model

of mp3 meaning and structure is developed. The summary mentalmodel is drawn from the conversation of every participant. Based onthe ZMET method, a theme must be mentioned by at least four inter-viewees. A relation between two themes must be mentioned by at leastthree interviewees. The collective mental map is shown in Figure 1.In the collective mental map, legal problems and negative feelings areinterrelated, but they do not have a relation to any other themes. Thethemes oí convenience and size/form occur with the highest frequency

958

Table 3Most representative images/music ofmp3

No. MoitRepresentativeMetaphor

Meaning \ 0 . MostRepresentativeMetaphor

Meaning

companionship spiritual

assi^ance

B convenience H economy

lyrics for "'a

single song'

ease selfhood

D lyrics for "a

representative

work"

usefulness happiness

relaxation

/comfort

K perfonnance

relaxation

/comfort

happiness

of relations with other themes. The theme of happiness is reiated tofive other themes and ranks second. It means that size/form, conve-nience and happiness are the major concepts when people thinkabout mp3.

The results show that relaxation /comfort and appearance aremainly associated with the steps of the representative images andsensory images in Tables 3 and 4. In the mental model, convenienceand size/form are highly related to the other themes. Happiness is

959

Table 4Sensory images ofmp3N. Sensory

IiitervieweeNv

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

Sense of Smell

RepresentativeMetaphor

ike a poppy ilower

elaxation/comfoitappearance¡mell of coffee .

labit and needs

imell of a machine

relevant technicalequipment

smell of rust

echnical equipment

smell of flowers

relaxation/comfort

smell of fresh air

spiritual assistance

B smell in one's ownhome

appearance/habit ancneeds

smell of ammonia

3urpnse

smell of a favoritedish

appearance

smell of a forest

relaxation/comfort

smell of cotTee

spiritual assistance

smell in a nightmarket

«rformance

Sense of Taste

RepresentativeMetaphor

cat a hot and spicysteamboatlegal problem/happinesseat rice

habit and needs

eat smelly beancurd or ricelegal problem/appearancedrink water

habit and needs

a bit of sweet

broad vision

drink oolong tea

appearance

dish which his orher mother cooksappearance/habitand needstaste mustard

surpnse

eat smelly beancurdappearance

drink tea

surpnse

drink hot milk

spiritual assistance

sweet of a candy

appearance

Sense of Touch

RepresentativeMetai^or

touch a fluöy doll

relaxation/comfort

touch a dog

relaxation/comfort

touch a computer

relevant technicalequipmenttouch a computer

technicalequipmenttouch a fluffy doll

relaxation/comfort

touch cool water insummerrelaxation/comfort

touch one's bedquiltrelaxation/comfort

touch a car

convemence

touch a soft pillow

relaxation/comfort

touch a fluffy doll

relaxation/comfort

mouse connectedto a computertechnicalequipmenttouch an ice cubein summerrelaxation/comfort

960

/legal . / negative

problem . ^í ftetlng(28) . ~ (21)

Figure 1 ; A mental model for mp3

Notes: Rectangular shape= concept; Oval shape= theme

the theme least associated with these three steps (images, sense, andmusic). The findings demonstrate that the mental model includes notonly a rational component, but emotional meanings.

DISCUSSION

This study used the ZMET to explore adolescent consumers' mentalmodels of mp3. After reviewing the transcripts, 33 themes were elic-ited. Of the representative images, only one of the eleven elicited itemswas not determined to be a theme; of the sensory images, the resultwas the same with just one elicited item not being a theme. Most

961

themes appeared repeatedly. In other words, themes elicited by theZMET were reliable. In addition, the connection between any twothemes had to be mentioned by more than three interviewees. Thereare 22 relations among the themes. This means that the ZMET couldmap the consumers' mental model. Thus, the ZMET is an effectivemethodology for exploring what consumers think and provides a goodway for businesses to understand consumer behavior.

On the other hand, comparing the themes elicited from the musicmetaphors and the confirmative sensory images, it was noted thatmore than 90% had been covered. Even though this shows that musicis indeed an effective metaphor, the interviewees preferred to use pic-tures as metaphors. In other words, vision may be a major factor whilehearing seems to be minor.

According to the ZMET, size I form, convenience, relaxation ¡comfort,and appearance are the four major concepts elicited from the interview-ees' mental models. In other words, what consumers think about mp3focuses on these four concepts. When a company plans to modify themp3's function, it should take these four concepts into consideration.For example, an advertiser could design the advertisement of mp3using "a lovely" atmosphere, while the mp3 manufacturer could de-velop a new product which is more convenient to use. Furthermore,legal problems and negative feelings were collated by the consumers.They do not influence other positive themes, but if the legal problemis resolved, consumers' evaluation of mp3 will improve. One of thelegal problems is copyri^t. Hence the legal use of mp3s should bedefined more clearly.

Limitations and Future Directions iThere are some limitations to this study. First, a long interview may

result in participants' losing concentration and patience; the interviewtook more than an hour. Second this study took mp3 as the object, butto some people mp3 represents music. Thus, future studies could usethe music metaphor in another industry and measure its effectiveness.Finally, the sample sizes were not big enough to analyze more con-cepts. '

REFERENCES

Burgoon, J. K., Buller, D. B,, & Woodall, W. G. (1989). Nonverbal communica-tion: The unspoken dialogue. New York: Harper & Row.

Celsi, R. L., & Olson, J. C. (1988). The role of involvement in attention andcomprehension processes. Journal of Consumer Research, 15{2),210-2224.

962

Christensen, G. L., & Olson, J. C. (2001). Involved with what? The impact ofheterogeneity in goal hierarchies on high enduring involvement. Ad-vances in Consumer Research, 28(1), 392.

Christensen, G. U, & Olson, J. C. (2002). Mapping consumers' mental modelswith ZMET. Psychology & Marketing, 19(6), 477-501.

Coulter, R. A., Zaltman, G., & Coulter, K. S. (2001). Interpreting consumerperceptions of advertising: An application of the Zaltman Metaphor Elic-itation Technique. Journal of Advertising, 30(4), 1-21.

Craik, K. J. W. (1943). The nature of explanation. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press.

Gutman, J. (1982). A means-end ehain model based on consumer categoriza-tion processes. Journal of Marketing, 46(2), 60—72.

Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). Mental models: Toward a cognitive science oflanguage, inference, and consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni-versity Press.

Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1989). Mental models. In M. I. Posner (Ed.), Foundationsof cognitive science (pp. 469-499). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Kahneman, D. (1994). New challenges to rationality assumption. Journal ofInstitutional and Theoretical Economics, 150(1), 18-36.

Kelly, G. A. (1963). A theory of personality. New York: Norton.LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of

emotional life. New York: Simon & Schuster.Lewis, R. G., & Klein, D. M. (1985). Personal constructs: Their use in the

marketing and intangible services. Psychology and Marketing, 2(3),201-216.

Mitchell, A. A., & Dacin, P. A. (1996). Tbe assessment of alternative meeisuresof consumer expertise. Journal of Consumer Research, 23(3), 219—239.

Schank, R. C. ( 1990). Tell me a story: A new look at real and artificial memory.New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

Shaw, M. L. G., & McKnight, C. (1980). Think again: Personal decision-makingand problem-solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Valette-Florence, P., & Rapacchi, B. (1991). Improvements in means-end chainanalysis using graph theory and correspondence analysis. Journal ofAdvertising Research, 31(1), 30-45.

Zaltman, G. ( 1997). Rethinking market research: Putting people back in. Jour-nal of Marketing Research, 34(3), 424-A37.

Zaltman, G. (2003). How customers think: Essential insights into the mind ofthe market. Boston, Ma: Harvard Business Press.

Zaltman, G., & Coulter, R. H. (1995). Seeing the voice of the customer: Meta-phor-based advertising research. Journal of Advertising Research,35(4), 35-51.

Zaltman, G., & Zaltman, L. H. (2008). Marketing metaphoria: What deep meta-phors reveal about the minds of consumers. Boston, MA: Harvard Busi-ness Press. ,

963

Copyright of Adolescence is the property of Libra Publishers Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed

to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However,

users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.