Pedestrian Facilities Guidebook

Sponsored by:Washington State Department of Transportation

Puget Sound Regional CouncilAssociation of Washington Cities

County Road Administration Board

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PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES

GUIDEBOOK

Incorporating Pedestrians IntoWashington�s Transportation System

Sponsored byWashington State Department of Transportation

Puget Sound Regional CouncilCounty Road Administration Board

Association of Washington Cities

Prepared by

September 1997

P E D E S T R I A N F A C I L I T I E S G U I D E B O O K i

Table of Contents

Introduction

Why a Pedestrian Facilities Guidebook? 1Who Will Use This Guidebook? 2What is the Focus? 2References and Other Resources 3Acknowledgments 3

How to Use This Guidebook

How Should the Information in This Guidebook Be Used? 5Relationship to Other Guidelines and Standards 5Permission to Reproduce and Copy 6Where Can You Find the Information You Need in This Guidebook? 6

About Pedestrians

Pedestrians Defined 9Pedestrian Safety 9Pedestrian Needs 11Levels of Use and Travel Characteristics 16

Design Toolkit

Toolkit 1 � General Design GuidelinesPedestrian Facilities Defined 24The Importance of Good Design for Pedestrians 24The “Bigger Picture” — Creating Pedestrian Friendly Communities 26Creating a Continuous Pedestrian System 28Creating an Effective Pedestrian System 28Pedestrian Friendly Streets 30Other Sources of Information 31

Toolkit 2 � AccessibilityUnderstanding the ADA 33Designing for People with Disabilities 34

Table ofContents

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Table of Contents

Designing for Older Adults 34Accessible Routes of Travel 35Eliminating Barriers and Obstacles 35Widths and Clearances 37Passing and Resting Areas 37Grades 38Cross Slopes 38Sidewalk Curb Ramps 39Ramps 39Handrails 43Accessibility Across Driveways 43Surfacing 45Textural and Visual Cures 45Site Connections 46Signing and Other Communication Aids 46Lighting 46Other Sources of Information 47

Toolkit 3 � Children and School ZonesSpecial Considerations Related to Children 50Improving Student Pedestrian Safety — A Cooperative Process 50School Related Pedestrian Improvements 51The School as a Community Focal Point 52Pedestrian Friendly Schools and School Zones 53Traffic Control and Crossings Near Schools 57School Walk Routes and Safety Programs 64Ongoing Maintenance 64Other Sources of Information 65

Toolkit 4 � Trails and PathwaysTrails and Pathways Across Multiple Jurisdictions 67Regional Connectivity 68Accessibility of Trails and Pathways 68Multi-Use Trails and Pathways 70Recommended Dimensions 74Paving and Surfacing 76Grades, Cross Slopes, and Drainage 77Shoulders, Side Slopes, and Railings 77Connections and Crossings 78Managing Motor Vehicle Access 78Vegetation and Landscaping 79Seasonal and Nighttime Use 80Maintenance 80Other Sources of Information 81

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Toolkit 5 � Sidewalks and WalkwaysDetermining When and Where Sidewalks and Walkways are Needed 84Sidewalks and Walkways in Various Settings 85Descriptions and Comparisons of Sidewalks and Walkways 86Location — Both Sides Versus One Side 87Accessibility 87Recommended Dimensions 89Passing, Waiting, and Resting Areas 89Grades, Cross Slope, and Drainage 90Side Slopes, Railings, and Walls 90Surfacing 91Street Separation and Edge Treatment 92Street Furnishings, Utilities, and Related Clearances 97Landscaping and Street Trees 99Lighting 100Signing 100Sidewalks in Business Districts and Downtowns 100Shoulders as Walkways in Rural Areas 102Bicycles on Sidewalks 104Street Design Considerations 105Maintenance 109Other Sources of Information 110

Toolkit 6 � IntersectionsEffects of Pedestrian Improvements on Vehicle Capacity 114Common Design Practices for Pedestrian Crossings at Intersections 114Minimizing the Crossing Distances at Intersections 123Minimizing Pedestrian/Motor Vehicle Conflicts 129Other Sources of Information 139

Toolkit 7 � CrossingsDetermining the Need for Mid-Block Crossings 142Mid-Block Crossing Design 143Railroad Crossings 151Grade Separated Crossings 152Multi-Use Trail Intersections and Crossings 156Boardwalks and Trestles 157Other Sources of Information 158

Toolkit 8 � Traffic CalmingWhy is Traffic Calming Used? 162Residential Traffic Management 162Traffic Calming and Management Methods 163Other Sources of Information 172

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Toolkit 9 � Pedestrian Access to TransitTransit Compatible Design 176Improving Transit Facilities for Pedestrians 177Transit Stops and Bus Pullouts 179Transit Centers 181Park-and-Ride Facilities 181Transit Malls 182Coordination Between Agencies 183Other Sources of Information 183

Toolkit 10 � Site Design for PedestriansThinking About Pedestrians as Part of Site Development 186Pedestrian Friendly Site Design 186Walkways and Accessible Routes 187Site Access and Driveway Design 188On-Site Circulation and Parking 191Building Location and Design 193Landscaping and Furnishings 194Ramps, Stairways, and Steps 194Sites Used Exclusively by Pedestrians 195Strategy for Increasing Pedestrian Travel — Mixed Use Site Development 198Other Sources of Information 199

Toolkit 11 � Safety in Work ZonesProtective Barriers 202Covered Walkways 202Sidewalk Closure During Construction 202Intersections and Crossings Near Work Zones 203Maintenance 204Other Sources of Information 204

Resource Guide 204

Glossary 215

Index 227

Metric to English Conversion Chart

Comment Request Form

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Table of Contents

List of Tables

Table 1 — Anticipated Guidebook Users 2Table 2 — “Design” Focus 2Table 3 — Pedestrian Facilities Are: 2Table 4 — Other Documents to Review for Pedestrian Facility Design 6Table 5 — Common Characteristics of Pedestrian Collisions 10Table 6 — Some Important Needs of Pedestrians 12Table 7 — Common Pedestrian Characteristics by Age Group 14Table 8 — Aids to Older Pedestrians 15Table 9 — Aids to Pedestrians With Disabilities 15Table 10 — Why Urban Areas Receive High Pedestrian Use 17Table 11 — Typical Types of Pedestrian Trips 17Table 12 — Pedestrian Trip Facts 18Table 13 — Common Reasons for Low Levels of Pedestrian Travel 19Table 14 — Ask the Following Questions 20Table 15 — Expanded Definition of Pedestrian Facilities 24Table 16 — State Policy for Encouraging Pedestrian Travel 25Table 17 — Common Characteristics of Pedestrian Friendly Communities 26Table 18 — Typical Elements of Pedestrian Friendly Streets 30Table 19 — Definition of Accessible Route of Travel 35Table 20 — Important Things to Remember About Curb Cuts

at Intersections 42Table 21 — ADA Requirements for Ramps 42Table 22 — Summary of Accessibility Requirements 47Table 23 — Most Common Types of Pedestrian/Motor Vehicle Collisions

for Children Aged K-6 49Table 24 — Some Special Limitations of Children Aged 5 to 9 50Table 25 — Process for Improving Student Pedestrian Safety 51Table 26 — The School as a Community Focal Point 52Table 27 — Elements of Good School Site Design 53Table 28 — Roadside Pedestrian Improvements Along School Walk

Routes 55Table 29 — Potential Traffic Control and Crossing Treatments Near

Schools 59Table 30 — When to Utilize Adult Crossing Guards 62Table 31 — Primary Functions of Student Safety Patrollers 62Table 32 — Procedures for Developing School Walk Routes 64Table 33 — Design Guidelines for Recreational Trails 70Table 34 — Delineation/Separation Treatments for Multi-Use Pathways

71Table 35 — Separation Treatments for Multi-Use Pathway Next to

Roadway 75Table 36 — Recommended Dimensions for Trails and Pathways 75

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Table 37 — Priorities for Pedestrians Traveling Along Streets 83Table 38 — ITE Criteria to Be Analyzed to Determine Pedestrian

Safety Deficiencies 85Table 39 — Recommended Dimensions for Sidewalks and Walkways 88Table 40 — Advantages and Disadvantages of Planting Buffers 92Table 41 — Recommendations for Walking Shoulders 104Table 42 — Access Management 107Table 43 — Benefits and Disadvantages of One-Way Streets 109Table 44 — Basic Principles of Intersection Design to Accommodate

Pedestrians 114Table 45 — Guidelines for Installation of Pedestrian Improvements 118Table 46 — City of Bellevue Recommended Elements to Be Analyzed When Determining the Need for Marked Crosswalks 119Table 47 — Crosswalk Width and Marking Guidelines 120Table 48 — Advantages and Disadvantages of Crosswalk Marking Patterns 121Table 49 — Benefits and Disadvantages of Shortening Curb Radii 125Table 50 — Locations Where Refuge Islands are Most Beneficial 127Table 51 — Measures to Improve the Effectiveness of Push Buttons 132Table 52 — Crossing Distances, Speeds, and Time 133Table 53 — Reducing Turning Conflicts 135Table 54 — Design Guidelines for Medians and Refuge Islands 147Table 55 — Common Residential Traffic Management Program Actions 164Table 56 — Common Types of Traffic Calming Methods 164Table 57 — Low Cost Improvements to Increase Pedestrian Access to Transit 179Table 58 — Pedestrian Friendly Site Design Checklist 186Table 59 — Checklist for Successful Mixed Use Site Developments 198Table 60 — Considerations for Pedestrian Safety in Work Zones 202Table 61— Work Zone Maintenance 204

List of Figures

Figure 1 — Fatalities Based on Speed of Vehicle 10Figure 2 — Thinking and Stopping Distances Related to Speed of Travel 11Figure 3 — Human Dimensions When Walking and Sitting 13Figure 4 — Spatial Needs for Pedestrians 13Figure 5 — Spatial Bubbles 14Figure 6 — Spatial Dimensions for People With Disabilities 16Figure 7 — Creating an Effective Pedestrian System 29Figure 8 — Accessible Site Design 36Figure 9 — Accessible Passing Area 37Figure 10 — Accessible Ramped Pathway With Landings 38Figure 11 — Accessible Curb Ramp Design Details 40

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Figure 12 — Accessible Sidewalk Curb Ramp Designs 41Figure 13 — Sidewalk Curb Ramps at Intersections 41Figure 14 — Handrail Detail 43Figure 15 — Traditional Driveway Design 44Figure 16 — Driveway With Wide Sidewalks 44Figure 17 — Driveway With Planting Strips 44Figure 18 — Driveway With Sidewalk Behind 44Figure 19 — Driveway With Dipped Sidewalk 44Figure 20 — Textural Cues 46Figure 21 — School Site Design 54Figure 22 — Sidewalk 55Figure 23 — Shoulder Walkway 55Figure 24 — Typical Bus Stop Design for Urban Location 56Figure 25 — Typical Bus Stop Design for Rural Location 57Figure 26 — School Signs 63Figure 27 — One Lane School Marking 64Figure 28 — Accessible Trail/Pathway 68Figure 29 — Universal Levels of Accessibility Signs 69Figure 30 — Multi-Use Pathway Striping 72Figure 31 — Multi-Use Pathway 72Figure 32 — Paved Multi-Use Pathway With Separated Soft Surface Trail for Equestrians and Joggers 72Figure 33 — Pathway Separation From Roadway 73Figure 34 — Paved Pedestrian-Only Pathway 73Figure 35 — Unpaved Pedestrian-Only Pathway 73Figure 36 — Unpaved Multi-Use Pathway 73Figure 37 — Multi-Use Pathway Pavement Cross Sections 76Figure 38 — Pathways Requiring Railings 78Figure 39 — Thickened-Edge Pavement Design 79Figure 40 — Bollard Spacing 79Figure 41 — Split Pathway Entrance 80Figure 42 — Root Barrier 80Figure 43 — Waiting and Resting Areas 89Figure 44 — Wall Design Treatments 90Figure 45 — Planting Buffer Between Sidewalk and Street 93Figure 46 — Planting Strips Provided as Area for Signs, Utilities, and Street Furnishings 93Figure 47 — Straight Walkway 93Figure 48 — Walkway with Slight Meander 93Figure 49 — Sidewalk Separated by a Ditch 94Figure 50 — Sidewalk Adjacent to Curb and Gutter 94Figure 51 — Vertical Curb Adjacent to a Planting Strip 95Figure 52 — Sidewalk With Rolled Curb 95Figure 53 — Placement of Extruded or Timber Curbing 96

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Figure 54 — Bike Lane as Buffer Between Pedestrian and MotorVehicles 97

Figure 55 — Clearance for Sidewalks and Walkways 98Figure 56 — Pedestrian Travel Way, Clear of Obstructions 98Figure 57 — Urban Streetside Zone 101Figure 58 — Shy Distance Between Building and Walkway 101Figure 59 — Shoulder Walkway 103Figure 60 — On-Street Parking as a Buffer Between Street and Pedestrian Walkway 105Figure 61 — Parking Overhang 106Figure 62 — Access Management 108Figure 63 — Marked and Unmarked Crosswalks at Intersection 116Figure 64 — Guidelines for the Installation of Marked Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Intersections and Mid-Block Crossings 118Figure 65 — Clear Travel Area for Pedestrians at Intersection Corners 119Figure 66 — Crossing Signs 123Figure 67 — Reduced Crossing Distance With Reduced Curb Radius 124Figure 68 — Reduced Curb Radii at One-Way Intersection 124Figure 69 — Elongated Refuge Island at Right-Turn Slip Lane 126Figure 70 — Right-Turn Slip Lane and Refuge Island 126Figure 71 — Median/Refuge Island at an Intersection 128Figure 72 — Typical Curb Extension Design 128Figure 73 — Typical Curb Bulb-Out Design 128Figure 74 — Curb Bulb-Outs and Extensions 129Figure 75 — Sight Distance at Intersection Corners 129Figure 76 — Recommended Parking Setback for Sight Distance 130Figure 77 — Pedestrian Indication Sequence 131Figure 78 — Modern Roundabout Design 137Figure 79 — Traffic Calming Circle 138Figure 80 — Special Paving 139Figure 81 — Typical Mid-Block Crossing 142Figure 82 — Mid-Block Crossing of Two-Lane Arterial 144Figure 83— Mid-Block Crossing of Five-Lane Arterial With Existing Median 146Figure 84 — Crossing Signs 149Figure 85 — Soft Sandwich 150Figure 86 — Portable Pedestrian Flags 151Figure 87 — Typical Geometries of Overhead Crossings 155Figure 88 — Tunnel 156Figure 89 — Typical Geometries of Underpasses 157Figure 90 — Traffic Management Approach — Solving the Problems 163Figure 91 — Recommended Traffic Calming Circle Design 167Figure 92 — Narrowed Street 168Figure 93 — Chicanes 168

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Figure 94 — Curb Bulb-Outs and Extensions 169Figure 97 — Raised Crosswalk/Speed Table 172Figure 98 — Transit Compatible Objectives 176Figure 99 — Widened Sidewalk in Bus Loading Area 177Figure 100 — Typical Bus Stop Cross-Section 177Figure 101 — Bus Shelters and Covered Structures 178Figure 102 — Same Corner Bus Stop Locations 180Figure 103 — Pedestrian Friendly Shopping Center 187Figure 104 — Accessible Building Entrance 188Figure 105 — Covered Walkways 188Figure 106 — Driveway Design Comparisons 189Figure 107 — Wide Planting Areas at Driveway 190Figure 108 — Access to Transit 191Figure 109 — Shared Parking Lot 192Figure 110 — Landing Placement for Stairways 196Figure 111 — Stair/Step Nosing Design 196Figure 112 — Pedestrian Plaza 197Figure 113 — Mixed-Use Site Development Concept 198Figure 114 — Temporary Pedestrian Routes Around Work Zones 203

Introduction

P E D E S T R I A N F A C I L I T I E S G U I D E B O O K 1

IntroductionWhy a PedestrianFacilities Guidebook?

As our state’s population continues to grow,we strive to create livable communities thatoffer a diversity of transportation alternativesincluding convenient, reliable, safe, efficient,and attractive pedestrian facilities.

Most of us are pedestrians at some point eachday, and for some of us, especially children,walking is a primary mode of transportation.

Whether we walk several miles a day, use awheelchair to get from our office to the busstop, ride a skateboard through the park, orsimply walk across the parking lot from ourcar to the grocery store entrance, all of ushave a need for well-designed and properlyfunctioning pedestrian facilities.

To date, there has been limited informationpublished about how to design pedestrianfacilities, and no comprehensive designguidelines have been developed for use inWashington. Several existing sources containdesign criteria related to pedestrian facilities,although in some design guideline documents,the focus is on enhancing the speed andmobility of motor vehicles, often at theexpense of pedestrian needs. In some cases,there is significant design guidance related tobicycle facilities, but minimal advice fordesign of pedestrian facilities.

As part of the planning process thatculminated in the development of the 1994Transportation Policy Plan for WashingtonState, the subcommittee responsible forcreating the Pedestrian Policy Planrecommended that the Washington StateDepartment of Transportation (WSDOT)coordinate with other state and localjurisdictions to develop a pedestrian designmanual that recommends appropriate designpractices for pedestrian facilities and providescommon sense approaches to improving thepedestrian environment. This guidebook hasbeen created in response to thatrecommendation.

Increasing pedestrian travel and safety areobjectives of Washington’s Transportation Plan.

Introduction

P E D E S T R I A N F A C I L I T I E S G U I D E B O O K2

Who Will Use ThisGuidebook?

The design guidelines provided in thisguidebook will assist WSDOT, cities, counties,private developers, design professionals, andothers in designing, constructing, andmaintaining pedestrian facilities in a varietyof settings, including urban, suburban andrural communities throughout Washington.The primary audience of the guidebook will betransportation design practitioners, includingthose listed in Table 1.

Table 2

“Design” Focus

The primary focus of this guidebook is toencourage good planning, design, andengineering practices related topedestrian facilities. The guidebook alsoaddresses a few important construction,ongoing maintenance, and operationalaspects related to pedestrian facilities.

Table 1

Anticipated Guidebook Users

Primary Audience• Traffic and transportation engineers• Site development and building permit

review staff• Planners and designers, including

architects, civil engineers, landscapearchitects, urban designers, and otherdesign professionals

• Developers

Others Who Might Find theGuidebook Helpful• School districts• Neighborhood councils and planning

committees• Metropolitan planning organizations• Central business district planning

organizations/business people• Small towns• Officials and politicians• Special campaigns and programs• Citizen advocates

Table 3

Pedestrian Facilities Are:

Sidewalks, trails, curb ramps, trafficcalming and control devices, gradeseparated crossings, wide shoulders andother technology, design features, andstrategies intended to encouragepedestrian travel.

Source: Washington State TransportationPolicy Plan, 1994

What is the Focus?

The focus of this guidebook is on design ofpedestrian facilities (see Tables 2 and 3),but good design is only one component of asuccessful pedestrian facility. Conscientiousplanning, effective education programs, andconsistent safety and law enforcement alsocontribute to improving our communities forpedestrians. Some basic principles related toplanning for pedestrians are provided in thisguidebook, but the overall intent is toencourage good design practices.

Introduction


References andOther Resources

The technical information contained in thisguidebook was compiled from numeroussources. The Resource Guide at the end ofthe guidebook provides a comprehensive listof sources for information related topedestrian planning and design, includingsources referenced for this document. Inaddition to the Resource Guide, readersinterested in finding additional informationrelated to specific types of pedestrian facilitieswill find a list of relevant sources ofinformation at the end of each section of thedesign toolkit. The Resource Guide also listssources of information related to pedestrianplanning, education, and enforcement. TheState Bicycle Transportation and PedestrianWalkways Plan, published by WSDOT in1995, provides comprehensive pedestrianplanning information and addresses laws andother plans supporting nonmotorizedtransportation, costs, and fundingopportunities, as well as pedestrian safetyeducation and enforcement.

When no specific source is referenced forgraphics, figures, and tables in this document,Otak created those drawings and/or compiledthe information especially for use on thePedestrian Facilities Guidebook. In somecases, other documents or sources ofinformation may have been researched andspecifically adapted for this guidebook basedon input from the advisory group and othertechnical experts involved.

Acknowledgments

Funding for this report was provided in partby member jurisdictions of the Puget SoundRegional Council grants from US Departmentof Transportation, Federal Transit

Administration, Federal HighwayAdministration, and Washington StateDepartment of Transportation.

Sponsoring Agencies andOrganizations

• Washington State Department ofTransportation

• County Road Administration Board• Puget Sound Regional Council• Association of Washington Cities

Advisory Group Members

• Dave Almond, City of Redmond• Gary Armstrong, City of Stanwood• James Bloodgood, Snohomish County• Bob Bruggeman, Spokane County• John Dewhirst, Snohomish County• Chuck Green, Clark County• Matt Hays, Feet First• Jon Jainga, City of Federal Way• Jeanne Krikawa, Seattle Pedestrian

Advisory Board• Tony Mazzella, City of Kirkland• Kirk McKinley, City of Shoreline• Michael Meagher, King County• Phil Miller, King County• John Milton, WSDOT• Page Scott, Kittitas County• David Smith, Kitsap County• Anne Tonella-Howe, City of Bellevue• Bob Vogel, Pierce County• Dave Whitcher, County Road

Administration Board• Sandra Woods, City of Seattle

Introduction


Other Reviewers

• King Cushman, Puget Sound RegionalCouncil

• Matt Feeney, Puget Sound Regional Council• Caroline Feiss, Puget Sound Regional

Council• Kathy Johnson, City of Lynnwood• Kathi Rossi, King County — review of

transit related information

Consultant Team

• Otak, Inc.Mandi Roberts, Project ManagerTracy Black, Document Editorin association with:KJS Associates, Inc.Pacific Rim Resources, Inc.Lin & Associates, Inc.

Project Managers

• Mike Dornfeld, WSDOT• Ned Conroy, Puget Sound Regional Council



How Should theInformation in ThisGuidebook Be Used?

The information presented in this guidebookshould not be interpreted as standards,specifications, requirements, or regulations,but rather as design guidelines.

The guidelines included in this guidebookapply to normal situations encountered duringproject development. Unique design problemssometimes require flexibility in designsolutions. Other available design informationand all applicable federal, state, and localrequirements should be reviewed as part ofproject design.

The information presented in this guidebookmay not solve all problems associated withpedestrian travel, but it provides a “first step”in establishing a consistent set of statewideguidelines for design of pedestrian facilities.

The guidebook can also be used as a tool tobuild consensus on sometimes differingapproaches to design.

The guidelines in this guidebook are oftenpresented in terms of “desirable” and“minimum” dimensions or recommendations.These recommendations should be appliedwith professional judgement to achieve designsolutions that are specifically tailored to thecircumstances encountered. For example, if asidewalk receives a high amount of use, theproject designer or local design reviewer mayelect to apply the “desirable” dimension overthe “minimum” for the sidewalk width.

This guidebook represents the work of theAdvisory Group and is not necessarily theposition of any of the agencies involved.

Relationship to OtherGuidelines andStandards

Cities and counties may already have adoptedstandards related to design of pedestrianfacilities that supersede the guidelines in thisguidebook. When no standards have beenadopted by federal, state, or local agencies,these guidelines and other documents canprovide useful direction to designpractitioners. Eventually, local agencies mayamend their current design standards toincorporate all or portions of these guidelines.

Pedestrian facilities should be designed andbuilt in accordance with existing federal,state, and local standards as applicable. In

How to UseThis Guidebook

Washington pedestrians live, work, and play ina wide variety of settings, and design ofpedestrian facilities needs to be adaptable tothese settings.

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6

some situations, the current standard maynot be achievable due to geometric,environmental, or other constraints. In thesecircumstances, variances from the standardmay be acceptable; however, a facility shouldnot typically be built to less than theminimum standards described. Deviationsfrom standards should be documented and

justified through special studies. Refer to theLocal Agency Guidelines (LAG) Manual forprocedures for deviating from standards.Table 4 lists several documents that includeother design information related topedestrians.

Permission toReproduce and Copy

Permission is granted by the authors andsponsors of this guidebook to all other partiesto make and distribute copies of all or portionsof the information in this guidebook, withoutlimitations, in accordance with the “fair use”provisions of the United States Copyright Act.

Where Can You Findthe Information YouNeed in ThisGuidebook?

About Pedestrians

Refer to the next section of this guidebook,About Pedestrians, for information about theneeds and characteristics of pedestrians andfactors that affect pedestrian travel.

Design Toolkit

The Design Toolkit provides recommendationsunder 11 topics. A directory of the toolkittopics is provided on the first page of theDesign Toolkit for easy reference. Toolkit 1 —General Design Guidelines, provides a general

Table 4

Other Documents to Review forPedestrian Facility Design

• Local design standards, zoning codesand development codes

• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)Federal Requirements

• Manual on Uniform Traffic ControlDevices, Federal HighwayAdministration, USDOT

• A Policy on Geometric Design ofHighways and Streets, AmericanAssociation of State Highway andTransportation Officials (AASHTO)

• Uniform Building Code (UBC),International Conference of BuildingOfficials, and/or locally adoptedbuilding code

• Local Agency Guidelines Manual,WSDOT

• A Guidebook for Student PedestrianSafety, WSDOT

• A Guidebook for Residential TrafficManagement, WSDOT

• Design Manual, Section 1020 Facilitiesfor Nonmotorized Transportation,WSDOT

• Guide for the Development of BicycleFacilities, AASHTO

Note: This is only a partial list and does notinclude all available resources. See the ResourceGuide for other relevant publications

Look for the Boxes

Important and helpful information ishighlighted in boxes like this one,throughout the guidebook.



overview of design considerations related topedestrians and creating pedestrian friendlycommunities. Toolkit 2 — Accessibility,provides recommendations and guidelinesrelated to accessible design and compliancewith the Americans with Disabilities Act(ADA). The remaining toolkit sections focus onmore specific areas of pedestrian facilitydesign.

Resource Guide

Look in the Resource Guide near the end ofthis guidebook for a comprehensive list ofsources related to planning and design ofpedestrian facilities. Relevant sources ofinformation related to pedestrian facilitiesaddressed are also listed at the end of eachtoolkit section.

Glossary

A glossary is provided at the end of thisguidebook. Terms and acronyms related topedestrian facilities addressed in thisguidebook are defined and described.

Index

The index at the end of this guidebookprovides an alphabetical listing of subjectheadings and words to help you quickly findinformation about specific topics.

Sometimes, there's more than "one-way" to findthe best solution for design of pedestrianfacilities.

Metric to English Conversion Chart

Dimensions are shown in metric throughoutthe document with English equivalentsfollowing in parentheses. A metric to Englishconversion chart is provided near the end ofthe guidebook for easy reference purposes.

Comment Request Form

A comment request form is provided on thelast page of the guidebook. If you havecomments on the guidebook, please fill outthis form and return it to the WSDOT addressshown. Your input will be referenced for future

updates and revisions to the guidebook.

About Pedestrians


AboutPedestrians

Understanding the needs and characteristicsof pedestrians and factors that affectpedestrian travel is important when designingpedestrian facilities. This part of theguidebook describes the many types ofpedestrians and provides information aboutpedestrian safety and current research onlevels of pedestrian travel.

Pedestrians Defined

Every trip begins and ends as a pedestriantrip — whether walking to a bus stop or acrossa parking lot to your car.

Washington State law defines a Pedestrianas:

“Any person who is afoot or who is using awheelchair or a means of conveyancepropelled by human power other than abicycle” (RCW 46.04.400),

and a Handicapped Pedestrian as:

“A pedestrian, or person in a wheelchair,who has limited mobility, stamina, agility,reaction time, impaired vision or hearing,or who may have difficulty walking withor without assistive devices” (WAC 236-60-010).

By state definition, rollerskaters, in-lineskaters, and skateboarders are alsopedestrians.

Pedestrian Safety

Analysis of pedestrian/motor vehicle collisionscan help establish engineering, education, andenforcement solutions. Most reportedpedestrian injuries are a result of collisionswith motor vehicles. The Washington TrafficSafety Commission reported that there were2,029 pedestrians struck by motor vehicles inthe state of Washington in 1995. Of those, 75pedestrians were killed, accounting for 11.5percent of all persons killed in traffic-relatedcollisions.

According to Walk Tall: A Citizen’s Guide toWalkable Communities, published by thePedestrian Federation of America in 1995, theaverage cost to society of a pedestrian-motorvehicle collision is $312,000, or a total of $32billion each year, nationwide. Commoncharacteristics of pedestrian collisions arelisted in Table 5.

Vehicle speed is a significant factor in causingfatalities as a result of pedestrian collisions.Every trip begins and ends as a pedestrian trip.

About Pedestrians


The faster a motorist drives, the more likelyinjuries to a person on foot will result indeath. The chart in Figure 1 illustrates therate of death that occurs in correlation to thespeed of a vehicle involved.

As the figure shows, when collisions occurwith the vehicle travelling at a speed of 65

kph (40 mph), 85 percent of pedestrians arekilled, compared to a death rate of 45 percentat a vehicle speed of 50 kph (30 mph), andonly 5 percent at a vehicle speed of 30 kph (20mph). The ability to stop in time for crossingpedestrians also significantly decreases asvehicle speed increases, as shown in Figure 2.

Another common reason for pedestrian/automobile collisions is driver inattention. In1995, the Washington Traffic SafetyCommission conducted a survey to measuredriver compliance with the pedestriancrosswalk law. Over one-third of observeddrivers did not fully comply with this law.

Table 5

Common Characteristics ofPedestrian Collisions

• Driver inattention

• Struck by vehicle while crossing at anintersection (50 percent of allcollisions)

• Struck by vehicle while crossing mid-block (33 percent of all collisions)

• Struck from behind while walkingalong the roadway in the samedirection as traffic (particularly inrural areas)

• Motorist exceeding safe speed(contributes to most pedestriandeaths)

• Darting out into the street at mid-block (most common type of pedestriancollision for children)

• Vehicles backing up (difficult to seechildren and others walking behind)

• Collisions in urban areas (80 percentof all collisions)

Sources: Washington State Bicycle Transportationand Pedestrian Walkways Plan; Pedestrian andBicycle Crash Types of the Early 1990s; (Snyder,Knoblauch, Moore, and Schmitz; Cross and Fisher)

Figure 1

Source: Walk Tall: A Citizen’s Guide to WalkableCommunities

Fatalities Based on Speed ofVehicle

About Pedestrians


Children and Older Adults

Pedestrians most likely to be involved incollisions are also the ones who most rely onpedestrian travel for transportation —children and older adults. In Washington,children and young adults age 5 to 19constitute only 21.8 percent of the population;yet between 1990 and 1995, this groupaccounted for 34.3 percent of all pedestrianinjuries nationwide (Washington StatePedestrian Collision Data, 1990 to 1995).According to the Washington StateDepartment of Health, in 1989-1990,pedestrian collisions were the third highestcause of hospitalizations for unintentionalinjuries of children between the ages of 5 and14 years in Washington. The WashingtonTraffic Safety Commission reported in 1995that the age groups of 10 to 14 and 15 to 19were struck by motor vehicles at a muchhigher average rate than other age groups.

People over age 65 represented 13 percent ofthe national population in 1992; yet accountedfor 23 percent of all pedestrian deaths duringthat same year (Walk Alert, NationalPedestrian Safety Program Guide).Pedestrians over 65 are two to four times morelikely to die when involved in a pedestrian-motor vehicle collision. Older adults areparticularly more vulnerable while crossingthe street, since they need more time to cross.

Pedestrian Needs

In order to successfully design pedestrianfacilities, we must recognize that pedestrianneeds are wide-ranging, and our designapproach must be flexible to meet thediversity of needs.

For some of Washington’s population,pedestrian travel is the primary mode oftransportation. Citizens in this segment of thepopulation include those who do not use a

Figure 2

Thinking and Stopping Distances Related to Speed of Travel(Under Optimum Conditions)

Note: Safe stopping sight distances may differ from these distances. Refer to AASHTO.Source: Walk Tall: A Citizen’s Guide to Walkable Communities; Killing Speed and Saving Lives

About Pedestrians


motor vehicle including some older adults,children and young adults, people who walk tothe bus or other forms of transit, people withcertain disabilities, and people who can’tafford to own cars. There are also many whochoose pedestrian travel as their primarymode.

One common obstacle in design of pedestrianfacilities is assuming that one standard can beapplied to fit an “average” population. Forexample, the speed that pedestrians travel canvary greatly, yet pedestrian signals are oftentimed for average walking speeds of 4.8 to 6.4kph (3 to 4 mph). Children, older adults, andpeople with certain disabilities typically travelat much lower walking speeds 3.2 kph (2mph).

Pedestrian needs are diverse. Some typicalpedestrian needs are listed in Table 6.

Acceptable Walking Distances

Acceptable walking distances will varydepending on geography, climate conditions,and land use patterns. The distancepedestrians will travel is also influenced bythe weather, the time of day, demographics,the purpose of their trip, and many otherfactors. Most people will walk longerdistances for recreational purposes, but preferto walk shorter distances when they arecommuting or in a hurry, such as from the busstop to their office. Guidelines for acceptablewalking distances are listed below.

• Traditionally, planners strive to locatecommunity facilities, neighborhood parks,and other popular pedestrian origins anddestinations no more than 400 meters (one-quarter mile) from the origin of mostpedestrian travel.

• Site designers typically use 90 meters (300feet) as the maximum distance from parkingand site pedestrian circulation to buildingentrances. Street crossings are typicallymost effective when located approximately120 to 180 meters (400 to 600 feet) apart inareas heavily used by pedestrians.

• A Guide to Land Use and PublicTransportation, Volume I, published bySNO-TRAN, states that pedestrians can beexpected to travel about 300 meters (1,000feet) to a transit stop or park-and-ride space— about 230 meters (750 feet) for mobilityimpaired — and about 535 meters (1,758feet or one-third mile) to a commuter railstation.

Table 6

Some Important Needs ofPedestrians

• Safe streets and walking areas

• Convenience

• Nearby places to walk

• Visibility

• Comfort and shelter

• Attractive and clean environment

• Access to transit

• Interesting things to look at whilewalking

• Social interaction

About Pedestrians


Spatial Needs

Figure 3 illustrates approximate humandimensions when walking and sitting.For two people walking side-by-side or passingeach other while travelling in oppositedirections, the average space taken up is 1.4meters (4 feet 8 inches).

Walking rates slow when pedestrian volumesincrease and square footage per persondecreases. Figure 4 illustrates how average

flow volumes decrease on walkways withincreasing degrees of pedestrian density.A spatial bubble is the preferred distance ofunobstructed forward vision while walkingunder various circumstances. Figure 5illustrates the spatial bubbles that arecomfortable for the average pedestrian whileattending a public event, shopping, walkingunder normal conditions, and walking forpleasure. This information is helpful to thedesigner for use in calculating how muchforward clear space is necessary to maintain areasonable degree of comfort for pedestrians.

FV = flow volumeAS = average speedO = occupancypfm = pedestrian per foot width of walkway per

minutesf/p = square feet per person

Source: Adapted from Time-Saver Standards forLandscape Architecture

FV: 20 pfm 25 pfm > 25 pfmAS: 2.3 mph 1.5 mph 0-1.25 mphO: 10 sf/p 5 sf/p < 5 sf/p

FV: 7 pfm 10 pfm 15 pfmAS: 3 mph 2.8 mph 2.6 mphO: 36 sf/p 25 sf/p 15 sf/p

Spatial Needs for Pedestrians

Figure 4

Figure 3

Source: Adapted from Time-Saver Standards forLandscape Architecture

Human Dimensions WhenWalking and Sitting

About Pedestrians


Children and Older Adults

Different pedestrian age groups have differentneeds. Table 7 summarizes commonpedestrian characteristics related to agegroups.

The primary need of young pedestrians isadult supervision. Even design with the bestof intentions cannot fully protect childrenfrom the dangers of streets. Educationalprograms geared toward increasing a child’sawareness of traffic and safety measures arean important tool to increasing their safety aspedestrians. In addition to adult supervisionand effective education programs, good designof the places children walk most, such asschool zones and school walking routes,neighborhood streets, and parks, cansignificantly help to improve their safety.

Older adults have a variety of needs aspedestrians. Research shows that people over60 walk more, yet in some cases may haveimpaired mobility. Table 8 lists someexamples of elements that aid older adults intheir travel as pedestrians.

Table 7

Common PedestrianCharacteristics by Age Group

Age 0 to 4 • Learning to walk• Requiring constant

parental supervision• Developing peripheral

vision, depth perception

Age 5 to 12 • Increasing independence,but still requiringsupervision

• Poor depth perception• Susceptible to “dart out”/

intersection dash

Age 13 to 18 • Sense of invulnerability• Intersection dash

Age 19 to 40 • Active, fully aware oftraffic environment

Age 41 to 65 • Slowing of reflexes

Age 65+ • Street crossing difficulty• Poor vision• Difficulty hearing

vehicles approachingfrom behind

• High fatality rate

Source: Washington State Bicycle Transportationand Pedestrian Walkways Plan, 1994

Figure 5

Source: Adapted from Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Architecture

Spatial Bubbles

About Pedestrians


People With Disabilities

People with disabilities, including those usingspecial walking aids or wheelchairs, needcarefully designed facilities that eliminatebarriers.

The needs of pedestrians with disabilities canvary widely depending on the type of disabilityand level of impairment. Elements that arehelpful to people with disabilities are listed inTable 9.

Space requirements for pedestrians withdisabilities vary considerably depending upontheir physical abilities and the assistivedevices they use. Spaces designed toaccommodate wheelchair users are generallyconsidered to be functional and advantageousfor most people. Figure 6 illustrates thespatial dimensions of a wheelchair user, aperson on crutches, and a sight-impairedperson.

Table 8

Aids to Older Pedestrians

• Reduced roadway crossing distances(bulb-outs and curb extensions)

• Signals within 60 feet of viewingdistance; easy-to-read signs

• Refuge areas in roadway crossings

• Traffic calming

• Shelter and shade

• Handrails

• Smooth surfaces and unobstructedtravel ways

• Signal timing at lower than averagewalking speed

Table 9

Aids to Pedestrians WithDisabilities

• Curb cuts and ramps

• Tactile warnings

• Easy-to-reach activation buttons

• Audible warnings and messagesystems

• Raised and Braille letters forcommunication

• Signal timing at lower than averagewalking speed

• Maximum grade of 1:20 and crossslope of 1:50 (ramps can be 1:12)

• Roadway crossing refuges

• Reduced roadway crossing distances(bulb-outs and curb extensions)

• Traffic calming

• Handrails

• Smooth surfaces and unobstructedtravel ways

Research shows that older adults walk morethan other age groups.

About Pedestrians


Levels of Use andTravel Characteristics

Various Settings

Different areas in Washington experiencedifferent levels of pedestrian travel. In certainurban areas, the level of walking is higher. InSeattle, for example, approximately sevenpercent of commute trips are walking trips.The Centennial Trail along the Spokane Riverprovides a pedestrian and bicycle link throughSpokane and is considered the centerpiece ofsuccessful redevelopment efforts in the citycenter. Table 10 lists some reasons why urbanareas receive high pedestrian use.

In spite of the two good examples of Seattleand Spokane, walking typically still onlycomprises between one and four percent of allcommute trips in Washington overall. Thislow pedestrian commute percentage leads tothe conclusion that there is an enormousamount of untapped potential to increasewalking as a mode of commuting inWashington (State Bicycle Transportation andPedestrian Walkways Plan).

Pedestrian travel is higher in urban areas, butpedestrians can also be found in suburban andrural areas. There is a common misconceptionthat people who live in the suburbs do notwalk, but research indicates that this is not

Source: Accessibility Design for All

Figure 6

Spatial Dimensions for People With Disabilities

Sight Impaired

About Pedestrians


the case, particularly in suburban areas thatprovide an interconnected and continuoussystem of well-designed pedestrian facilities.Anne Vernez-Moudon’s research paper, Effectsof Site Design on Pedestrian Travel in Mixed-Use, Medium Density Environments,December 1996, found that relatively highnumbers of people walk in suburban centers,where adequate pedestrian facilities areprovided. (See the discussion related to thisresearch later in this section.)

It is also important to recognize that peopleliving in suburban and rural areas travel aspedestrians for different purposes than thoseliving in urban areas. Suburban and ruralpedestrian trips are often associated withwalking to schools or school bus stops, transitbus stops, or for recreation and leisurepurposes, and fewer people walk for the

purpose of running errands, shopping, andtravelling to community services.

Trip Characteristics

Pedestrians travel for a wide variety ofreasons. In Washington and throughout theUnited States, pedestrian travel is gainingrenewed attention as a form of transportation.Pedestrian travel and other modes oftransportation are being encouraged asalternatives to single occupant vehicle travelfor energy conservation, reduced trafficcongestion, and better air quality. Table 11lists various types of trips more and morepeople are choosing to make as pedestrians.Table 12 lists facts related to pedestrian trips.

Research on Pedestrian Use

Research has shown that more people walk inareas where pedestrian improvements andfacilities have been constructed.Table 10

Why Urban Areas Receive HighPedestrian Use

• Higher densities of residences,businesses, and other origins anddestinations

• Traffic congestion

• High concentrations of origin anddestination points

• Shopping and services are moreaccessible to pedestrians

• Average trip distances are shorter

• Parking is too costly or unavailable

• Transit service is more readilyavailable

• More available pedestrian facilities

Table 11

Typical Types of PedestrianTrips

(Why People Walk)

• To and from work and school

• Social visits and events

• Appointments

• Health and exercise

• Errands and deliveries

• Recreation

• Extra curricular activities

• Combined (recreational walking whileshopping)

• Multimodal trips (walking to a bus stop)

About Pedestrians


University of Washington StudyAs previously discussed, recent researchconducted by the University of WashingtonDepartment of Urban Planning (Dr. AnneVernez-Moudon) studied 12 locations in thePuget Sound region, six in urban areas and sixin suburban areas, each with similarpopulation densities, land use characteristics,and demographics. The variable at eachlocation was the extent of pedestrian facilitiesprovided. The study established two primarycriteria for measuring the extent of facilities:completeness of the pedestrian network(extent, distribution, and type of facilities);and pedestrian route directness (traveldistance, distance contour, and relateddensities).

According to this research, the measurestraditionally used to predict pedestrianvolumes (population density, land usedistribution, and intensity) are insufficient toexplain pedestrian volumes. Site design,community layout (block size), and thepresence of pedestrian facilities must also beconsidered. This research confirms thatpedestrian volumes in suburban areas havethe potential to increase when facilities

(sidewalks, walkways, crosswalks, and otherimprovements) are added.

The foregone conclusion of this study was thatin locations where there were more completefacilities and direct routes provided forpedestrians, there were more pedestrianswalking (Effects of Site Design on PedestrianTravel in Mixed-Use Medium DensityEnvironments).

National Biking and Walking StudyThe National Biking and Walking Study,conducted in 1993, included 24 case studiesthat provided in-depth information on specifictopics related to bicycling and walking. CaseStudy No. 4, Measures to OvercomeImpediments to Bicycling and Walking, citedthree primary categories of reasons for notwalking:• Facility deficiencies• Information or knowledge deficiencies• Motivational deficiencies

Facility deficiencies include lack of adequatefacilities and connectivity. Information orknowledge deficiencies are a result of peoplenot knowing about the level of walkingopportunities available to them. Motivationaldeficiencies have to do with attitudes andbehaviors — people not walking becausedistances between origins and destinations aretoo long, walking is not convenient, theweather is poor, or they feel uncomfortable orunprotected as pedestrians. In many casesinformation/knowledge and motivationaldeficiencies would decrease as a result ofimprovements to pedestrian facilities andexpanding the pedestrian network.

Pedestrian Trip Facts

• Pedestrian trips account for 39 percentof all trips less than one mile, rankingsecond only to private motor vehicletrips

• 73 percent of all pedestrian trips areless than one-half mile

• One out of five trips is work related

Sources: Washington State Bicycle Transportationand Pedestrian Walkways Plan; Best Foot ForwardPedestrian News

Table 12

About Pedestrians


Desire for Improved PedestrianFacilities

Public opinion surveys have shown that peoplehave a desire to walk and would increase theamount of pedestrian travel they do if betterfacilities were available. One surveyconducted at the national level is the 1990Harris Poll. In this survey, 59 percent ofrespondents said they would be willing towalk outdoors or walk more often if therewere safe designated paths or walkways(Pathways for People, Emmaus PA, 1992).A survey conducted by the City of Bellevuefound similar results when polling students insixth through twelfth grades in Bellevuepublic and private schools. The Youth LinkTransportation Survey compiled the responsesof 900 students and determined the followingfindings:

• Approximately 75 percent of the studentswould consider walking or bicycling to schoolas an alternative transportation mode.

• There are several factors that would causestudents to be more likely to walk to school,including safer crossings (25 percent), betterlighting (29.7 percent), better sidewalks(36.5 percent), and people to walk with (44.9percent).

Table 13 lists some common reasons for lowlevels of pedestrian travel.

Forecasting Pedestrian Use

At times, pedestrian facility improvementsand expansions are not supported becauseexisting use levels are low. As discussedabove, there are several studies that haveshown that when facilities are added andimproved within a community, more peoplewill walk. Design practitioners frequentlyinquire about more formal methods availableto forecast pedestrian use levels.

Forecasting methods may provide aquantitative approach to determining thedemand for pedestrian facilities, but thisapproach shouldn’t replace a common sense

Pedestrians come in all sizes.

Table 13

Common Reasons for LowLevels of Pedestrian Travel

• Poor facilities; lack of sidewalks orwalkways

• Failure to provide a contiguous systemof pedestrian facilities

• Concerns for personal safety

• Failure to provide facilities to andfrom popular origins and destinations

• Inclement weather

• Poor lighting

• Lack of separated facilities

Sources: Washington State Bicycle Transportationand Pedestrian Walkways Plan; National Bikingand Walking Study Case Study #4

About Pedestrians


thought process to determine the necessity forfacilities. Table 14 lists questions that shouldbe asked when considering what types ofpedestrian facilities should be developedunder various circumstances.

Table 14

Ask the Following Questions

• Are there origins and destinationswithin acceptable pedestrian traveldistances that will generate trips?- schools and parks- shopping areas- medical facilities- social services- housing- community and recreational centers- transit/park-and-ride

• Does the existing street or roadwayprovide pedestrian facilities?

• What is the setting (urban center,residential, rural)?

• Are there high traffic volumes andspeeds that could affect pedestrianuse?

• Can pedestrians cross withouttravelling more than 120 to 180meters (400 to 600 feet) to anintersection or another crossing point?

• Are transit or school bus stops locatedalong the roadway with safe accessand crossing?

• Is there an opportunity to complete acontiguous system by filling in existinggaps?

• Are there barriers to pedestrian travelthat can be removed or opened (dead-end routes, blocked passages)?

21

Design Toolkit


Design ToolkitThe design toolkit provides specific designguidelines and information organized under11 “toolkit” sections:

Toolkit 1 General Design Guidelines

Toolkit 2 Accessibility

Toolkit 3 Children and School Zones

Toolkit 4 Trails and Pathways

Toolkit 5 Sidewalks and Walkways

Toolkit 6 Intersections

Toolkit 7 Crossings

Toolkit 8 Traffic Calming

Toolkit 9 Pedestrian Access to Transit

Toolkit 10 Site Design for Pedestrians

Toolkit 11 Safety in Work Zones

Well designed pedestrian facilities enhance the livability of our communities.

22

Design Toolkit


23

General Design Guidelinesuuuuu1


This section provides an introduction to thedesign toolkit by first defining “pedestrianfacilities” according to Washington law andpolicy. Next, a brief overview of theimportance of good design for pedestrians isprovided, followed by a discussion related tosome general pedestrian planning and designguidelines that can be applied on a communityor region wide basis. The design informationpresented in this section provides importantbasic guidance for improving overallconditions for pedestrians in Washington,thereby encouraging pedestrian travel as analternative to single occupant vehicles andenhancing our quality of life.

This Toolkit SectionAddresses:

• Pedestrian Facilities Defined

• The Importance of Good Design forPedestrians

• The “Bigger Picture” — Creating PedestrianFriendly Communities

• Creating a Continuous Pedestrian System

• Creating an Effective Pedestrian System

• Pedestrian Friendly Streets

• Other Sources of Information

General DesignGuidelines

uuuuuToolkit 1

Pedestrian “facilities” include more than just sidewalks, as described in Table 15.

24



Pedestrian FacilitiesDefined

The 1994 Washington State Policy Planrecognizes that “pedestrian facilities” are farmore extensive than the simple definition of asidewalk as defined by Washington law.Table 15 compares the expanded definition ofpedestrian facilities to the definition of asidewalk.

The Importance ofGood Design forPedestrians

Pedestrians are an integral part ofWashington’s transportation system. Theimportance of good design not only applies todevelopment of new facilities, but also toimprovement and retrofit of existing facilitiesfor pedestrian use. When pedestrian access isexpanded and existing conditions forpedestrians are improved, higher numbers ofpedestrians can be expected to use thesystem. Research has shown that welldesigned and maintained pedestrian facilitiesencourage walking and promote higher levelsof pedestrian travel.

Pedestrians want facilities that are safe,attractive, convenient, and easy to use. Ifdesigned properly, the best public pedestrianfacilities can also be the most durable and theeasiest to maintain. Poor design of pedestrianfacilities can lead to perpetual problems andcan actually discourage use if pedestrians aremade to feel unsafe, unprotected, oruncomfortable. Unattractive, inadequate, andpoorly designed and maintained facilities canbe an unfortunate waste of money andresources and a hindrance to communityvitality.

Pedestrian facilities include furnishings thatcreate a pedestrian friendly atmosphere.

Table 15

Expanded Definition ofPedestrian Facilities

Pedestrian facilities include:

• Sidewalks and on-street facilities• Walkways and trails• Curb ramps• Traffic calming and control devices• Crosswalks• Grade separations (such as

underpasses and overpasses)• Wide shoulders in rural areas• Furnishings that create a pedestrian

friendly atmosphere (such as benchesand landscaping)

• Other technology, design features, andstrategies intended to encouragepedestrian travel (such as trafficcalming devices including trafficcircles, speed humps), planting strips,shelters, public art, and lighting

Source: Washington State Policy Plan, 1994

Definition of sidewalk:

A sidewalk means property between thecurb lines in the lateral line of a roadwayand adjacent property, set aside andintended for the use of pedestrians orsuch portion of private property paralleland in proximity to public highway anddedicated to use by pedestrians.

Source: Revised Code of Washington (RCW)46.04.540

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Consider pedestrian facilities at the inceptionof all public and private projects, and addresspedestrian needs as part of the total designsolution. Examples of considering pedestrianfacilities at the onset would be creating apedestrian circulation master plan as part ofpreparing a community plan or projectspecific design such as an intermodaltransportation facility. This allows forpotential conflicts between transportationmodes related to safety and level of service tobe resolved early on and avoids the problemsof pedestrians being an afterthought in thedesign process.

Consider the character and setting of thearea, nearby land use densities, origins anddestinations, and the level of pedestrian use,including the increase in use that may occurwhen pedestrian improvements are installed.Often, decisions not to install pedestrianfacilities are short sighted, based on theperception that an area with low pedestrianuse doesn’t need improvement. In reality,pedestrians are probably not using the systembecause it is not adequately meeting theirneeds under existing conditions. Sometimesland use changes and facilities need to beupgraded to serve more intensive pedestriantravel. After conditions are improved,pedestrian use can almost always be expectedto increase, based on recent research findings(see About Pedestrians).

Good design is an important factor inincorporating pedestrians into Washington’stransportation system, but it can’t beexpected to solve all pedestrian relatedproblems. Education and enforcement areother important tools that heightenawareness of pedestrians. Pro-activestatewide, regional, and local policydevelopment typically sets the stage forestablishing a stronger focus on pedestrianissues and encouraging communities to better

meet pedestrian needs. Table 16 describesthe state policy for achieving a multimodal

Table 16

State Policy for EncouragingPedestrian Travel

• Local, regional, and state jurisdictionsaddressing pedestrian issues throughcomprehensive planning as requiredby the Intermodal SurfaceTransportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA)

• Considering pedestrian needs in alltransportation facilities

• Reinforcing a sense of neighborhoodand community with transportationdesigns that accommodate pedestrianuse

• Ensuring a connected system ofpedestrian routes in urban areas

• Enhancing pedestrian mobility andsafety in rural areas

• Defining jurisdictional roles inproviding pedestrian facilities

• Encouraging land use andtransportation development thataccommodates pedestrians

• Providing pedestrian facilities thatcomplement local business activity andprovide access for employees

• Enhancing intermodal access forpersons with impaired mobility

• Maintaining the existingtransportation system adequately sopedestrian use is maximized

Source: Washington State Transportation Policy

26



transportation system that encouragespedestrian travel.

The �Bigger Picture� �Creating PedestrianFriendly Communities

There are many good sources of informationabout how to plan and design pedestrian-

friendly communities, as listed at the end ofthis toolkit section. Some commoncharacteristics of pedestrian friendlycommunities are listed in Table 17.

Table 17

Common Characteristics of Pedestrian Friendly Communities

CoordinationBetweenJurisdictions

Linkages to a Varietyof Land Uses/RegionalConnectivity

ContinuousSystems/Connectivity

Shortened-Trips andConvenient Access

ContinuousSeparation fromTraffic

PedestrianSupportive LandUse Patterns

Well-FunctioningFacilities

Designated Space

Security andVisibility

Putting pedestrian facilities in place to meet current and future needsrequires close coordination between jurisdictions and other modes oftransportation.

Pedestrian circulation and access is provided to shopping malls,transit, downtown, schools, parks, offices, mixed-use developments,and other community origins and destinations, as well as othercommunities within the region, as illustrated in Figure 7.

A complete system of interconnected streets, pedestrian walkways, andother pedestrian facilities will increase pedestrian travel.

Connections are provided between popular origins and destinations,between dead-end streets or cul-de-sacs, or as shortcuts through openspaces, as illustrated in Figure 8.

Minimized or eliminated street and driveway crossings are providedand well defined. Buffers from motor vehicles and separation of usesare provided.

Land use patterns, such as a grid layout or short blocks in businessdistricts and downtowns enhance pedestrian mobility.

Adequate width and sight distance, accessible grades, and alignment toavoid blind corners are provided. Common problems, such as poordrainage, are avoided.

Pedestrian facilities should be well delineated, signed, and marked.

Design to ensure a secure environment for pedestrians is important.Lighting, increased visibility, open sight-lines, and access to police andemergency vehicles, and locating pedestrian facilities adjacent to

27



Table 17 (Continued)

Automobile is notthe OnlyConsideration

NeighborhoodTraffic Calming

Accessible andAppropriatelyLocated Transit

Lively PublicSpaces

Character

ScenicOpportunities

PedestrianFurnishings

Street Trees andLandscaping

DesignRequirements

ProperMaintenance

Streets are designed for all modes of transportation. Parking supply isreduced or managed using methods that encourage walking.

Narrowed streets lined with trees, traffic circles, curb bulbs, neck-downs, and other techniques can lower vehicle speeds and create saferconditions for pedestrians.

Siting of transit facilities adjacent to work, residential areas, shopping,and recreational facilities encourages pedestrian trips. Transit stopsand centers should typically be located in areas of supporting densities(4 to 7 units per acre minimum). Development of adequate pedestrianfacilities to access transit is essential to their success as an alternativemode of travel.

Secure, attractive, and active spaces provide focal points in thecommunity where people can gather and interact. Pedestrian pocketparks and plazas are examples.

Preservation of important cultural, historic, and architecturalresources strengthens community heritage and character.

Attractive environments and scenic views encourage pedestrian use,particularly when facilities are oriented toward them.

Providing furnishings, such as benches, restrooms, drinking fountains,artwork and other elements, creates a more attractive and functionalenvironment for pedestrians.

Street trees bring human scale to the street environment.Landscaping and flowers in planting strips, containers, and otherareas soften surrounding hard edges of buildings and parking lots andadd life, color, and texture to the pedestrian's field of vision.

Guidelines and adopted standards are followed and, if deviated from,justified and documented.

Frequent cleanup and repair on a regular basis ensures ongoing,consistent use.

Common Characteristics of Pedestrian Friendly Communities (Continued)

28



Creating a ContinuousPedestrian System

The pedestrian transportation system inWashington should be consistent acrossjurisdictional boundaries and public andprivate developments. Regional and localpedestrian systems need to be planned,designed, and constructed to provide acomprehensive network of travel options forpedestrians.

The design guidelines in this guidebookencourage more consistent design ofpedestrian facilities throughout the state, butthe responsibility to develop and support aseamless pedestrian transportation networklies with everyone. Under current state law,local jurisdictions have the authority torequire property owners and developers toprovide sidewalks (Washington State PolicyPlan). Targeting public funding so thatstrategically located projects can be designedand built to fill in the gaps between privatedevelopment is one way to help improve theoverall system. Retrofit of existing areaswhere pedestrian facilities are inadequate isanother important step. The development of aseamless pedestrian system will be the resultof both public and private investmentthroughout neighborhoods and communities.

Coordination between agencies, governments,and private entities is critical to the success ofregional pedestrian systems. School districts,utility companies, private corporations, andlocal agencies need to work together at theonset of transportation and developmentprojects to reach the best solutions for allinterests involved. Consider the needs ofpedestrians throughout project planning,design, and development processes at alllevels, with particular interest towardincreasing pedestrian safety and mobility, andimproving the pedestrian network overall.

Creating an EffectivePedestrian System

Pedestrian systems and facilities need to befunctional and effectively used by pedestrians.The National Bicycle and Walking Studyconducted by the US Department ofTransportation in 1992 provides a broadapproach in its description of making apedestrian system effective. The study states:

“Pedestrian facilities both encourage people towalk and improve pedestrian safety alongcertain routes. The facilities must be well-designed and maintained to be effective, andmust include the following features:

• Widened paved shoulders to allow safertravel for pedestrians;

• Sidewalks, paths or walkways which arewide, relatively clear of obstructions andseparated from traffic lanes;

• Grade separated pedestrian crossings,which are clearly justified, since suchfacilities go unused or create illegal streetcrossing behavior by pedestrians if notproperly planned, designed and located;

• Pedestrian malls which are well-plannedwith respect to commercial development,traffic circulation and visual appeal;

• Proper design and operation of traffic andpedestrian signals, including pedestrianpush buttons, where appropriate;

• Barriers that physically separatepedestrians from motor vehicle traffic atselected locations; (see page 30)

29



Figure 7

Creating an Effective Pedestrian System

1 Locate parking near the buildings theyserve.

2 Drop-off zones are most convenient whenlocated as close to the primary entrance tothe building as possible. Provide curbcuts for pedestrian accessibility.Walkways should be unobstructed.Access to drop-off areas, parking, andbuilding entries should be direct andconvenient.

3 Provide site entrances that are welldefined and conveniently located inrelation to the site and the building.

4 Use clear and easy to read signage todirect pedestrians to their origins anddestinations.

5 Provide building entries that are clearlyidentified and accessible. Locate publicfacilities (restrooms, phones, drinkingfountains) near entryways and accessibleroutes.

6 Locate waiting areas within 90 m (300 ft)of building entries. Avoid trafficcongestion. Overhead shelters orawnings next to buildings provideprotection from weather. Provideadequate seating and lighting.

7 Provide resting areas where pedestriansmust walklongdistances.Benches andotherfurnishingsshould notencroach onwalkways.

8 Providewalkways

along clear and direct routes throughoutthe site. Surfaces should be firm andlevel. Curb cuts and ramps should beprovided where necessary. Accessiblewalkways should be continuous (not dead-ends).

9 Locate transit stops in highly visible andconvenient areas. Provide pedestrianshelters.

Source: Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Architecture, adapted with revisions for this guidebook

30



• Facilities for people with mobility andvisual impairments, including curb ramps,audible pedestrian signals, and longerintervals for slower pedestrian walkingspeeds; and

• Signing and marking, including pavementedgelines and pedestrian warning signswhere needed.”

Figure 7 on the previous page illustrates anexample of how to design effective pedestrianfacilities within an area, including some of thefeatures recommended by the NationalBicycling and Walking Study. Toolkit 10 —Site Design for Pedestrians contains morespecific design guidelines related to sitedevelopment.

Pedestrian FriendlyStreets

Design of pedestrian friendly streets is oftenstrongly encouraged by many currentplanning and design directives at the local andregional levels. The meaning of “pedestrianfriendly” can be interpreted in many ways, butgenerally, the intent is for street design toincorporate elements that enhance the safety,security, comfort, and mobility of pedestrians.Table 18 lists several elements typicallyincluded on pedestrian friendly streets.

• Streets that are interconnected andsmall block patterns provide goodopportunities for pedestrian accessand mobility

• Narrower streets, scaled down forpedestrians and less conducive to highvehicle speeds (note: street trees at thesides of streets create the perception ofa narrower roadway)

• Traffic calming devices to slow traffic(See Toolkit Section 8) or ifappropriate, reduced speed limits

• Median refuge islands to provide arefuge area for crossing pedestrians

• Public spaces and pedestrian “pockets”adjacent to the main pedestrian travelway, that provide a place to rest andinteract (sidewalk cafes, benches, etc.)

• Awnings/covered building entrancesthat shelter pedestrians from weather

• Planting buffers, with landscaping andstreet trees that provide shelter andshade without obstructing sightdistances and help to soften thesurrounding buildings and hardsurfaces

• Street lighting designed to pedestrianscale (shorter light poles withattractive fixtures that are effective inilluminating the pedestrian travel waybut not obtrusive or harsh)

• Wide and continuous sidewalks orseparated walkways that are fullyaccessible

Typical Elements of PedestrianFriendly Streets

Table 18

31



Other Sources ofInformation

The following sources of information arerecommended for general design of pedestrianfacilities. Please see the Resource Guideincluded at the end of this guidebook forcomplete bibliography information.

Accommodating the Pedestrian, AdaptingTowns and Neighborhoods for Walking andBicycling, Richard K. Untermann

A Guide to Land Use and PublicTransportation, The Snohomish CountyTransportation Authority

City Comforts, How to Build an Urban Village,David Sucher

City, Rediscovering the Center, William H.Whyte

Creating Bicycle-Friendly and WalkableCommunities, Pro Bike Pro Walk 96 ResourceBook, Bicycle Federation of America,Pedestrian Federation of America

Creating Transportation Choices ThroughZoning, A Guide for Snohomish CountyCommunities, The Snohomish CountyTransportation Authority

Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities, AProposed Recommended Practice of theInstitute of Transportation Engineers, ITETechnical Council Committee 5A-5

Handbook for Walkable Communities, DanBurden and Michael Wallwork, PE

Handbook of Landscape ArchitecturalConstruction, Volume Two, Site Works,Maurice Nelischer

Municipal Strategies to Increase PedestrianTravel, Washington State Energy Office

National Bicycling and Walking Study, CaseStudy No. 4, Measures to OvercomeImpediments to Bicycling and Walking, USDepartment of Transportation

Pedestrian Malls, Streetscapes, and UrbanSpaces, Harvey M. Rubenstein

Pedestrian Planning and Design, John J.Fruin, PhD


• Clear delineation and direction for thepedestrian (special paving on sidewalkor at edge of pedestrian travel area,easy-to-reach signal actuators, etc.)

• Lively building faces witharchitectural relief, windows, orattractive surfacing.

• Street furnishings, such as benches,garbage receptacles, drinkingfountains, and newspaper stands, ifnot placed in the route of travel

• Public art, murals, banners, sculpturepieces and water features

• Colorful planters, holiday lighting andother attractive features

• Signs, information kiosks, maps andother elements to help pedestrians

Typical Elements of PedestrianFriendly Streets

32



Planning and Implementing PedestrianFacilities in Suburban and Developing RuralAreas Research Report 294A, TransportationResearch Board

Planning and Implementing PedestrianFacilities in Suburban and Developing RuralAreas State-of-the-Art Report 294B,Transportation Research Board

Planning Design and Maintenance ofPedestrian Facilities, Goodell-Grivas, Inc.

Site Planning and Community Design forGreat Neighborhoods, Frederick D. Jarvis

The Car and the City, 24 Steps to Safe Streetsand Healthy Communities, Alan TheinDurning

Time-Saver Standards for LandscapeArchitecture, Design and Construction Data,Charles W. Harris, Nicholas T. Dines

Walk Tall, A Citizen’s Guide to WalkableCommunities, Version 1.0, PedestrianFederation of America

Handbook for Walkable Communities,Washington State Pedestrian FacilitiesPlanning and Design Courses, Dan Burdenand Michael Wallwork, PE

WSDOT Design Manual, 1020 Facilities forNonmotorized Transportation

33P E D E S T R I A N F A C I L I T I E S G U I D E B O O K

Accessibility uuuuu2


• Understanding the ADA• Designing for People With Disabilities• Designing for Older Adults• Accessible Routes of Travel• Eliminating Barriers and Obstacles• Widths and Clearances• Passing and Resting Areas• Grades• Cross Slopes• Sidewalk Curb Ramps• Ramps• Handrails• Accessibility Across Driveways• Surfacing• Textural and Visual Cues• Site Connections• Signing and Other Communication Aids• Lighting• Other Sources of Information

Accessibility

uuuuuToolkit 2

Everyone has an inherent right to accessibility.

Everyone has an inherent right toaccessibility. The overall intent of thistoolkit section is to encourage design thatprovides accessibility to all pedestrians,including people with disabilities and olderadults. People with physical impairmentsand older adults have a wide range of abilitiesand needs, and often rely on pedestrian travelas their only mode of transportation. Just aswe design roadways for use by a wide range ofvehicles, so should we design sidewalks,walkways, crossings, signals and other typesof facilities for use by a wide range ofpedestrians. For a description of the spatialrequirements and general needs ofpedestrians with disabilities and older adults,refer to the section of this guidebook calledAbout Pedestrians.

Understanding theAmericans WithDisabilities Act

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) isa federal law that was enacted in 1990 for thepurpose of ensuring that all Americans havethe same basic rights of access to services andfacilities. The ADA prohibits discriminationon the basis of disability. To effect thisprohibition, the statute required certaindesignated federal agencies to developimplementing regulations. The Americanswith Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines(ADAAG) prepared by the Architectural andTransportation Barriers Compliance Board(also called the Access Board) are a result ofthis rulemaking process. The ADAAG containa wide range of administrative and procedural

34 P E D E S T R I A N F A C I L I T I E S G U I D E B O O K

Accessibilityuuuuu2requirements, including compliance withdesign and construction standards.

The ADA requires pedestrian facilities usedby the general public to be planned, designed,constructed and maintained with theunderstanding that a wide range of peoplewill be using them and relying on them fortheir daily travel, including people withdisabilities. Providing pedestrian facilitiesthat are fully accessible enables people withvarious degrees of mobility and disability toexercise their rights to become as self-sufficient and independent as possible.

The guidelines and standards containedwithin the ADAAG are continually beingupdated and refined, and current versionsshould be reviewed as part the design processfor every project. The ADAAG applies only tonew construction and alterations, but otherlegal requirements of the ADA coverimprovements of existing facilities, includingremoval of barriers in places of publicaccommodation.

In recent years, much information has beendeveloped to respond to the perceptionsplanners and designers have about what theADAAG requires. Some of this informationcan be confusing and conflicting. The designguidelines in this toolkit section help toclarify the regulations of the ADA asdescribed in the ADAAG and the WashingtonState Regulations (WAC 51-30), AccessibilityDesign for All, An Illustrated Handbook,published in 1995.

Designing for PeopleWith Disabilities

Disabilities include a wide range of conditions(hearing and sight impairments, mobilitylimitations, heart disease, etc.)

Approximately 70 percent of all Americanswill have a disability at some point in theirlifetime, either temporarily or permanently(Accessibility Design for All, An IllustratedHandbook). Disabilities can affect peopledifferently and limit abilities to greater orlesser degrees. For this reason, some designapproaches may accommodate one person butbe a barrier to others.

Working closely with people with disabilitiesin the project design process can be aneffective way to ensure that their needs arefully accommodated. The Easter Seal Societyof Washington (1-800-678-5708) providesdesign review and comment services uponrequest. (There may be a fee associated withreviews by the Easter Seal Society or othergroups.) The best guidance designprofessionals have for accommodating theneeds of people with disabilities are theregulations and standards issued under theADA.

Designing for OlderAdults

Often, older adults are avid pedestrians. Ifretired, senior citizens may have more time toenjoy walking for exercise and recreation.Older adults often rely on walking and transitservice to do their daily errands, rather thandriving a car, or they sometimes usewheelchairs or motorized carts to travel alongpedestrian routes. When walking, they maytravel at slower rates and have less mobilityor disabilities such as sight or hearingimpairments. Many of the same designrecommendations for people with disabilities


Accessibility uuuuu2can be applied to accommodate older adultswith these special needs.

Accessible Routes ofTravel

The “accessible route of travel” is the keyelement of accessibility and is defined inTable 19.

The ADA requires every site to have at leastone accessible route of travel that provides aconnection between exterior accessible siteelements (parking, waiting and drop-offzones, sidewalks and walkways, bus stops,etc.) and an accessible building entrance. In apark or similar setting, the accessible routeshould connect the major features of the site,including parking, drinking fountains,restrooms, interpretive signs and otherconstructed facilities and points of interest.

Recreational facilities, such as trails, shouldprovide accessible experiences as well. Ifterrain or other unusual conditions do notallow for the trail to serve as an accessibleroute of travel, other accessible connections orfacilities that provide a similar recreation

experience can be created. Figure 8illustrates a site with alternative routes oftravel connecting the building entrance.

Eliminating Barriersand Obstacles

Accessible routes of travel need to becontinuous and unobstructed. Obstacles andabrupt changes in elevations create barriersfor pedestrians, especially for those with

Table 19

Older adults often rely on walking and transitservice to do their daily errands.

Recreational facilities, including trails, shouldprovide accessible experiences.

Definition of AccessibleRoute of Travel

A continuous unobstructed pathconnecting all accessible elements andspaces in an accessible building or facilitythan can be negotiated by a person usinga wheelchair and that is usable bypersons with other disabilities (includesaccess routes across sites betweenbuilding entrances and other publicfacilities such as parking, sidewalks,restrooms, etc.)

Source: Accessibility Design for All-An IllustratedHandbook, 1995 Washington State Regulations


Accessibilityuuuuu2Accessible Site Design

Figure 8

is also preferred that there be no grates in awalkway.

Often, coordination between localjurisdictions, private vendors, utilitycompanies and others is necessary to avoidplacement of obstacles within the pedestriantravel way after a project is designed andbuilt. Another solution to reducing obstacleswithin the pedestrian travel way isconsolidation of elements, such as placingmultiple signs on one post, placing signs onlight standard posts and providing a “corral”for trash receptacles, newspaper stands, andother street furniture.

Source: Accessibility Design for All-An Illustrated Handbook, 1995 Washington State Regulations

disabilities. Curbs, steps, and stairwayscreate barriers for wheelchair users and otherpeople with disabilities, as well as peoplepushing strollers or carts. Curb ramps allowaccess for wheeled devices up onto and downfrom areas raised and separated by curbs.Where it is not possible or practical to avoidthe installation of steps and stairways, rampsor elevators should be provided to facilitatefull access. Design guidelines for curb rampsand long ramps are presented later in thissection. Design guidelines for steps andstairways are provided in Toolkit Section 10— Site Design for Pedestrians.

Do not place obstacles such as streetfurniture, power poles, sign posts and otherelements in the route of pedestrian travel. It


Accessibility uuuuu2Sidewalk cafes or other displays along anaccessible route of travel can become hazardsfor sight impaired pedestrians or obstructionsfor wheelchair and stroller users. Enclosethese areas with covered railing or fencingthat is at least 0.7 meters (27 inches) inheight and detectable by canes. Provide aclear path of travel around the outside ofthese areas.

Widths andClearances

A clear width of passage, without obstaclessuch as signs, newspaper stands, and trashreceptacles needs to be provided for accessibleroutes of travel. The ADA requires thatpedestrian travel ways have a minimum of 0.9meters (3 feet) wide to accommodatewheelchairs. All of the 0.9-meter (3-foot) widespace needs to be usable and unobstructed,clear space for wheelchair passage.Obstructions, including handrails, must belocated at the edges of this clear zone, notprotruding into it. If power poles or otherstreet furniture encroach on the sidewalk orwalkway, a minimum 0.9-meter (3-foot) widepassageway must still be maintained. It isbest to provide direct routes of travel as well,so that pedestrians don't have to change theircourse of travel to avoid such obstacles.

The minimum desirable width for sidewalks is1.5 meters (5 feet) on local neighborhoodstreets, and 1.8 meters (6 feet) elsewhere,which meets the ADA minimum clear widthof 0.9 meters (3 feet). When a walkway of lessthan 1.5 meters (5 feet) must be installed,passing areas are required as describedbelow.

Vertical clearance is also important toaccommodate very tall people and to allow anarea free of obstructions that might be

hazardous to people with visual impairments.Accessible routes of travel are required tohave a clear height of no less than 2 meters(80 inches). Local requirements may vary;AASHTO recommends a minium verticalclearance of 2.4 meters (8 feet) minimum.Where the vertical clearance of an areaadjacent to an accessible route of travel isimpacted by lateral obstructions, a continuouspermanent barrier around or at the base ofthe obstruction is required.

Passing and RestingAreas

Adequate width for wheelchair users isimportant. It is necessary to provide passingareas for two wheelchairs as well. When anaccessible route of travel is less than 1.5meters (5 feet) wide, passing areas measuring1.5 meters by 1.5 meters (5 feet by 5 feet)every 60 meters (200 feet) are necessary, asillustrated in Figure 9. Passing areas mayalready be available at building entrances,plazas, and sidewalk intersections.

Avoid long distances between resting areasfor people with lower stamina or healthimpairments. Strategically and frequently

Figure 9

Accessible Passing Area

Note: Dimensions of passing area shown aredesirable. 1.5 meters by 1.5 meters (5 feet by 5 feet)is the minimum dimension.


Accessibilityuuuuu2located benches, seating walls, resting posts,railings, restrooms and drinking fountains areexamples of elements that can makepedestrian travel more convenient andenjoyable, particularly for those with mobilityimpairments.

Grades

Accessible routes of travel should not exceed amaximum longitudinal grade of 1:20 or 5percent. If the grade must exceed thismaximum, a ramp can be constructed (seedesign guidelines for ramps later in thissection). Any accessible route of travel isrequired to not exceed a maximum grade of1:12 or 8.33 percent. Although, sidewalks andwalkways (and trails) located along roadwayswithin the right-of-way may follow thenatural grade of the land, which may exceedthese maximum gradients (ADAAG). Whenan accessible route is greater than 1:20 (5percent), it is considered a ramp and musthave handrails and landings.

Landings are generally required at everypoint in the run of ramped accessible

walkways with a grade exceeding 1:20 (5percent) if the ramp has a 1:12 (8.33 percent)grade where the elevation change reaches 0.8meters (30 inches or 2.5 feet), landings arerequired every 9.1 meters (30 feet), or wherethere is a change in direction. Landings arenot required when the sidewalk or walkway(or trail) is located alongside a roadway thatexceeds these maximum gradients. Landingsare required to be a minimum of 1.5 meters (5feet) in length and width, and should beconsistent lengths along the route of travel.

In some cases it may be more practical todesign a pathway at a lower gradient tominimize the number of landings required(see Figure 10). On multi-use pathways thatfollow the natural terrain, landings aretypically not required by the ADA (WSDOT).Where possible, multi-use pathways should beaccessible, but this is not always practical dueto topographic conditions and other physicalconstraints. Landings on these steeper multi-use trails create a choppy effect, are difficultto construct, and are a hindrance to bicycletravel. However, if a pathway is designatedas an accessible route of travel, landings andhandrails on both sides need to be provided.

Figure 10

Accessible Ramped Pathway With Landings

Note: If designing an accessible route of travel, handrails are required on both sides.Source: Adapted from Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan


Accessibility uuuuu2Cross Slopes

Cross slopes on sidewalks and walkwaysshould not exceed 2 percent, but should be ofsufficient grade to facilitate positive drainageand avoid water accumulating on the surface.It is difficult to operate a wheelchair along awalkway with a cross slope of greater than 2percent, because the wheelchair tends to turntoward the direction of the cross slope.

Slopes across intersections and crossingsshould also not exceed 2 percent, to facilitatecrossing by wheelchair users and others.Wheelchair users should not be forced totravel uphill at steeper grades across thestreet.

Sidewalk CurbRamps

Design of Sidewalk Curb Ramps

Sidewalk curb ramps provide accessibility atintersections, building entrances and otherareas where elevated walkways are edgedwith curbing. It is recommended that curbramps have a detectable warning surface,such as an imprint using a metal grid patternwith 1.3 centimeter (.5-inch) spacing, for thefull width and depth of the ramp. However,detectable warnings are not currentlyrequired by the ADA (the provision has beentemporarily suspended) for curb ramps. Theyare still required at transit platforms.Textural warnings are currently beingreviewed by the Access Board. The transitionbetween the edge of the street paving and thecurb cut should be smooth, without a lip.

Sidewalk curb ramps are required to be aminimum of 0.9 meters (3 feet) wide, with amaximum grade of 1:12 (8.33 percent) in the

direction of travel, and 1:10 (10 percent) onthe side aprons, as long as landing space isprovided behind the curb ramp. A minimum0.9-meter (3-foot) wide passageway/landingarea with a maximum 2 percent cross slope isrequired behind curb ramps. However, a 1.3-meter (4-foot) wide space may be required bysome jurisdictions. When this cannot beprovided, the side aprons of the curb rampshould not exceed 1:12 (8.33 percent). Curbcuts at street crossings for multi-usepathways should be the full width of thepathway. Figure 11 shows two methods forcurb ramp design in detail. Figure 12illustrates accessible curb ramp designoptions.

Locations of Sidewalk CurbRamps at Intersections

Curb ramps are important devices atintersections, not only because they facilitatecrossing for wheelchair users, people pushingstrollers, bicyclists, and others, but alsobecause they help sight impaired pedestrianto identify the street crossing location. Twocurb ramps per corner at intersections arerecommended for new construction, one in thedirection of each crosswalk (see Figure 13).One curb cut at each corner point may directpedestrians out into the center of theintersection into an opposing traffic lane,rather than toward the crosswalk, orintroduce a pedestrian at a point wheredrivers are not anticipating a pedestrian,especially when turning. Consider thesepoints when selecting a curb ramp design.

Table 20 lists important things to rememberwhen designing curb cuts at intersections.


Accessibilityuuuuu2

Figure 11

Accessible Curb Ramp Design Details

Source: WSDOT Design Manual and other sources, adapted for this guidebook


Accessibility uuuuu2

Figure 12

Accessible Sidewalk Curb Ramp Designs

Figure 13

Sidewalk Curb Ramps at Intersections


Accessibilityuuuuu2

• Minimum width of 1.1 meters (44 inches)for exterior ramps, with a minimum clearspace of 0.9 meters (36 inches) betweenhandrails

• Level landings at the top and bottom of theramp and at changes in direction

• Intermediate landings for every 0.8 meters(30 inches) of vertical elevation change;every 9.1 meters (30 feet) of 8.33 percentrun

• Handrails for walkways and pathwayssteeper than 1:20 (see design guidelineslater in this section)

• Maximum cross slope of 2 percent andsufficient to provide positive drainage

• Edge protection for ramps steeper than 1:20or landings more than 1.3 centimeters (½-inch) above the adjacent grade. Edgeprotection may include low walls or curbs

Ramps

Providing accessibility along walkways andacross sites with significant changes inelevation is sometimes challenging. Rampsallow accessibility where grades exceed 1:20or 5 percent. Table 21 summarizes the ADArequirements for ramps.In general, ramp design should incorporatethe following:

• Maximum longitudinal grade of 1:12 or 8.33percent

Table 20

Important Things to RememberAbout Curb Cuts at Intersections

• Curb cuts should align in the directionof crosswalks, with two per corner ateach intersection and at right anglesto the curb

• Curb cuts function best when locatedin the center of the crosswalk; or as analternative, can be constructed to be aswide as the approaching walkway

• The low end of the curb cut shouldmeet the grade of the street with asmooth transition, without a lip

• Curb cuts should also be provided atchannelization islands in anintersection and median refugeislands, unless full cut-throughopenings are provided at grade withthe street

• Good drainage at intersection cornersis important so that standing waterdoes not accumulate within thecrossing area. Storm drainage inletsshould be placed on the uphill side ofcrosswalks and outside of the

Table 21

ADA Requirements for Ramps

• The maximum rise for any run shallbe 760 mm (30 inches)

• Ramps shall have level landings at thebottom and top of each ramp and eachramp run

Note: See the ADA accessibility guidelines foradditional information.Source:


Accessibility uuuuu2not less than 5 centimeters (2 inches) high,and guardrails when necessary

Landings on Ramps

Where a ramp changes direction, landingsneed to be 1.5 meters (5 feet) wide by 1.5meters (5 feet) long. Landings always need tobe at least as wide as the width of the ramp.

Exceptions to Maximum Grades ofRamps

Curb ramps and other short rampsconstructed on existing developed sites mayhave slopes and rises greater than thoseallowed by the ADA where space limitationspreclude the retrofit of 1:12 slopes or less,provided that:

• A slope not greater than 1:10 (10 percent) isallowed for a maximum rise of 152 mm (6inches)

• A slope not greater than 1:8 (12.5 percent)is allowed for a maximum rise of 76 mm (3inches)

• Slopes greater than 1:8 (12.5 percent) arenot usable by many

Handrails

Accessible routes having grades steeper than1:20 (5 percent) shall have handrails on bothsides. Handrails shall extend at least 30 cm(12 inches) beyond the top and bottom of anyramp run (see Figure 14). The top of thehandrail is required to be 86 to 96 cm (34 to38 inches) above the grade of the walkway orramp. An intermediate handrail may bemounted at a height of 43 to 48 cm (17 to 19inches) or a handrail with vertical rail

Figure 14

Handrail Detail

Sources: ADAAG; Accessibility Design for All

members spaced not more than 10 cm (4inches) apart to aid those in wheelchairs.

Handrails are required to be continuousunless there is a point of access along theramp that requires a break in the handrail.Handrails should be continuous through thelandings for the entire length of the rampsystem.

Handrails are not required for sidewalk curbramps, and are generally not recommendedalongside multi-use pathways since theycould become a hazard to bicyclists (unlessthe pathway is specifically designated as anaccessible route of travel).

Accessibility AcrossDriveways

As a general rule, it is best to minimize thenumber of driveway crossings across anaccessible route of pedestrian travel. Whenthe sidewalk across the driveway crossing isan accessible route of travel, special designrequirements need to be applied.

The traditional approach to accommodatingdriveway cuts in sidewalks has changed dueto accessibility requirements. The pastmethod of driveway installation acrosssidewalks results in a 10 percent cross slopefor a 1.5-meter (5-foot) wide sidewalk (see


Accessibilityuuuuu2Figure 15). This creates difficult-to-maneuverdriveway aprons in the path of travel and canbe a major impediment to sidewalk usability.

There are four basic approaches to designingdriveway cuts that meet the ADArequirements. These are illustrated inFigures 16, 17, 18, and 19. The mostimportant element of these solutions is thatthey provide a continuous route of travel thatis a minimum 0.9 meters (3 feet) in widthwith a cross slope not exceeding 2 percent.Refer to the WSDOT Standard Plans forrelated design standards.

Figure 16

Driveway With Wide Sidewalks

Wide sidewalks allow a 0.9 m (3 ft) wide path oftravel behind the driveway cut.

Figure 15

Traditional Driveway Design(Not Acceptable)

Driveway aprons are difficult to maneuver acrossdue to excessive cross slopes.

Figure 17

Driveway With Planting Strips

Figure 19

Driveway With Dipped Sidewalk

Figure 18

Driveway With Sidewalk Behind

Planting strips allow the sidewalk to remain leveland in a continuous direction.


Accessibility uuuuu2Where constraints don’t allow a planting stripor wider sidewalks, the sidewalk can bewrapped around the upper end of thedriveway cut. (Note: this method may bedifficult for sight-impaired who follow thecurb line for guidance, but this can be helpedby providing a substantial lip at the edge ofthe driveway along the road edge.)

This approach dips the sidewalk in thedirection of travel, keeping the cross slope ata constant grade. The problems with thisapproach are that pedestrians mustmaneuver up and down the sidewalk gradechange and drainage may accumulate in thesidewalk area. A prominent lip at the edge ofthe driveway can help to resolve the drainageproblem.

Surfacing

The surface of a walkway must be firm andstable enough to support the higher pointloads of wheelchair wheels, crutch tips andother mobility aids. Pavement is typically themost practical means of meeting thisrequirement. Smooth pavement surfaces arethe most desirable, such as portland cementconcrete or asphaltic concrete. Unit paverscan also provide a stable surface as long asthe joints between paving units are smoothand level. Sometimes, scoring patterns andunit paving patterns can create irregularsurfaces that compromise wheelchair stabilityand control, or that create barriers forambulatory pedestrians who have gaitimpairments. Architectural style andappearance should always be balanced withthe importance of accessibility. Surfacematerials should be chosen to avoid creatingslippery conditions for pedestrians. Exposedaggregate concrete surfaces accumulatemoisture which can freeze and create icy

conditions on sidewalks if not maintainedproperly.

Compacted crushed rock surfaces andconsolidated soils are less desirable and maynot be acceptable for accessible routes oftravel without extensive maintenance toensure rollability and maneuverability.However, in some cases this type of surfacingmay be a suitable solution in outdoorrecreation areas to make walkways and trailsmore accessible to all (see Toolkit Section 4 —Pathways, which addresses accessibilityconsiderations for recreational trails).Compact crushed rock surfaces into a smoothcondition without loose rocks, bumps orgrooves. Loose gravel, such as pea gravel andmost types of wood chip surfacing aregenerally not acceptable as accessiblesurfaces.

Textural and VisualCues

People with sight impairments need cues asthey travel through a pedestrian system. Iftheir meaning is understood, textural changesin the surface of the walkway when changesoccur in the route of travel can serve as atactile cue for persons who have low vision orare blind. Textured surfaces at streetcrossings, building entrances, bottoms andtops of stairways and ramps, and across curbramps are examples. Figure 20 illustratestextural cues.

Other elements can be strategically placedalong accessible routes to identify ramps,building entrances, pathway intersections,etc. Such elements include lighting, changein landscaping, signs, and changes inpavement patterns or colors. The AccessBoard is currently studying the effectivenessof various tactile cues.


Accessibilityuuuuu2maximum distance be no greater than 30meters (100 feet).

Signing and OtherCommunication Aids

Signing is an essential aid to negotiation forall pedestrians, including older adults andpeople with disabilities. Signing identifiesnearby services, warns of possible hazards,and directs people to their destinations.Signs should be readily observable, with clearand precise information. Place directionalsignage at decision points where accessprovisions are not obvious to indicate thelocation of accessible parking spaces, buildingentrances, and restrooms. Redundancy isdesirable for significant safety and directionalinformation.

For the sight-impaired, Braille strips can beadded to the edges of signs that are reachableand located for that purpose. Raised orrouted letters may be desirable since not allsight-impaired people are able to read Braille.Audible systems in the pedestrianenvironment are being experimented withacross the country and in other nations.Audible messages, chirping devices, click, andtones can be strategically located to warnsight-impaired pedestrians of condition alonga route, particularly at street crossings, or tonotify them of important information (atkiosks and bus depots). One exampleincludes chirping devices being placed withtraffic signals at crosswalks to notifypedestrians when the crossing phase has beenactivated. Push buttons at signal locationsneed to be installed at heights easy to reachby people in wheelchairs.

Site Connections

At least one accessible route of travel isrequired by the ADA on sites to connectprimary building entrances with accessiblesite facilities such as parking areas, bus drop-off zones, and public services such astelephones and drinking fountains.Accessible routes of travel need to be designedin accordance with the requirements forwalkways described above, including themaximum cross slope and graderequirements.

The route between accessible parking spacesand the building entrance must be carefullyplanned to minimize the distance that mustbe travelled by a disabled person and toensure that obstacles and hazards areavoided. It is recommended that the

Figure 20

Textural Cues

Source: Adapted from Time Saver Standards forLandscape Architecture


Accessibility uuuuu2Other Sources ofInformation

The following sources of information arerecommended for design of accessiblepedestrian facilities. Please see the ResourceGuide included a the end of this guidebook forcomplete bibliography information.

Accessibility Design for All, An IllustratedHandbook, 1995 Washington StateRegulations, Barbara L. Allan and Frank C.Moffett, AIA, PE

Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA)Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings andFacilities; State and Local GovernmentFacilities; Interim Final Rule, FederalRegister, Part II, Architectural andTransportation Barriers Compliance Board

Recommendations for AccessibilityGuidelines: Recreational Facilities andOutdoor Developed Areas, Recreation AccessAdvisory Committee

Uniform Building Code (and state and localbuilding codes)

Universal Access to Outdoor Recreation: ADesign Guide, PLAI, Inc.

Contacts

Allan, Barbara L., Easter Seal Society ofWashington, 521 2nd Avenue W, Seattle,Washington, 98119, (800) 678-5708.

Thibault, Lois E., US Architectural andTransportation Barriers Compliance Board(Access Board), 1331 F Street NE, Suite 1000,Washington, DC, 20004-1111, (202) 272-5434ext 32, e-mail [email protected].

Lighting

Lighting is required along exterior accessibleroutes of travel during any time the buildingson site are occupied. Lighting is to have aminimum intensity of one footcandle on thesurface of the route.

Table 22 summarizes the ADA requirementspresented in this toolkit section. All of thestandards described throughout thissection are required by the federal andstate governments as part of compliancewith the ADA, unless otherwise noted asrecommendations (rather thanrequirements.)

Summary of AccessibilityRequirements

• Eliminate obstacles within theaccessible route of travel

• .9 m (3 ft) clear width absoluteminimum; 1.5 m (5 ft) width desirableminimum for accessible

• 1.5 m (5 ft) wide passing areas every60 m (200 ft) on accessible routes lessthan 1.5 m (5 ft) in width

• Maximum 1:20 (5%) grade is desirable,steeper grades up to 1:12 (8.33%) canbe provided with ramps

• Level landing areas, 1.5 m (5 ft) inlength for every 0.8 m (30 in) ofelevation change along 1:12 (8.33%)grade (ramps)

Table 22

49

Children and School Zones uuuuu3


Children and School Zones

uuuuuToolkit 3


• Special Considerations Related to Children• Improving Student Pedestrian Safety — A

Cooperative Process• School Related Pedestrian Improvements• The School as a Community Focal Point• Pedestrian Friendly Schools and School

Zones• Traffic Control and Crossings Near Schools• School Walk Routes and Safety Programs• Ongoing Maintenance• Other Sources of Information

The potentially severe, and often fatal,consequences of a collision between a movingvehicle and a child raises high emotionswhenever the topic is discussed. Children aremore vulnerable than adults to collisions withmotor vehicles, because their movements areoften unpredictable. Traffic engineeringapproaches must fully address concerns aboutthe safety of young children walking along orcrossing busy streets and highways to schools,parks, neighbors’ houses, or between otherorigins and destinations in our communities.Table 23 lists common types of pedestrian/motor vehicle collisions involving youngchildren.

Children have the right to travel safely aspedestrians, just as we all do. Table 23

Most Common Types ofPedestrian/Motor Vehicle

Collisions for Children Aged K-6

• Darting out

• Dashing across an intersection

• Crossing in front of a turning vehicle

• Crossing a multi-lane street

• Entering or crossing an intersection

• Playing in a roadway

• Going to or from a school bus

• Crossing behind a vehicle that isbacking up

Source: A Guidebook for Student PedestrianSafety; as adapted and expanded with input fromthe Advisory Group.

50

Children and School Zonesuuuuu3


SpecialConsiderationsRelated to Children

Collision statistics and other informationrelated to children are provided in the sectionof this guidebook called About Pedestrians.As pedestrians, children are exposed to morecollisions for several reasons. One of the mostproblematic characteristics of childpedestrians is that their movements are lesspredictable than adults. Young children tendto dart-out into traffic or cross the streetwithout looking for oncoming traffic moreoften than adults. Young children also lackthe visual acuity and peripheral vision tojudge speeds of oncoming traffic and adequacyof gaps in the flow of traffic (Knoblauch, et al).Since children do not drive, they lack theunderstanding of what a driver’s intentionsmight be at an intersection or crossing point.Table 24 lists the special limitations ofchildren aged five to nine.

Its important to remember the speciallimitations of this age group when designingfor them. Research has shown that adultsuniformly tend to overestimate a child’scapabilities to deal with traffic, particularlywhen crossing the street. Adults sometimesfail to realize that many children under agenine lack the developmental skills to safelyand consistently cope with moving traffic.

Improving StudentPedestrian Safety � ACooperative Process

The safety of students walking to and fromschool is a major concern of parents, teachers,schools, public works, law enforcement, andthe general community. Since 1982, whenWashington state began funding studenttransportation, school districts have beenresponsible for deciding which students walkto school and which ride the school bus.School districts are required by law (WAC 392-151-025) to develop walk routes for students

Its important to remember the speciallimitations of young children when designingfor them.

Table 24

• Children are shorter than adults;typical eye height is 1 meter (3 feet)above ground; their field of vision isdifferent.

• Children have one-third narrower sidevision than adults and are less able todetermine the direction of sounds.

• Children have trouble judging speedsand distances of moving cars.

• Children are sometimes too small to beseen by fast moving or inattentivedrivers.

• The movements of children are lesspredictable than adults.

• Children have shorter attention spansand may grow impatient at crossings.

• Children have less experience aspedestrians and may not be fullyaware of dangerous conditions.

Source: A Guidebook for Student PedestrianSafety; revised and expanded with input from theAdvisory Group

Some Special Limitations ofChildren Aged 5 to 9

51



who walk to school, usually those living withina 1.6-kilometer (1-mile) radius of their school.The basics about developing school walkroutes are described later in this toolkitsection. The responsibility for studentpedestrian safety goes beyond development of“safe walk routes” by school districts.Preparing walk route plans is only part of theoverall process (see Table 25).

Identifying problems and implementingimprovements to address these problems inschool zones and along school walk routesrequire a cooperative effort among publicagencies (capital investments and publicworks funding programs), school districts,private developers, and others in thecommunity to ensure maximum success. Allof these entities must work together andcoordinate with each other to developpedestrian improvement programs thatprovide better opportunities for children towalk to school.

In 1995, the state renewed its emphasis ofschools working with the public worksagencies to mitigate walk route deficiencies.The legislature reasoned that if hazardous

walking conditions were to be improved bypublic works agencies, more students wouldwalk to school, reducing ever-escalatingtransportation costs and at the same timemaking walkways safer for the community atlarge.

School RelatedPedestrianImprovements

There are two key components of a pedestrianimprovement program that ensure saferconditions for school children:

• A sufficient level of physical facilitiesprovided along the school walking route andadjacent to the school (responsibility: localjurisdiction, school district, and privatedevelopment)

• Effective operation plans and safetyprograms, consisting of supervisory controlelements and student/adult education forschool trip safety (responsibility: schooldistrict, parents, and general community)

This toolkit section focuses on designrecommendations for physical facilitiessurrounding and at the school site and alongschool walk routes. Some information relatedto school walk route and safety programs isprovided at the end of this section. AGuidebook for Student Pedestrian Safety,prepared for the Washington StateDepartment of Transportation (WSDOT), byKJS Associates, Inc., is a comprehensiveresource for development of studentpedestrian safety operation plans and walkroute programs. Please refer to this documentfor more detailed information.

Table 25

Process for Improving StudentPedestrian Safety

• Prepare school walk route plans

• Provide school walk route maps andinformation to parents and students

• Identify pedestrian safety deficiencies

• Implement remedial actions andimprovements to address pedestriansafety concerns

Source: A Guidebook for Student Pedestrian Safety

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Schools are often a focal point of thecommunity, serving as much more than aplace of education by providing outdoor fieldsand facilities for play, recreation, meeting,voting, and other community services. Sitinga school so it can be easily reached from alldirections and providing a sufficient level ofpedestrian facilities in the vicinity of theschool further help to establish it as a strongcomponent of the community.

School sites should be centered in thecommunity and accessible to pedestrians fromall sides. Schools can function both asneighborhood parks and school playgrounds.Streets leading to the school site should bedesigned to include full sidewalk or walkwayimprovements and other elements thatcontribute to pedestrian safety and comfort(traffic calming to slow traffic, good lighting,clear visibility, and trees for shelter andshade). Intersections and crossings withinthe vicinity of the school need to be well

The School as aCommunity FocalPoint

A broader consideration related to the designof pedestrian access to schools is how theschool is oriented within the community andconnected to surrounding neighborhoods.

Table 26

The School as a Community Focal Point

• The school site is centrally located inthe community; most children livewithin 1.6 km (1 mile).

• Pedestrian and bicycle access isavailable from all directions.

• Sidewalks, bike lanes, and trails onadjacent streets or throughneighborhoods connect to the schoolproperty.

• Linkages between surroundingneighborhoods, such as access betweencul-de-sacs, provide enhancedpedestrian connections to the school.

• Effective traffic control devices areprovided within the surroundingvicinity.

• A school walk route and safetyprogram exists and safety patrols areprovided within the vicinity.

• School facilities, including theplayground, fields, and meeting rooms,are available for community use.

• Because of the level of pedestrianimprovements in the area and thedesign of the school site, children andadults feel comfortable walking to theschool rather than riding the schoolbus or driving cars.

On roadways without sidewalks, but withadequate shoulders, children should beencouraged to walk on the left shoulder, facingoncoming traffic.

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designed, with a focus on the needs of studentpedestrians. Table 26 lists importantelements of a school as a focal point within thecommunity.

Pedestrian FriendlySchools and SchoolZones

School sites and surrounding areas should bedesigned to invite pedestrian travel while alsoimproving pedestrian safety.

School Site Design

Design and retrofit of schools and schoolgrounds requires consideration of manyfactors, too numerous to list in this guidebook,but some of the basic principles of good schoolsite design related to pedestrian travel areprovided below. Specific sites may haveunique conditions that require special designtreatments. Good design solutions aretypically based on the adopted standards andpractices of the local jurisdiction, but designsolutions can also exceed establishedstandards where desired or necessary toprovide a more effective pedestrian system.

Table 27

• Parking is minimized; people areencouraged to walk to school.

• Pedestrians are clearly directed tocrossing points and pedestrian accessways by directional signing, fencing,bollards or other elements.

• Strategically located, well-delineatedcrossing opportunities are provided,including marked crosswalks atcontrolled intersections and mid-blockcrossings (signalized if warranted).

• Traffic calming devices (raisedcrossings, refuge islands, bulb-outs atcrossings, on-street parking, trafficcircles, landscaping, etc.) are installedin the vicinity to slow vehicles.

• View obstructions are avoided so thereis clear visibility of pedestriansthroughout the area.

• Surrounding streets are equipped withsidewalks and bike lanes.

• The building is accessible topedestrians from all sides (or at least,from all sides with entries/exits).

• Trails and pathways provide directlinks between the school site and thesurrounding neighborhoods.

• Bus drop-off zones are separated fromauto drop-off zones to minimizeconfusion and conflicts.

• Buses, cars, bicycles and pedestriansare separated and provided with theirown designated areas for traveling.

• Pedestrian travel zones (sidewalks,etc.) are clearly delineated from othermodes of traffic (through the use ofstriping, colored and/or texturedpavement, signing and othermethods).

Elements of Good School Site Design

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be provided in all areas surrounding theschool and on the school site. Verticalseparation (with curbs) and horizontalseparation (planting buffers, ditches, orswales) from motor vehicle traffic are stronglyencouraged to improve the safety ofpedestrians walking along streets. Typicalroadside improvements that may be suitablefor pedestrian travel under varyingcircumstances are listed in Table 28. Figures22 and 23 illustrate typical roadside facilities.

Figure 21

School Site Design

Table 27 lists a few of the typical elements onand adjacent to school sites that function wellfor pedestrians and encourage pedestriantravel.

Figure 21 illustrates a typical school sitedesign that includes many of these features.

Pedestrian Access Routes to theSchool

Sidewalks and walkways that clearly definethe routes of access to and from schools should

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On roads without sidewalks (often the case inrural areas surrounding schools), widenedroadway shoulders accommodate pedestrians.Shoulders may be paved or unpaved, but ifunpaved, a well compacted stable surface ofcrushed rock or other material is highlyrecommended. At a minimum, A Guidebookfor Student Pedestrian Safety recommendsthat shoulders that are part of a designatedschool walk route be 1.5 meters (5 feet) wideand be provided on both sides. If a shouldercan only be provided on one side, provide aminimum of 2.4 meters (8 feet) in width toallow students to walk off the roadway ineither direction. Although this is not the mostdesirable solution (shoulder on only one side),

it is better than a scenario where there are nopedestrian travel areas at the roadside. Thisguidebook recommends that shoulder use forpedestrian travel be considered as only aninterim solution until separated walkways orsidewalks can be developed along roadwaysleading to the school.

Design standards for shoulders vary amongjurisdictions. Check with your local agency forspecific standards that may be applicable toyour project. For more information related to

Figure 22

Sidewalk

Figure 23

Shoulder Walkway

Table 28

Roadside PedestrianImprovements Along School

Walk Routes

• Well compacted crushed rock or gravelshoulders (recommended as an interimsolution only; if an accessible route of travel,surface needs to be smooth and stable)

• Separated crushed rock or gravel path(recommended as an interim solution only; if anaccessible route of travel, edge treatment isnecessary)

• Paved shoulder (recommended as aninterim solution only; if an accessible route oftravel, edge treatment is necessary)

• Paved walkway or sidewalk separatedfrom roadway by ditches, swales, orplanting buffer (good long-term solution;often used in rural and residential areas; 5-ft.minimum separation recommended)

• Adjacent sidewalk with curb andgutter or vertical curb (good long-termsolution; often used in urban areas)

Source: A Guidebook for Student Pedestrian Safety;revised and expanded for this Guidebook

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the design of sidewalks, walkways, andshoulders, refer to Toolkit Section 5.Along roads with adequate shoulders, childrenshould be generally directed to walk on theleft shoulder facing oncoming traffic.However, children may be allowed to walk onthe shoulder on the side with the flow oftraffic for a short distance to or from school ifsuch action reduces the number of roadcrossings they must make (A Guidebook forStudent Pedestrian Safety, based on

interpretation of Revised Code of Washington(RCW) 46.61.250 Pedestrians on Roadways).

School Bus Stop Design

Bus stops need to be adequately designed toprovide sufficient waiting area away from theroadway for the number children using thestop. In urban areas, bus stops are oftendesigned and constructed as part of privatedevelopment projects. In rural areas, bus stoplocations often consist of a widened shoulderarea adjacent to the roadway. Figures 24 and25 illustrate two typical designs for school busstops — one for areas where sidewalk eitherexists or can be constructed, and one for areaswhere widened shoulders function as thepedestrian travel zone. Check with your localagency and school district for specific designpractices that may be applicable in your area.

Figure 24

Typical Bus Stop Design for Urban Location

Students need to be able to travel safely to andfrom the bus stop.

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Visibility at Crossings and AlongSchool Walk Routes

Children are smaller than adults and moredifficult for motorists to see at crossings. Tofunction safely, crossings should provide anunobstructed visual field between motoristsand pedestrians. Street furniture, such asutility poles, mailboxes, and telephone boothsshould not hide the pedestrian from view.Landscaping can enhance the pedestrianenvironment and trees can provide shade andshelter from wind and weather. Care must betaken to select lower growing shrubs thatwon’t block views of pedestrian. A maximumshrub height of 0.6 meters (2 feet) is suggestedfor school zones. Trees along streets should beupward branching, with lower brancheslocated at least 1.8 meters (6 feet) aboveground.

Parked vehicles (even momentarily) are alsovisual obstructions, especially for children,wheelchair users, and people of small stature.For recommended setbacks for parked vehiclesnear pedestrian crossing points, refer toToolkit 6 — Intersections.

Traffic Control andCrossings NearSchools

Special considerations related to various typesof crossings and traffic control methods usednear schools are described in the next part ofthis section of the guidebook. More specificdesign information related to traffic controland crossing treatments can be found inToolkits 6, 7, and 8.

General Considerations

Traffic control related to schools is a sensitiveand controversial subject. The methods usedto protect children as they walk to school needto be carefully considered and analyzed bytraffic engineering professionals on a case-by-case basis before solutions are implemented.

According to the Institute of TransportationEngineers (ITE) manual, Design and Safety ofPedestrian Facilities, the majority of driversdo not typically reduce their speeds in schoolzones unless they perceive a potential risk,such as the presence of police or crossing

Figure 25

Typical Bus Stop Design for Rural Location

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guards, or clearly visible children. Overuse ofsigns and other devices can cause drivers to beless responsive and attentive. Unnecessaryinstallation of traffic controls lessens therespect for traffic controls that are warranted.Placement of signs, crossing treatments, andtraffic control devices need carefulconsideration.

According to the ITE’s School Trip SafetyProgram Guidelines, a number of elementsshould be studied to determine theappropriate types of crossing treatments andtraffic control in school zones or along schoolwalk routes, including, but not limited to:

• existing and potential traffic volumes andspeeds,

• inventory of existing traffic control devicesand roadway facilities,

• adequacy of gaps in the stream of traffic,

• numbers and ages of children crossing(pedestrian volumes and characteristics),

• adequacy of sight distance,

• collision statistics, and

• location of the school and relationship tosurrounding land uses (both existing andplanned).

These elements should be considered underthe direction of a professional traffic engineerand the results reviewed with the local publicworks agency, as well as a safety advisorycommittee established by the school district.There are many variables related to theseelements and how they might influence designtreatments.

Types of Traffic Control andCrossing Treatments

There are several types of crossing treatmentsand traffic control devices that may beappropriate in school zones and along schoolwalk routes under varying conditions.Crossing treatments are usually necessary atlocations where adequate gaps are notcurrently available in vehicular flow to allowschool children to cross safely. Table 29 listspotential types of traffic control and crossingtreatments that may be implemented nearschools. Each of these treatments issummarized below. More detailed designinformation for most of these can be found inother sections of this guidebook. Check withyour local agency to determine the acceptedpractices for your specific project.

Reduced Speed ZonesState law requires the maximum speed limitof 32 kph (20 mph) for school zones (inside oroutside incorporated cities or towns). Thisspeed limit is required to extend 91 meters(300 feet) in either direction from the schooland from marked crosswalks near the school(RCW 46.61.440). A lower maximum speedlimit may be established within a school zoneor other area whenever the local jurisdictiondetermines that on the basis of an engineeringand traffic investigation, the maximum speedpermitted is more than is reasonable and safeunder existing conditions (RCW 46.61.415).Consider reducing the speed limit to lowerthan 32 kph (20 mph) in school zones wherespecial hazards exist and a traffic engineeringstudy determines that such a speed reductionis warranted.

Traffic CalmingTraffic calming techniques are used to slowvehicles and to reduce non-local through-traffic. Various techniques can be used on

59



different classifications of roadways, buttraffic calming is generally most appropriateand effective on local access streets inresidential areas.

On street systems surrounding schools and inschool zones, traffic calming can be aneffective means to create a safer and morecomfortable environment for children walkingto school. Some examples of traffic calmingtechniques that may be appropriate includeraised crossings, refuge islands at crossings,traffic circles, chicanes, bulb-outs, speedhumps, narrower streets, on-street parking,trees and landscaping along the right-of-way,and gateways. Speed enforcement and speedwatch programs are also good methods forcalming neighborhood traffic in school zones,

although their effectiveness may only last fora limited time, unless consistentlyimplemented. Refer to Toolkit Section 8 formore specific design recommendations relatedto traffic calming.

Marked CrosswalksThe issue of providing marked versusunmarked crosswalks at intersections is oftendebated. For a discussion on studies related tothe effectiveness of marked and unmarkedcrosswalks, refer to Toolkit Section 6 —Intersections.

All crossing points within school zones andalong school walk routes, typically within 1.6kilometers (1 mile) of a school site (but mayinclude intersections and crossings outside ofthis distance), should be evaluated todetermine where to mark crosswalks. TheManual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices(MUTCD), requires crosswalks to be markedat all intersections on established routes toschools:• where there is measurable conflict between

vehicles and kindergarten or elementarystudents (while crossing),

• where students are permitted to crossbetween intersections, or

• where students could not otherwiserecognize the proper place to cross.

Marked crosswalks are often located atsignalized and stop controlled intersections ormid-block crossings, or at intersections orlocations where traffic volumes meet warrantsfor pedestrian signals using the MUTCDguidelines. Marked crosswalks may beprovided at other locations when a trafficengineering analysis determines the need.

Under Washington Administrative Code(WAC) 392-151-030, school patrolled crossings(with either student patrollers or adultcrossing guards) shall not be operated unless

Table 29

Potential Traffic Control andCrossing Treatments

Near Schools

• Reduced speed zones (see discussionbelow)

• Traffic calming techniques

• Marked crosswalks at intersectionsand mid-block

• Stop controlled crosswalks

• Signalized crossings (with pedestrianactuators)

• Flashing beacons (check with yourlocal agency)

• Grade separated crossings

• Crossing guard or school patrolledcrossings

• Signing and marking

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proper traffic control devices are in place. Ata minimum, these devices shall consist ofschool crossing warning signs (S1-1 and S2-1),marked crosswalks, and school speed limitsigns. Figure 30 illustrates a typicalcrosswalk layout near a school with advancewarning signs, reduced speed zone andmarked crosswalk. For design considerationsrelated to the various types of crosswalkmarkings, refer to Toolkit Section 6 —Intersections.

Stop Controlled CrosswalksStop controlled crosswalks, consisting of stopsigns and stop bars, with or without actualcrosswalk markings, provide the addedprotection of having all vehicles stop at thecrossing. Since vehicles must stop at the stopsigns in these locations, there is typically lessneed for paid adult crossing guards or studentpatrols. Additional protection with crossingguards and/or student patrols may benecessary at intersections where pedestrianvolumes are high and traffic volumes aremoderate or higher.

Signalized Crossings (With PedestrianActuators)Most new traffic signals installed inWashington provide marked pedestrianactuation buttons and symbolic “walk/don’twalk” indications. It is appropriate to install

signals at locations other than signalizedintersections for pedestrian crossings.Examples include frequently used mid-blockcrossings and crossings to school sites.

The MUTCD defines warrants for installationof traffic signals at school crossings. TheMUTCD recommends that a trafficengineering study be conducted to determinethe frequency of gaps in the vehicular trafficstream that allow pedestrians to cross. Whencrossing gaps are less than one per minuteand of insufficient duration to allow the size ofgroup to cross, a signalized crossing may beneeded.

Provide pedestrian signal indications andpush buttons at signalized school crossingsand mark the designated crosswalks. For acomplete discussion on signal placement anddesign, refer to the MUTCD.

The services of a school patrol program (adultcrossing guard or student patroller) may notbe necessary at all signalized intersectionsnear the school unless special problems exist.School patrol services can provide additionalprotection at intersections where pedestrianvolumes are high and traffic volumes aremoderate to high. See the discussion underSchool Patrolled Crossings for appropriatelocations for adult crossing guards versusstudent safety patrollers.

More information related to intersections,crossings and signalization can be found inToolkits 6 and 7.

Flashing BeaconsFlashing beacons are common devices used inschool zones, and they come in varying styles(mounted to school speed limit signs, andoverhead crosswalk signs). The effectivenessof flashing beacons is an often debated issue.The flashing light alerts drivers in advance to

Mid-block school crossing.

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the potential of pedestrians without forcingthem to stop. Some studies indicate thatafter drivers have become accustomed toseeing the beacons in advance of conditionsthat do not appear to be truly unusual, theystop paying attention the flashing light. Thiscan result in a disregard for all beacons, eventhose that are truly needed (Flashing Beacons,Association of Washington Cities and CountyRoad Administration Board).

Flashing beacons are most effective when usedas a warning of truly unusual or hazardousconditions not readily visible to the driver,such as a stop sign located just beyond a curvethat is hidden from view of the driver. It is acommon practice for flashing beacons to beattached to school speed limit signs. Thesebeacons are only activated during hours thatstudents are present in the school zone.Flashing beacons are discussed under section4E of the MUTCD relating to hazardidentification beacons, and a mid-blockcrosswalk is one of the specific applicationsnoted for this device. Please refer to theMUTCD for more specific guidance related tothe use of flashing beacons (also see discussionunder Signing and Marking later in thissection).

Grade Separated CrossingsGrade separated crossings may be necessaryto physically separate the crossing of a veryheavy volume of school pedestrian traffic anda heavy vehicular flow, or where theroadway’s cross section is exceptionally wide,such as freeways and principal arterials.Typical types of grade separated crossingsinclude overpasses and underpasses. Becausethese facilities are costly in comparison toother crossing solutions, they should beconsidered only in areas where large numbersof pedestrians will benefit. Grade separatedcrossings need to be easily accessible andconvenient to use or they may lose their

effectiveness. Pedestrians may be tempted totry crossing at grade instead of using theoverpass or underpass. For additional designguidelines related to grade separatedcrossings, refer to Toolkit Section 7 —Crossings.

Crossing Guard and Student PatrolControlled CrosswalksSome specific design considerations related toschool patrolled crosswalks (adult crossingguard or student patrolled) have already beendiscussed under the various traffic control andcrossing treatments in this section. Trafficengineering studies can determine the needfor and placement of school patrols atcrosswalks on a case by case basis. It isimportant to coordinate with localjurisdictions on the use of school patrollers.

The use of well trained adult crossing guardsis considered to be one of the most effectivemethods of school zone traffic control. Studentsafety patrollers, who are most often studentsat the school, can also provide supervision anddirection at crosswalks near schools. Adultcrossing guards can be appointed as membersof the school patrol under certain conditions(see Table 30).

Sometimes vehicular traffic is such thatcontrol by a police officer or adult school patrolmember or a traffic signal is required. In this

Adult crossing guard at busy intersection nearan elementary school.

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case, student school patrol members can assistby directing students to cross in conformancewith the direction given by the police officer oradult patrol member, or in conformance withthe time cycle of the signal. Student safetypatrol members should typically be selectedfrom upper grade levels, preferably not belowthe fifth grade. Student safety patrollersshould not be directed or authorized to halt ordirect vehicular traffic. Their purpose is tosupervise and assist children, not to control

vehicular traffic. Table 31 describes theprimary functions of student safety patrollers.

Signing and MarkingThe types of school signs authorized by theMUTCD are shown in Figure 26. The signplacement requirements discussed below arefrom the MUTCD.

School Advance Sign (S1-1)The School Advance sign is intended for use inadvance of locations where school buildings orgrounds are adjacent to the roadway. Thissign is also placed in advance of any SchoolCrossing sign (S2-1). The School Advance signis placed not less than 46 meters (150 feet) inadvance and not more than 213 meters (700feet) in advance of the school grounds orschool crossing.

School Crossing Sign (S2-1)This sign is used at established crossingpoints, except at crossings controlled by stopsigns. Typically only crossings adjacent toschools and on established school pedestrianroutes are signed. This sign is erected at thecrosswalk or at the minimum distance possiblein advance of the crosswalk. These signs canbe placed at either signalized or unsignalizedcrossings, at intersections or mid-block,including official school crossings.

Table 30

When to Utilize AdultCrossing Guards

• Lack of adequate gaps due to highvolume of traffic

• When 85 percent of the traffic exceedsthe speed limit by 8 kph (5 mph)

• When there is restricted sight distance

• When the location or distance from theschool building is such that poorsupervision of students wouldotherwise result

• When there is a high volume of trafficin a crosswalk

• When the location has beendetermined by either school or lawenforcement authorities to be beyondthe capacity of a student to makerational decisions concerning safety

• When there is an excessive volume ofpedestrian traffic over a highway

• When any of the above criteria existsand there is a lack of an alternativeschool route plan

Source: WAC 392-151-055 Utilization of adultpatrol members

Table 31

Primary Functions ofStudent Safety Patrollers

• Instruct, direct, and control studentsin crossing streets at or near schools

• Assist teachers and parents ininstructing school children in safepedestrian practices


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School Bus Stop Ahead (S3-1)School Bus Stop Ahead signs are intended foruse in advance of locations where a school busstop is not visible for a distance of 150 meters(500 feet) in advance. It is not intended forthese signs to be placed everywhere a schoolbus stops, but only in locations where terrainor other features limit sight distance andthere is no opportunity to relocate the stop toa more visible location.

School Speed Limit Signs (S4-1, S4-2, S4-3, S4-4)School Speed Limit signs are used to indicatethe speed limit within the school zone. SchoolSpeed Limit Signs may be accompanied bysigns that indicate applicable hours orconditions of speed limit reduction (“whenchildren present”). A flashing beacon along

with a sign “When Flashing” may also be usedto identify the periods when the school speedlimit is in force.

Overhead Crossing SignsOverhead School Crossing signs aresometimes used at school crossings, but arenot contained within the MUTCD and areconsidered to be extraordinary traffic controldevices. These devices are only installed atlocations where school authorities requestsupplemental traffic control for marked schoolcrosswalks and only after a traffic engineeringanalysis considers other traffic controlmeasures. When such signs are installed,they should include flashing lights that are ononly at the time school children use thecrosswalk. The school district should beresponsible for ensuring that the flashinglights are on at the appropriate times.Flashing lights may be similarly used onSchool Speed Limit signs if installed inaccordance with the MUTCD requirements.

School Sign Test ProgramA technique being experimented with in schoolzones around the state (Auburn, Kirkland,Redmond, and King County) and nationally isthe use of different colored school area signs.This is a test program being conducted by theFederal Highway Administration (FHWA) todetermine if a new florescent yellow-greencolor should be used on school zone signs.This color of sign is used only in school zones,and heightens driver awareness by placing anunexpected element (sign color) in theirenvironment. Drivers who see the differentcolored signs then come to know that thedifferent color represents a school zone,prompting them to look carefully for childrenas they are driving through.

“School” MarkingsThe MUTCD allows word and symbolmarkings on the pavement for the purpose of

Figure 26

Source: Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices

S1-1 S2-1

S4-2 S5-1

S4-1 S4-4

School Signs

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guiding, warning, or regulating traffic. Theyare typically limited to not more than a totalof three lines of words or symbols and arewhite in color. These types of markings arenot used for mandatory messages except insupport of standard signs. Figure 27illustrates the school pavement markingdesign standard.

School Walk Routesand Safety Programs

School walk route plans are required by theWashington Administrative Code (WAC 392-151-025) for all elementary schools inWashington. The Guidebook for StudentPedestrian Safety distributed by WSDOT andthe Office of the Superintendent of PublicInstruction describes a community-based,step-by-step process to develop school walkroutes. Procedures for developing school walkroutes are listed in Table 32.

Once the school walk route has beenestablished, pedestrian safety deficienciesalong the walk route need to be identified,then remedial actions can be considered andimplemented as funding becomes available.Refer to A Guidebook for Student PedestrianSafety for guidelines for identifying pedestrian

Figure 27


One Lane School Marking

Table 32

Procedures for DevelopingSchool Walk Routes

1. Form Safety Advisory Committee(SAC)

2. Prepare base maps

3. Inventory existing walking conditions

4. Inventory traffic characteristics

5. Design the walk routes

6. Prepare the draft walk route maps

7. Review the route maps with the SAC

8. Have route maps approved by theschool board

9. Distribute and explain the maps

10. Evaluate the program


safety deficiencies and developing remedialactions.

Ongoing Maintenance

The school district and school site officials areresponsible to provide ongoing maintenance ofpedestrian facilities and traffic controlelements on the school site. This includessidewalks within the right-of-way adjacent tothe school site. State law requires public andprivate property owners to be responsible forrepairs and reconstruction of the sidewalkwithin the street right-of-way adjacent to theirproperty (RCW 35.69.020). Local jurisdictionsare responsible for maintaining facilities andtraffic control elements at intersections andmid-block crossings. On an annual basis,

65



before the opening of school each year,elements that affect pedestrian travel in thearea of the school should be inspected. Someof the things to look for include:

• Signs that are clearly visible and easy toread (paint has not worn off; tree branchesare not in the way)

• Traffic control devices, signals, andactuators that function properly

• Sidewalks and walkways that are clear ofobstruction; pavement that is smooth

• Crosswalks and pavement markings thatare clearly visible

• Pedestrians visibility that is notcompromised by overgrown landscaping,parking, signs, fencing, or other obstacles atintersections, crossings, and along walkways


For more specific design guidelines for variouspedestrian facilities that may be developedwithin the vicinity of schools, refer to theother toolkit sections of this guidebook,including Toolkit 2 — Accessibility, Toolkit 4— Trails and Pathways, Toolkit 5 —Sidewalks and Walkways, Toolkit 6 —Intersections, Toolkit 7 — Crossings, andToolkit 8 — Traffic Calming.

The following sources are recommended fordesign recommendations and otherinformation related to pedestrian facilities forchildren and school zones. Please see theResource Guide included at the end of thisguidebook for complete bibliographyinformation.

A Guidebook for Student Pedestrian Safety,Final Report, KJS Associates Inc., MacLeodReckord, and Educational ManagementConsultants

Childhood Injury Prevention, A Directory ofResources and Program in Washington State,Washington State Department of Health


Elementary School Catalog, AAA Foundationfor Traffic Safety

Florida Pedestrian Planning and DesignGuidelines, University of North Carolina

Guidelines for the Installation of CrosswalkMarkings, Steven A. Smith and Richard L.Knoblauch


Kids and Cars Don't Mix, Seattle EngineeringDepartment

“Make Their First Steps Safe Ones,” Robert B.Overend

Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devicesfor Streets and Highways, 1988 Edition, USDepartment of Transportation


Trails and Pathways uuuuu4

67


• Trails and Pathways Across MultipleJurisdictions

• Regional Connectivity• Accessibility of Trails and Pathways• Multi-Use Trails and Pathways• Recommended Dimensions• Paving and Surfacing• Grades, Cross Slopes, and Drainage• Shoulders, Side Slopes, and Railings• Connections and Crossings• Managing Motor Vehicle Access• Vegetation and Landscaping• Seasonal and Nighttime Use• Maintenance• Other Sources of Information

Trails and Pathways

uuuuuToolkit 4

This section provides design recommendationsrelated to trails, pathways, and paths that areindependently aligned and not typicallylocated parallel to streets or within roadrights-of-way. These types of trails andpathways are generally found within openspaces of planned residential communities andsubdivisions, abandoned railroad rights-of-way, utility easements, parks and greenways,campuses, private developments, and alongwaterfronts.

Trails and pathways commonly serve a varietyof pedestrians, including commuters,schoolchildren, neighborhood residents, andrecreational users such as joggers and skaters.Trails and pathways that accommodate two-way traffic and are shared with bicyclists andequestrians are commonly referred to as“multi-use” or “shared use” pathways or trails.

Trails and PathwaysAcross MultipleJurisdictions

When a trail or pathway crosses overboundaries of multiple jurisdictions (state,county, and city rights-of-way, parks, andrailroads), cooperative coordination betweenjurisdictions for the planning, design,operation, and maintenance of the facility isessential. Communities can benefit fromworking together to coordinate improvementsand linkages for region-wide nonmotorizedsystems.

Trails and pathways provide recreationalopportunities as well as increasedtransportation choices.


Trails and Pathwaysuuuuu4

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Regional Connectivity

Trails and pathways can enhance pedestrianmobility and regional connectivity. When wellplanned, designed, and maintained, trails andpathways can provide convenient routes oftravel within communities, linking popularorigins and destinations such as parks,schools, and community centers. Trails andpathways are not typically an adequatesubstitute for a full system of on-streetnonmotorized improvements. Rather, theyserve as important linkages in the overallnonmotorized system.

Accessibility of Trailsand Pathways

Trails and pathways provide importantoutdoor recreational opportunities andtransportation alternatives for everyone. It isalways the best design practice to providepedestrian facilities that are accessible,including trails and pathways. At least oneaccessible route of travel, located entirelywithin the site boundary, must connect publictransportation stops, accessible parkingspaces, passenger drop-off and loading areas,and public streets or sidewalks with theaccessible entrance to the site and primarydeveloped activities and elements (buildings,shelters, restrooms, and programs). To themaximum extent feasible, the accessible routemust coincide with the route for the generalpublic.

If the recreational trail or pathway is notfunctioning as an accessible route of travelbetween buildings and facilities and cannot bedesigned to be fully accessible due totopography or other physical site constraints,it may be exempt from some of the designrequirements related to the Americans withDisabilities Act (ADA). Check with your local

agency, WSDOT, and federal agencies such asthe US Architectural and TransportationBarriers Compliance Board (Access Board)and FHWA to determine if your project iseligible for certain exemptions from the ADAdesign provisions.

Even though full compliance with the ADAdesign provisions may not be required, trailsand pathways should be designed to provideaccessible recreation experiences for everyoneto the maximum extent possible. Anaccessible spur trail that extends off the maintrail to a special point of interest, or sectionsof trail that serve varying levels of ability areexamples of accessible recreation experiencesthat can be provided when it is not feasible todevelop the entire trail or pathway as anaccessible route. Figure 28 illustrates anaccessible trail/pathway.

For more accessibility design guidelines andinformation related to the ADA, refer toToolkit 2 — Accessibility.

Figure 28

Accessible Trail/Pathway



69

Multiple Levels of Accessibility

Trails and pathways in parks and other openspaces are commonly designed to provideexperiences for differing levels of accessibility.The levels of accessibility served may dependon the setting. In urban parks and openspaces, a full range of accessible recreationopportunities, including trails and pathwaysthat provide easy access, are typicallyexpected by the general public. In rural andprimitive areas, full accessibility is notgenerally expected, and trails and pathwaysthat serve varying levels of accessibility arecommonly provided. Some trails may serve asaccessible routes of travel, while others mayhave steeper gradients and unpaved surfaces.Individuals are then free to choose a trail thatprovides the recreation experience and degreeof challenge that they desire.

Universal Access to Outdoor Recreation: ADesign Guide, developed by the PLAE and theUSDA Forest Service, provides extensivedesign guidance related to outdoor recreationtrails and pathways. It includes a recreationtrail rating system and suggests that trails besigned to indicate the level of accessibility:easy, moderate, and difficult (see Figure 29).

The design guide contains design guidelinesfor trails classified as easy, moderate anddifficult. There are several other sources ofinformation available for trail and pathwaydesign. The City of Bellevue’s DevelopmentManual provides illustrative design details forvarious types of trails. See the list at the endof this toolkit section for other good sources.Trail design guidelines summarized fromUniversal Access to Outdoor Recreation: ADesign Guide and other sources aresummarized in Table 33.

Figure 29

Universal Levels ofAccessibility Signs

Trails and pathways serve a wide variety ofusers.

Source: Universal Access to Outdoor Recreation, ADesign Guide



70

Multi-Use Trails andPathways

Trails and pathways may be developed for theexclusive use by pedestrians, or they may beshared with bicyclists and equestrians ofvarying skill levels. Design of multi-usepathways needs to carefully consider the

various skill levels, experience, andcharacteristics of these different users.

Minimizing Conflicts Between TrailUsers

The mix of pedestrians and bicycles on amulti-use trail is not always a desirablesituation because the potential for conflicts is

Table 33

* If the pathway is designated as an accessible route of travel on the site, handrails are required on both sides of thepathway wherever the grade exceeds 5 percent.

Source: Adapted from Universal Access to Outdoor Recreation, A Design Guide

Design Element

Surfacing

Clear width

Sustained runningslope

Maximum gradeFor a Maximum Distance of

Cross slopemaximum

Passing spaceinterval

Rest area interval

Small levelchanges

Easy

Paved — Asphalt/ConcreteBoardwalk withramped or levelentry

1.2 m (48 in)

5 percent

8.3 percent*

9.1 m (30 ft)

2 percent

61 m (200 ft)maximum


1.3 cm (0.5 in)maximum

Moderate

Compactedcrushed rock orcompacted dryearth

.9 m (36 in)

8.3 percent

10 - 14 percent

15.2 m (50 ft)

3 percent



2.6 cm (1 in)maximum

Difficult

Varies, but needsto be firm andstable

.7 m (28 in)

12.5 percent

20 percent

15.2 m (50 ft)

5 percent


366 m (1,200 ft)maximum

7.6 cm (3 in)maximum

Levels of Accessibility

Design Guidelines for Recreational Trails



71

high. Trails heavily used by commutingbicyclists present problems for families onrecreational strolls. Children are particularlyat risk on multi-use trails because they tend totravel at slower speeds than average bicyclistsand their movements are unpredictable. Theymay change direction unexpectedly in front ofan approaching bicyclist. Conflicts betweenbicyclists and pedestrians can be avoided bydesigning the trail to separate them.

When trails and pathways must be shared bypedestrians and bicyclists, they need to bedesigned in accordance with applicablestandards (refer to WSDOT and AASHTOdesign requirements). Adequate visibilityand sight distance is crucial. Designtreatments that help to improve multi-usetrails and pathways so that they are safer foruse by everyone include:

• Horizontal and vertical alignment to ensureclear lines of sight for pedestrians andbicyclists

• Wide shoulders, 0.6 meters (2 feet)minimum on each side, to provide stoppingand resting areas and allow for passing, andwidening at curves

• Avoidance of view obstructions at edges ofthe trail by placing signs, poles, utilityboxes, garbage cans, benches, and otherelements away from the edge of the pathand using low-growing landscaping or high-branching trees

• Use of bicycle speed limits

• Use of delineation and separationtreatments (see Table 34)

• Use of directional signing

• Signing and marking (refer to the Manualon Uniform Traffic Control Devices); a 10-centimeter (4-inch) wide centerline stripemay be considered for multi-use pathwayswith heavy volumes of pedestrians andbicyclists, on curves with restricted sightdistance, and on pathways where nighttimeuse is expected (see Table 34); edge lines canalso be beneficial on pathways experiencingnighttime use

If a multi-use pathway must accommodate ahigher number of users, it needs to be as wideas possible with a paved width of 3.7 meters(12 feet) desirable or 3 meters (10 feet)

Table 34

Delineation/SeparationTreatments for Multi-Use

Pathways

• Colored paving

• Signing

• Textured paving or paving patterns*

• Pavement markings — symbols orwords (slip resistant finish)

• Striping with education programabout trail use and other measures**

• Combinations of two or more of theabove

* Raised pavement markers are not an acceptablemethod of delineation for pathways shared withbicyclists, but some textured surfaces areacceptable; check with your local agency.

** Striping is most helpful on curves and otherareas where sight distances are decreased, butwhen used, it should include a public educationprogram to help trail users understand whatthe striping means and remind them of trail useetiquette (see Figure 30).



72

minimum, and with 0.6-meter (2-foot) wideshoulders on both sides (see Table 36,Recommended Dimensions). Figure 35illustrates a typical multi-use pathway sharedby pedestrians and bicyclists.

A separate, soft-surface jogging or equestrianpath may be constructed using wood chips,gravel, or other suitable material, parallel tobut separated from the paved path (see Figure32).

Some special delineation treatments that canbe implemented to help minimize conflictsbetween pedestrians and other trail users arelisted in Table 34.

Multi-Use Trails and PathwaysNext to Roadways

Multi-use two-way trails and pathwaysaligned along a street do not typically functionwell due to problems related to bicycle use.For example, on a multi-use two-waypathway, some of the bicyclists will betravelling against the normal flow of motorvehicle traffic, which is contrary to the rules ofthe road.

Conflicts at intersections and driveways are amajor concern on pathways adjacent toroadways. Motorists will often not noticebicyclists coming toward them on the right,since they do not expect to see them travellingagainst the flow of traffic. Additionalproblems are listed in the AASHTO Guide forthe Development of Bicycle Facilities.

The feasibility of developing a multi-usepedestrian and bicycle pathway within theright-of-way and adjacent to a roadway shouldbe carefully considered. The followingconditions should exist before determiningthat a multi-use pathway within the right-of-way is necessary:

Figure 30

Multi-Use Pathway Striping

Figure 31

Multi-Use Pathway

Figure 32

Paved Multi-Use Pathway WithSeparated Soft Surface Trail for

Equestrians and Joggers



73

• The pathway can be separated from motorvehicle traffic. Minimum horizontalseparation of 1.5 meters (5 feet) is requiredby AASHTO standards, as illustrated inFigure 33.

• Development of bike lanes and sidewalks asan alternative to the multi-use pathwaywould not be a feasible alternative. (Bikelanes and sidewalks typically take up lessspace than multi-use pathways within theright-of-way and allow bicyclists to travelwith the normal flow of traffic.)

• There are no reasonable alternativealignments for bikeways and sidewalks onnearby parallel routes.

• There is a commitment to provide acontinuous nonmotorized system throughoutthe corridor.

• Bicycle and pedestrian use is anticipated tobe high.

• The pathway can be terminated onto streetswith good bicycle and pedestrian facilities,or onto another safe, well designed pathwayat each end.

• Potential driveway and intersection conflictscan be minimized or mitigated.

• There are popular origins and destinationsthroughout the corridor (schools, parks, andneighborhoods).

• The pathway can be constructed wideenough to accommodate all types of users,with delineation and separation techniquesto minimize conflicts between users — 3.7meters (12 feet) desirable, 4.3 meters (14feet) optimum.

When there is no feasible alternative tolocating a two-way multi-use pathway withinthe roadway right-of-way, adequateseparation is required. The wider theseparation dimension, the better. A minimumseparation of 1.5 meters (5 feet) is required byAASHTO. Recommendations for separationtreatments are provided in Table 35.

Table 35

Figure 33

Pathway SeparationFrom Roadway

Separation Treatments forMulti-Use PathwayNext to Roadway

• 1.5-meter (5 ft) minimum width

• Landscaped or natural vegetation toprovide buffer from noise and splash ofvehicles and/or

• Drainage ditch or swale withmaximum 1:3 side slopes at edge of0.6-meter (2-ft) wide shoulder

• If less than 1.5 meters (5 feet), aconcrete barrier divider, wall and/orrailing a minimum of 1.4 meters (4.5feet) high is required by AASHTO.



74

RecommendedDimensions

Design dimensions for trails and pathways canvary depending on the type of facility, levels ofuse they receive, and the setting in which theyare located. Table 36 lists recommendeddimensions for various types of pathways andtrails.

Geometric standards (horizontal curvature,and sight distance) related to design of multi-use pathways can be referred to in theWSDOT Design Manual, Section 1020,Nonmotorized Transportation and inAASHTO’s Guide for the Development ofBicycle Facilities.

For multi-use trails and pathways that receivehigh levels of use, the optimum dimension inTable 36 is recommended. Dimensions forother types of pedestrian pathways (otherthan paved multi-use trails) are also providedin the table. Pedestrian-only paved paths aretypically found in parks or in neighborhoodopen spaces (see Figure 34). Unpaved

pedestrian-only and multi-use paths are alsofound in parks and open spaces, as well as inundeveloped and natural areas. Unpavedtrails and pathways are best used for areaswith low use and limited purposes or asinterim solutions until they can be fullyimproved.

Figure 34 Figure 36

Figure 35

Paved Pedestrian-Only Pathway

Source: Adapted for this Guidebook from City ofKirkland Non-Motorized Transportation Plan

Unpaved Multi-Use Pathway(Interim Solution)

Suggested surfacing options — compacted crushedrock, 1.6 cm (5/8 in) minus; other compactedcrushed material or stabilized earth.Source: Adapted for this Guidebook from City ofKirkland Non-Motorized Transportation Plan

Unpaved Pedestrian-Only Pathway(Limited Purpose/Interim Solution)

Suggested surfacing options — compacted gravel0.6 cm (0.25 in) minus, wood chips, grass/grasscrete, boardwalk or trestle; 0.6 m (2-ft)minimum width acceptable in highly constrainedareas.Source: Adapted for this Guidebook from City ofKirkland Non-Motorized Transportation Plan



75

Table 36

Recommended Dimensions for Trails and Pathways


3.0 m (10 ft) minimum3.7 m (12 ft) desirable4.3 m (14 ft) optimum

1.5 m (5 ft) minimum

.3 m (1 ft) minimum(peds only)

.6 m (2 ft) minimum(multi-use)

.3 m (1 ft) minimum*

.6 m (2 ft) desirable*

2.4 m (8 ft) minimum3.0 m (10 ft) desirable

1.5 m (5 ft) minimum1.8 m (6 ft) desirable

.6 m (2 ft) minimum1.2 - (4 -1.8 m 6 ft) desirable

1.8 m (6 ft) minimum2.4 - (8 -3.0 m 10 ft) desirable

3.0 m (10 ft) minimum3.7 m (12 ft) desirable4.6 m (15 ft) optimum

Trail/PathwayElement

Multi-Use PathwayWidth (two-way,shared withbicyclists)

Roadway Separation

Shoulders

Additional LateralClearance Each Sideof Shoulder

Vertical Clearance

Paved Pedestrian-Only Path Width

Unpaved Pedestrian-Only Path Width

Multi-Use UnpavedPath Width

Pedestrian Mall/Corridor (Urban)Width

Comments

Minimum width should only be used wherevolumes are low and sight distances are good;width should be based on relative speed of users;higher speed users (bicyclists and skaters)require greater widths.

Minimum separation for parallel, adjacent path; aphysical barrier should be installed whereminimum separation cannot be met.

Shoulders provide pull-off/resting and passingspace; should be graded to the same slope as thepath; minimum shoulder width of 0.3 m (1 ft)should only be used in constrained areas.

Lateral clearance is necessary for safe operationon either side of a multi-use path; should begraded to the same slope as the path.

Necessary for good visibility and clearance forbikes/horses on multi-use pathways.

These pathways are for exclusive use bypedestrians (see Figure 34).

Best as limited purpose facility in rural or semi-primitive areas; can provide interim solution (seeFigure 35); minimum width should only be usedin constrained areas.

Only suggested as an interim solution and notappropriate for high use trails; best in rural orsemi-primitive areas (see Figure 36).

Pathways in urban areas or those that receiveheavy use should be wide enough to accommodateseveral people walking side-by-side or groups ofpeople walking in opposite directions.

* If less than 1.2 m (4 ft) total lateral clearance is provided (including shoulder) between the edge of trail, and there is avertical grade drop greater than 0.8 m (30 in), steeper than 2:1, railing may be required. See discussion later in thistoolkit section.

Note: Refer to WSDOT, AASHTO, and your local agency for other guidelines and standards for multi-use pathwaydimensions.Source: This table was compiled based on research of various documents (see Resource Guide) and input from thePedestrian Facilities Guidebook Advisory Group



76

Paving and Surfacing

When selecting paving and surfacingmaterials, long-term durability, safety,accessibility, cost, and maintenance areusually the most important criteria.

In general, surfacing materials for trails andpathways in urban areas should be paved orconsist of other hard-surfaced materials.Recreational trails and pathways in ruralsemi-primitive settings can be constructed ofmaterials that blend with the natural setting.Trails in primitive settings will most likely benative soil.

Multi-use pathways shared by pedestriansand bicyclists function best when constructedof a smooth, paved, all-weather surface suchas asphalt or concrete, regardless of thesetting.

All trail and pathway materials need toprovide a firm, stable, and slip-resistantsurface throughout the primary seasons ofuse. A good subbase, such as compactedaggregate material or fully compacted nativesoil (if structurally suitable), is also importantfor structural support of multi-use pathways.

Recommended pavement cross sections areillustrated in Figure 37. Check with localstandards to determine specific pavementdesign requirements for your project.Pavement conditions should be checkedperiodically for potholes or cracks, withrepairs when necessary to maintain a smoothsurface.

Figure 37

Paved pedestrian-only paths can provide accessthrough parks and neighborhoods.

* 100-mm (4-in) A/C and 150-mm (6-in) base arerecommended for pathways that need to supportmotor vehicle access (maintenance and emergencyvehicles)

Source: Time-Saver Standards for LandscapeArchitecture, Design and Construction Data

Multi-Use PathwayPavement Cross Sections

*

*



77

Grades, CrossSlopes, and Drainage

Trails and pathways can be designed andconstructed with various grades, depending onthe level of accessibility being served, asdiscussed previously in this toolkit section.Longitudinal grades on pathways should bekept to a minimum, especially on longinclines. Grades greater than 5 percent aretypically undesirable. Where steep terrainexists, grades of 5 to 10 percent can betolerated for short segments less than 500feet. The design speed should also beincreased and additional pathway width of 0.9meters (3 feet) should be provided formaneuverability on grades exceeding 5percent.

Its important to keep pathways free of puddlesand water accumulations that could becomeslippery in cold temperatures. Drainagesystems must be designed in accordance withall applicable standards and regulations.Check with your local agency to determinedrainage design requirements.

A 1:50 (2 percent) cross slope will facilitateadequate drainage on pathways. Sloping inone direction instead of crowning the pathwayis preferred and usually simplifies thedrainage and surface construction. Ditches orswales should be provided where necessary tocontrol runoff and provide water quality.Ditches function best on the uphill side of thepathway to intercept drainage.

Drainage grates and inlets are best located atthe outside edge of the pathway or off the pathentirely. Grid style grates are recommendedover grates with parallel bars spaced at 1.3centimeters (0.5 inches) maximum. Gratesshould be set flush, less than 1.3 centimeters

(0.5 inches) below the surface of thesurrounding pavement, with no raised edges.

Drainage systems should be maintained ingood working order year-round, particularly inareas of heavy rainfall.

Shoulders, SideSlopes, and Railings

Recommended widths for shoulders at thesides of trails and pathways are provided inTable 36. In areas where there are side slopesor ditches, a minimum of 1.2 meters (4 feet) ofclear, level area (including shoulder) is neededbefore the up slope or down slope (or ditch)begins. Ditches function best on the uphillside of the pathway to intercept drainage.

Maximum side slopes of 3:1 are recommended.When the grade drops severely from theshoulder of a pedestrian or bike travel way,railings are required by most jurisdictions.When a vertical drop is more than 0.8 meters(30 inches), exceeds a down slope grade of 2:1,and is located less than 1.2 meters (4 feet)from the edge of the trail, pathway, walkway,or sidewalk, railing needs to be installed alongthe extent of the grade drop. Figure 38illustrates conditions where railing isrequired.

Railings are required by AASHTO andWSDOT to be a minimum of 1.4 meters (4.5feet) in height adjacent to multi-use trails andpathways shared with bicycles. On paths,walkways, and sidewalks used exclusively bypedestrians, the railing can be a minimum of1.1 meters (3.5 feet) high. Railings arerequired to be designed with vertical posts,bars, and top and bottom rails spaced so that a10.2-centimeter (4-inch) sphere cannot bepassed through the bars (Uniform Building



78

Code, Section 509.3; requirements of localjurisdiction may vary).

A maximum 3:1 slope is also recommended forsteep side slopes on the uphill side ofpathways. Its best to avoid high retainingwalls immediately adjacent to pathways sincethey may be out of scale with creating apedestrian friendly environment. High wallsshould be terraced back from the edge of thepathway shoulder. Blank walls should bescreened with landscaping or designed with anattractive face or artwork.

Connections andCrossings

Initial planning of trail and pathway routesshould minimize crossing points with roadsand driveways as much as possible. Pathwaysshould connect to street systems anddestination sites in a safe and convenientmanner. Connections should be clearlyidentified with destination and directionalsigning. Crossings should be well-designed(see Toolkit 7 — Crossings).

Managing MotorVehicle Access

As a general rule, separated pathwaysfunction best when motor vehicle access isprohibited or limited to maintenance vehiclesfor periodic inspection, sweeping, and repairs,utility vehicles, and emergency vehicles. Thefollowing design treatments are suggested formanaging motor vehicle access on pathways:

• Pavement cross-sections with sufficient baseand thickness are necessary to supportmaintenance vehicles while minimizingdeterioration. A 10-centimeter (4-inch)asphalt thickness over a 15-centimeter (6-inch) aggregate base is recommended.

• Pathway edges need to be designed withadded thickness to support vehicle loads.See Figure 39 for thickened-edge pavementdesign.

• Access points can be provided fromroadways for use by maintenance andemergency vehicles, but blocked from use byother motor vehicles with removablebollards or special gates (see Bollard Designand Placement).

Figure 38

Pathways Requiring Railings



79

• Gates or fencing at side entrances to thepathway, can be specially designed to allowpassage for pedestrians, wheelchairs, andbicyclists without providing an access pointfor motor vehicles.

• Signing can be installed to notify pathwayusers that maintenance vehicles may beentering the system at the identifiedlocations; temporary signs and markersneed to be carried and placed at appropriatelocations as warning devices duringmaintenance activities.

Bollard Design and Placement

When bollards are placed at pathwayentrances, marking them with bright coloredreflective paint or emblems increases theirvisibility to pedestrians and bicyclists. The

recommended minimum height for bollards is0.8 meters (30 inches).

Bollards need to be adequately spaced to alloweasy passage by bicyclists, bicycle trailers, andwheelchair users with one bollard in thecenter of the pathway dividing the two-waytraffic flow. If more than the center bollard isneeded, other bollards should be placedoutside the paved area at pathway edges.Figure 40 illustrates suggested bollardplacement for various pathway widths.

Entrance Design to Restrict MotorVehicles

Motor vehicles can be restricted from enteringpathways through the use of special designtechniques, such as short curb radii or a splitpath configuration (see Figure 41). Thesetechniques are most appropriate at locationswhere maintenance and emergency vehiclesdo not require access to the pathway.

Vegetation andLandscaping

Landscaping and trees placed along pathwaysneed to be carefully selected to avoid the needfor excessive pruning, cleanup of fallen fruitand debris, and watering, unless a fully

Figure 39

Thickened-Edge PavementDesign

Bollards provide access control at points wherepathways join or cross roads.

Figure 40

Bollard Spacing



80

automatic underground irrigation system canbe installed. (Where irrigation cannot beinstalled, drought-tolerant and native speciescan be planted. Most landscaping, evendrought-tolerant, needs some watering duringthe dry season of the first one or two years tobecome established.)

Some trees and shrubs (such as cottonwoodsor other shallow-rooted species) have atendency to raise and buckle surroundingpavement areas. These types of trees andshrubs should be avoided near pathways, orroot barriers between trees and adjacentpathways should be installed (see Figure 42).Soil sterilants can also be applied to preventvegetation from erupting through thepavement.

Seasonal andNighttime Use

Pathways used regularly by pedestrianswalking to and from origins and destinationswithin their communities year-round shouldbe well maintained, with snow removal in

Figure 41

Figure 42

areas of heavy snowfall, cleanup of fallenleaves and debris, and consistentlyfunctioning drainage facilities in areas offrequent rainfall.

When pathways are frequently used duringnighttime hours, or during the late fall andwinter when darkness occurs in late afternoonand early evening, lighting is an importantconsideration. Lighting should be designedaccording to applicable local standards, withconsideration toward maximizing pedestriansafety and security while minimizing glareand obtrusiveness to surroundingneighborhoods.

Maintenance

Several suggestions have been providedthroughout this section related tomaintenance. It is important to establish amaintenance program at the time a project isdeveloped to ensure that the pathway willfunction properly over the long term.Maintenance activities should be scheduledduring times of typically low pathway use, ifpossible. Proper work zone signing is requiredby State Labor and Industry laws whenevermaintenance occurs on or adjacent topedestrian travel ways.

Split Pathway Entrance

Source: Adapted from Oregon Bicycle andPedestrian Plan


Root Barrier



81


The following sources of information arerecommended for design of trails andpathways. Please see the Resource Guideincluded at the end of this guidebook forcomplete bibliography information.

Design Manual, 1020 Facilities forNonmotorized Transportation, WashingtonState Department of Transportation

Development Manual, TransportationDepartment, Parks & Community ServicesDepartment, City of Bellevue

Guide for the Development of BicycleFacilities, American Association of StateHighway and Transportation Officials


Issaquah Urban Trails Plan

King County Regional Trails Plan

Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, AnElement of the Oregon Transportation Plan,Oregon Department of Transportation Bicycleand Pedestrian Program

Recommendations for Accessibility Guidelines:Recreational Facilities and Outdoor DevelopedAreas, Recreation Access Advisory Committee

Standard Plans for Road, Bridge andMunicipal Construction, Washington StateDepartment of Transportation


Universal Access to Outdoor Recreation: ADesign Guide, PLAI, Inc.



82


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5


• Determining When and Where Sidewalksand Walkways are Needed

• Sidewalks and Walkways in VariousSettings

• Descriptions and Comparisons of Sidewalksand Walkways

• Location — Both Sides Versus One Side• Accessibility• Recommended Dimensions• Passing, Waiting, and Resting Areas• Grades, Cross Slope, and Drainage• Side Slopes, Railings, and Walls• Surfacing• Street Separation and Edge Treatments• Street Furnishings, Utilities, and Related

Clearances• Landscaping and Street Trees• Lighting• Signing• Sidewalks in Business Districts and

Downtowns• Shoulders as Walkways in Rural Areas• Bicycles on Sidewalks• Street Design Considerations• Maintenance• Other Sources of Information

Sidewalksand Walkways

uuuuuToolkit 5

Table 37

Urban center with wide sidewalks.

Priorities for PedestriansTraveling Along Streets

• Safety

• Efficient mobility

• Defined space

• Visibility

• Accessibility

• Comfortable/attractive environment

Pedestrian facilities addressed in this toolkitsection include those located within streetrights-of-way that are adjacent to or parallelwith the roadway, such as sidewalks,walkways, and roadside shoulders used forpedestrian travel.

Sidewalks and walkways function as integralcomponents of pedestrian friendly streetsystems where pedestrians can experiencesafety, comfort, accessibility, and efficientmobility. Sidewalks and walkways increasepedestrian safety by separating pedestriansfrom vehicle traffic. Wide shoulders can beprovided where it is not feasible to build a fullsidewalk improvement. Table 37 listspriorities for pedestrians traveling alongstreets.


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5Determining Whenand Where Sidewalksand Walkways areNeeded

Research has documented that pedestriantravel increases in areas where morepedestrian facilities are available. A recentstudy completed by the University ofWashington confirmed that higher numbers ofpedestrians can be found in areas where morecomplete and continuous sidewalks,walkways, crossings, and other pedestrianfacilities exist (see About Pedestrians).

State and federal mandates to increasepedestrian travel, along with researchfindings that indicate pedestrian travel doesincrease when more pedestrian facilities areavailable, provide an important confirmation:

There is a need to increase the generallevel of pedestrian facilities in ourcommunities, including the availablenetwork of sidewalks and walkways.Even if there does not appear to be acurrent demand for pedestrian facilities,pedestrian travel can almost always beexpected to increase when facilities areprovided.

In recognition of this need, this guidebookstrongly recommends that at least some typeof pedestrian travel way be provided along allstreets and roadways.

It is recognized that development ofpedestrian facilities on all street systems willtake time (particularly when retrofitting theminto existing transportation systems).Realistically, cities, towns, and counties willgradually look for ways to add pedestrianfacilities on a project-by-project basis, asfunding and opportunities become available.To reach the overall goal of a more completepedestrian travel network, local agencies oftenrequire pedestrian facilities be constructed aspart of private development projects as theyoccur. The community can then fill in missinglinks in the network through public fundingand capital investment projects.

Table 38 lists criteria that can be analyzed toidentify pedestrian safety deficiencies, asrecommended by the Institute ofTransportation Engineers (ITE).

Determining when and where sidewalks andwalkways are needed is typically left up to thelocal jurisdiction. A Policy on GeometricDesign of Highways and Streets (Green Book),by the American Association of State Highwayand Transportation Officials (AASHTO)provides the following guidance:

• Develop sidewalks as integral parts of allcity streets.

• If pedestrian activity is anticipated,construct sidewalks as part of streetdevelopment.

• Give consideration to connecting the nearbyurban communities with sidewalks, eventhough pedestrian traffic may be light.Some type of pedestrian travel way is

recommended along all streets and roadways.



• Sidewalks in rural and suburban areas areneeded at schools, local businesses, andindustrial plants that result in pedestrianconcentrations. (Other appropriate locationsmight be at parks, office buildings, and ofcourse, in all residential areas.)

• Traffic volume-pedestrian warrants forsidewalks along highways have not beenestablished. In general, whenever theroadside and land development conditionsare such that pedestrians regularly movealong a main or high-speed highway, theyshould be furnished with a sidewalk or patharea, as suitable to the conditions.

• The higher speeds of traffic and generalabsence of lighting in rural areas reinforcethe need for sidewalks. Available datasuggests that sidewalks in rural areasreduce pedestrian/motor vehicle collisions.

• As a general practice, sidewalks should beconstructed along any street or highway notprovided with shoulders, even thoughpedestrian traffic may be light. Sidewalksbuilt along rural highways should be wellremoved from the traveled way, separatedby a ditch or as much space as availablewithin the right of way. (Paraphrased fromChapter IV of the Green Book, discussion onsidewalks.)

The AASHTO Green Book also containspedestrian level of service criteria formeasuring the capacity of existing pedestrianfacilities to determine the need forimprovements or expansions. If adequatecapacity is not provided, pedestrian mobilitymay be seriously impeded. Refer to Chapter IIof the Green Book for a description of thiscriteria, as well as other guidance for design ofpedestrian facilities.

Sidewalks andWalkways in VariousSettings

The design of sidewalks and walkways variesdepending on the setting and the standardsand requirements for those settings imposedby local agencies. Local agency criteria forsidewalks and walkways are typically includedin street and roadway design standards.

Most local agencies in Washington haveadopted varying design standards for urbanand rural areas, as well as more specificrequirements that are applicable toresidential settings, downtowns, specialdistricts, and other areas. (Check with yourlocal agency to confirm the designrequirements that may be applicable to yourpedestrian project.)

Table 38

ITE Criteria to Be Analyzed toDetermine Pedestrian Safety

Deficiencies

• Roadway and traffic control deviceinventory

• Sight distance studies

• The adequacy of gaps in the stream oftraffic for pedestrian crossings

• Collision summaries and diagrams

• Conflict analysis

• Pedestrian volumes andcharacteristics

• Traffic volumes and speeds

Source: Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities,A Proposed Recommended Practice of the Instituteof Transportation Engineers, ITE Technical


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5The design guidelines throughout thisguidebook, including the recommendations inthis toolkit, address solutions that areappropriate in various locations and settings(such as urban centers, neighborhoods, orrural areas). This information is provided toassist designers in determining the best typeof sidewalk or walkway for the setting, whichin some cases may require variance from localagency standards currently in place.

An example of how the information in thisguidebook might be helpful in justifying avariance from design standards:

The current adopted local agency designstandard requires only a 1.5-meter (5-foot) wide shoulder along a ruralroadway. Because there are schools,parks, and other pedestrian origins anddestinations along this roadway route,traffic engineering staff or others(community groups, or privatedevelopers of a nearby subdivision) feelthere is a need to develop a 1.8-meter (6-foot) wide sidewalk improvement alongboth sides of the roadway in this area.The information in this guidebook helpsto explain why a full sidewalkimprovement in this area is needed, andprovides design guidance.

Descriptions andComparisons ofSidewalks andWalkways

Sidewalks Defined

Sidewalks are typically constructed of concreteand are raised and located adjacent to curbs orseparated from the curb by a linear plantingstrip. Sidewalk widths can vary, but typicallythey are a minimum of 1.5 meters (5 feet) wide

(clear width) on local residential streets, andcan be 1.8 to 4.6 meters (6 to 15 feet), orsometimes wider, on collector and arterialstreets, or in special districts.

Walkways Defined

In contrast to sidewalks, which are typicallyraised, walkways are usually built over theexisting ground surface without being raised.Instead of vertical separation by curb andgutter, walkways are usually separatedhorizontally by a planting buffer or ditch. Insome cases, extruded curbs or barriers areused to separate a walkway from adjacentstreet traffic (see Street Separation and EdgeTreatments). Walkways are often constructedof materials other than concrete, such as

An informal path naturally created along aroadway may suggest the need for more formalpedestrian improvements.

Walkway separated from roadway.


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5asphalt or compacted granular stone orcrushed rock. Some local agencies considerasphalt walkways as interim facilities inurban areas until full Portland cementconcrete sidewalk improvements can be built.Check with your local agency.

Walkway width can vary, but the minimumrecommended width in this guidebook is 1.5meters (5 feet). When horizontally separated,the minimum separation distancerecommended between the edge of the streetand a walkway is 1.5 meters (5 feet). Thewalkway appearance and alignment may beless formal in areas of low use or ruralcharacter with compacted crushed rocksurfacing or other type of surface. Sometimes,natural paths are created as a result offrequent travel at the side of the roadway.These paths may suggest the need for moreformal pedestrian improvements.

Roadside shoulders can serve as suitablewalkways in rural areas if designed properly,especially if the alternative is no pedestriantravel area at all. Refer to the discussion laterin this section for shoulder walkway designrecommendations.

Location � Both SidesVersus One Side

In most cases, it is desirable to providesidewalks on both sides of streets used bypedestrians. Washington State statuterequires pedestrians to walk on sidewalkswhen they are provided in the right-of-way(RCW 46.61.250). Pedestrians are alsoencouraged to walk on the side of the roadwayfacing traffic. Providing sidewalks on bothsides enables pedestrians to travel facingtraffic in either direction, and minimizes theneed for pedestrian crossing points.

A sidewalk on one side may be adequate forsome local streets, especially when thisimproves a condition where there were nosidewalks previously.

Several factors influence the decision ofwhether to place sidewalks, walkways, andwidened shoulders on both sides or one side(and which side). These factors include theavailable space within the right-of-way, theexisting physical limitations at the roadside,and which side of the street origins anddestinations (such as schools and bus stops)are located.

Accessibility

When sidewalks or walkways are serving asan accessible route of travel between publicbuildings or facilities, they are required to bedesigned in accordance with the provisions ofthe Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).As a general rule, all sidewalks and walkwaysshould be accessible and should comply withthe ADA to the maximum extent feasible.Specific design recommendations foraccessibility of sidewalks and walkways areprovided throughout this toolkit section. Alsorefer to Toolkit Section 2 — Accessibility formore information about the ADA

Raised sidewalk in small town center.


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5rights-of-way. For example, sidewalks aretypically constructed to match the grade of theadjacent street, which often exceeds thatallowed by the ADA. The Access Boardrecommends that every attempt be made tomeet accessibility requirements within publicrights-of-way, but allows exemption from

requirements and their relationship to designof pedestrian facilities.

A January 1997 draft of Accessible Sidewalks:A Design Manual by the Access Boardrecognized that compliance with all of thedesign criteria required of an accessible routeon a site is not always feasible on public

Table 39

* Provide 2.0 m (6.5 ft) minimum if mailboxes or other obstructions are located within sidewalk, so that a minimumclear width of 1.5 m (5 ft) is provided.

** In areas where residential densities exceed 4 dwelling units per acre and where regular pedestrian access tocommercial services is anticipated, sidewalks on both sides are recommended. For densities of 1 to 4 dwelling units peracre or less, sidewalks on both sides are preferred, but one side is the minimum recommendation. Also, sidewalks mayneed to be wider where there are designated school walking routes, parks, recreation centers, transit stops, or othercommon pedestrian origins and destinations. Check with local jurisdictions.

*** If no sidewalk, provide delineated/striped walkways or shoulders (see Shoulders as Walkways in Rural Areas).

Refer to local agency for specific design standards and requirements.Source: This table was compiled from information in several documents (see Resource Guide) and with input from theAdvisory Group and other technical experts involved.

Sidewalk Widths

No bufferDesirableMinimum

With planting strip/buffer

With street trees, no buffer

Urban Center/Business District

LocationDesirableMinimum

Planting Buffer WidthWhen Used

DesirableMinimum

1.8 m (6 ft)1.8 m (6 ft)

1.8 m (6 ft)

2.4 m (8 ft)

Varies

Both Sides

1.5 m (5 ft)1.2 m (4 ft)

1.5 m (5 ft)* 1.5 m (5 ft)*

1.5 m (5 ft)*

—

—

Both SidesOne Side**

1.5 m (5 ft)1.2 m (4 ft)

1.8 m (6 ft)1.8 m (6 ft)

1.5 m (5 ft)*

2.4 m (8 ft)

—

Both Sides

1.5 m (5 ft)1.2 m (4 ft)

1.8 m (6 ft)1.8 m (6 ft)

1.5 m (5 ft)*

—

—

Both SidesOne Side**

or ***

1.5 m (5 ft)1.2 m (4 ft)

2.4 m (8 ft)1.8 m (6 ft)

1.8 m (6 ft)

3.0 m (10 ft)

3.0-4.6 m + (10-15 ft) +

Both Sides

1.5 m (5 ft)1.2 m (4 ft)

2.4 m (8 ft)1.8 m (6 ft)

1.8 m (6 ft)

3.0 m (10 ft)

3.0-4.6 m +(10-15 ft) +

Both Sides

1.5 m (5 ft)1.2 m (4 ft)

Road Type

Right-of-Way

Width of Roadway

PrincipalArterial30.5 m(100 ft)4 Lanes

MinorArterial25.6 m(84 ft )

4 Lanes

CollectorArterial18.3 m(60 ft )

2 Lanes

Neighb.Collector

18.3(60 ft)

2 Lanes

LocalResidential15.2-18.3m(50-60 ft)8.5 m +(28 ft. +)

CommercialAccess18.3 m(60 ft)

13.4 m +(44 ft. +)

Recommended Dimensions for Sidewalks and Walkways


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5gradient requirements if certain sections ofsidewalk or walkway follow the grade of theadjacent roadway and that roadway is steeperthan the ADA allows.


In general, the width of a sidewalk orwalkway needs to comfortably accommodatethe volume of pedestrians normally using it.In high use areas, such as central businessdistricts, sidewalks are generally 3.0 to 4.6meters (10 to 15 feet) or wider to accommodatehigh pedestrian flows. Conversely, whenexcessively wide sidewalks are located inareas where there are low pedestrian volumes,the expansive pavement and empty-lookingsidewalks may seem uninviting topedestrians.

The spatial dimensions of people provided inthe section of the guidebook called AboutPedestrians can provide some insight into howwide a pedestrian walking area needs to be fora given number of people. The width ofsidewalks and walkways provided may varydepending on pedestrian volumes, theroadside environment and land use setting,available space within the right-of-way, trafficcharacteristics, adjacent development, thecharacteristics of pedestrians using thefacility, available funding levels, and localpreferences.

Recommended dimensions for sidewalks andwalkways along various types of streets areillustrated in Table 39. The table referencescommon street system classifications andoutlines the desirable and minimumdimensions recommended for sidewalks andwalkways along each classification.

The dimensions listed in the table areguidelines. Dimensional requirements mayvary within each local jurisdiction. It isnecessary to consider each project on anindividual basis to determine the best possibledesign solutions for pedestrians. For example,on a neighborhood collector that provides ahigh volume of pedestrian access to a school,park, or other popular destinations, it may bedesirable to provide wider sidewalks thanrecommended in the table.

Passing, Waiting, andResting Areas

Passing areas are required on all routes thatare less than 1.5 meters (5 feet) wide. Formore information, see Toolkit 2 —Accessibility.

Waiting and resting areas along walkwaysprovide welcome relief to pedestrians,particularly those who have mobilityimpairments, or lack stamina. Figure 43illustrates typical dimensions of waiting andresting areas adjacent to a walkway orsidewalk.

Figure 43

Waiting and Resting Areas

Source: A Guide to Land Use and PublicTransportation Volume II; Applying the Concepts


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5Grades, Cross Slope,and Drainage

Sidewalks and walkways should be designedwith maximum grades of 5 percent (1:20)where possible. The ADA requires sidewalksand walkways that serve as accessible routesof travel between public buildings, facilitiesand services to be designed to this maximumgrade, and encourages all pedestrian travelways to be designed to this maximum gradeunless the adjacent road grade is steeper andthere is no other alternative alignment for thewalkway. Since sidewalk grades are generallydesigned to match the adjacent street system,it is recognized that in some cases it may benecessary to exceed this gradient wheretopographic conditions and other physicalconstraints are severe.

Sidewalks are typically constructed with across slope of 2 percent (1:50) maximum,which is also the maximum allowed foraccessible routes of travel. The cross slope

facilitates positive drainage toward the streetor adjacent planting buffer.

Drainage grates are best located outside theroute of pedestrian travel. If this is notpossible, the grate (as well as manhole covers,hatches, vaults and other utility coverings)should not have openings greater than 1.3centimeters (0.5 inches) in width and shouldbe mounted flush with the level of thesurrounding sidewalk surface.

Side Slopes, Railings,and Walls

The design of elements adjacent to sidewalksand walkways can affect pedestrian comfortand safety as much as the design of thesidewalks and walkways themselves.

Side slopes next to sidewalks and walkwaysshould generally not be steeper than 1:3. Alevel area approximately 1.2 meters (4 feet)

Figure 44

Source: Adapted from City of Issaquah Urban Trails Plan (Non-Motorized Transportation), City of Issaquah

Wall Design Treatments


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5wide minimum is recommended for the sidesof a sidewalk or walkway. When a verticaldrop is more than 0.8 meters (30 inches/2.5feet), exceeds a down slope grade of 1:2, and islocated less than 1.2 meters (4 feet) from theedge of the walkway, railing needs to beinstalled along the extent of the grade drop.

The recommended height for railings adjacentto sidewalks and walkways to provideprotection from vertical drops is 1.1 meters(3.5 feet). Railings adjacent to multi-usepathways are required to be a minimum of 1.4meters (4.5 feet) tall. Railings are typicallyrequired to be designed with no opening largeenough to allow passage of a 10-centimeter (4-inch) diameter sphere (1994 Uniform BuildingCode, Volume I). For additional designrecommendations related to railings, refer toToolkit Section 4 — Trails and Pathways.

Vertical walls or retaining walls adjacent tosidewalks and walkways can be an imposingforce on passing pedestrians. Avoid highretaining walls by terracing back on the slopewith lower walls (when space is available inthe right-of-way or can be obtained). Designblank wall faces with an attractive finish andtexture or screened with trellises and climbingplants. Figure 44 illustrates suggested walldesign treatments.

Surfacing

Sidewalks and walkways in urban areas aretypically constructed of Portland cementconcrete (PCC), which provides a smooth,long-lasting and durable finish that is easy tograde and repair. Scoring patterns may bedesigned to match historic patterns within aneighborhood or district where appropriate.

Any material used for sidewalks andwalkways needs to be slip-resistant and easyto maintain (smooth for snow removal and

able to resist buckling and cracking). Surfacesmust be accessible, which is accomplished bymeeting the “stable, firm, and slip-resistant”criteria of the ADA design guidelines.

Asphaltic concrete pavement (ACP) can beused as an alternative to PCC, but it generallyhas a shorter life expectancy (15 to 20 yearsversus 40 years for PCC). ACP is often usedin low density residential areas or in lessdeveloped urban areas. Depending on thequality of design, construction, and drainageconditions, ACP sidewalks behind curbssometimes tend to settle and wear down fasterthan PCC sidewalks. ACP is also moresusceptible to deterioration by vegetation andrequires more frequent maintenance. Inareas, where walkways are aligned adjacent toshallow-rooted shrubs and trees, root damageto the pavement can result. Root barriers canprovide an effective solution to this problem(see Toolkit Section 4 — Trails and Pathways).

Special districts and downtown streets oftenincorporate special paving into the design ofsidewalks and pedestrian areas, such asstamped or colored concrete, brick, or otherunit pavers. Brick and unit pavers need to be

Special paving in downtown Port Townsend.


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5installed to provide a smooth level surface.Paving units are more difficult to maintainover the long term. Special paving bands thatcontrast with the sidewalk surfacing can alsobe installed to alert pedestrians of upcomingdriveway crossings.

In rural areas, alternative surfacing, such ascompacted crushed rock or unpavedcompacted earth, may also be acceptable forcertain walkways. These surfaces aretypically not accessible to people usingstrollers or wheelchairs unless very smoothand well-compacted. Recycled pavementgrindings can also provide an inexpensivesurfacing material and are easy to grade(especially during the summer when the heathelps pack and bind the material).

Sometimes sidewalks and walkways withinthe right-of-way are constructed asboardwalks with wood decking, as structuresover elevation drops or wet areas. Designconsiderations related to boardwalks andtrestles are provided in Toolkit Section 7.

Street Separation andEdge Treatments

Planting Buffers

Sidewalks alongside roadways are oftenseparated by planting strips consisting ofnatural vegetation or landscaping that createa buffer from the noise and splash of movingvehicles. Planting buffers (also referred to asplanting strips, landscape strips or buffers,and nature strips) are generally considered tobe a very effective separation treatmentbetween walkways and streets in all types ofsettings. The added separation of a plantingbuffer helps a pedestrian feel morecomfortable when walking along the street.Planting buffers can be landscaped in a

Table 40

Advantages and Disadvantagesof Planting Buffers

Advantages

• Separation between pedestrians andstreet traffic

• Sidewalk can be at a constant levelgrade across driveways, avoidingdipping at every driveway cut

• Area for drainage runoff and waterquality treatment

• Space to locate street furniture, signs,utility and signal poles, mailboxes,parking meters, fire hydrants andother elements outside the clear spaceof the walkway (see Figure 46)

• Aesthetic enhancement, increasing theappeal of the walkway and improvingthe pedestrian environment

• If wide enough, can be planted withlarger trees that will provide shadeand wind protection; 1.5 meters (5 ft)minimum width recommended for treeplanting

• Typically a lower cost solution forseparation, if space is available

Disadvantages

• Maintenance is required, and variesdepending on the type of landscapingselected

• If not designed and maintainedproperly, landscaping may hindervisibility and cause security problems

• Root growth can sometimes damageadjacent paved surfaces if notprotected

variety of ways to aesthetically enhance thestreetside environment. (Refer toLandscaping and Street Trees.)

Planting buffers can be raised and bordered bycurbing or developed at the same grade level



Planting Buffer BetweenSidewalk and Street

Figure 46

Planting Strips Provided as Areafor Signs, Utilities, and Street

Furnishings

Figure 45

as the roadway. It is recommended thatplanting buffers be a minimum of 1.5 meters(5 feet) in width where street trees areproposed. (Check with your local agency.) Inareas where there is limited space or right-of-way, the width of the planting buffer can bereduced, or eliminated and provided againwhere there is more space or right-of-wayavailable. Figure 45 illustrates a plantingbuffer between a sidewalk and street.Advantages and disadvantages related to theuse of planting strips as a separationtreatment next to walkways are listed inTable 40.

Figure 48

Walkway With Slight Meander

Walkway along suburban street with plantingbuffer.

Figure 47

Straight Walkway


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5Meandering Walkways

Sometimes, a meandering walkway isconstructed, creating a planting strip with aninformal, curving appearance. Althoughmeandering walkways may look nice, they arenot the most efficient way of getting peoplefrom one place to another. They may also bemisguiding to pedestrians with sightimpairments who need better predictability.If a meandering walkway is desired, minimizethe number of curves to avoid creating a routethat is too awkward and indirect. Meanderingwalkways can provide the advantage of designto avoid obstacles such as telephone poles,utility features, signs, etc. Figures 47 and 48illustrate a straight walkway and a walkwaywith a slight meander.

Ditches or Swales as Separation

On many rural roadways, an open ditch islocated along the edge to provide conveyanceand treatment of stormwater runoff. Wherethere is sufficient space within the right-of-way, the sidewalk or walkway can be locatedbehind the ditch, providing a buffer areabetween motor vehicle traffic and pedestrians.In situations where a ditch or swale is used toseparate a sidewalk, the separation area

needs to be a minimum of 1.5 meters (5 feet)wide. Ditch side slopes should generally notexceed a 1:3 slope. A sidewalk separated fromthe roadway by a ditch is illustrated in Figure49.

Curb and Gutter / Vertical Curb

Curb and gutter provides two primaryfunctions: control of stormwater drainage, andvertical barrier or separation between motorvehicles and pedestrians. Curbs are oftenrequired on streets with higher volumes andspeeds and where efficiently controlleddrainage is a necessity. Curb and gutter orvertical curb are commonly required for urbanstreets.

Curb and gutter and vertical curb provide anon-mountable barrier adjacent to streetparking that keeps cars from parking onadjacent sidewalks. Curbs provide a physicalbarrier between moving vehicles andpedestrians. Curbs can be costly to construct,so they may not be practical to build in allareas. Curbs also have an urban-lookingappearance, which may not be desirable insome areas, where a more natural-lookingroadside appearance is desired. Figure 50illustrates a sidewalk adjacent to curb and

Figure 49

Sidewalk Separated by a Ditch Sidewalk Adjacent toCurb and Gutter

Figure 50



Figure 51

Vertical Curb Adjacentto a Planting Strip

Figure 52

Sidewalk With Rolled Curb

gutter, and Figure 51 illustrates a verticalcurb adjacent to a planting.

Rolled Curb (StronglyDiscouraged)

Rolled curb is a mountable type of curb designoften used in suburban neighborhoods. Rolledcurb provides an advantage to developers inthat it eliminates the need for individualdriveway cuts. However, rolled curb oftenpresents a problem when used alongsidewalks. Since rolled curbs are easilymountable by motor vehicles, drivers oftenpark up on top of the curb and block thesidewalk. Additionally, rolled curbs do notprovide as strong a barrier as vertical curbbetween pedestrians and vehicles. Figure 52illustrates a sidewalk with rolled curb.

Vertical curb or curb and gutter constructedusing standard designs provide a non-mountable barrier adjacent to sidewalks thatis more desirable than rolled curb adjacent topedestrian travel ways.

Extruded and Timber Curbing

In suburban and rural areas, it is common tosee extruded curb, timbers, or other lineardevices used to separate roadways fromwalkways. These facilities have been placedalong paved or unpaved walkways that are onthe same grade as the adjacent roadway.Extruded curb and timbers provide arelatively low cost vertical barrier betweenvehicles and pedestrians. However, there areseveral drawbacks to this type of edgetreatment, and their use may be inappropriatefor most applications. Strong consideration ofthe following problems is recommended beforeinstalling extruded or timber curbing:

• Extruded curb and timbers breakdowneasily when hit by motor vehicles, increasingthe need for frequent repair andreplacement. Sometimes this type ofcurbing has difficulty staying attached tothe pavement surface.

• Breaks in the curbing are necessary atpedestrian crossing points, driveways, andintersections.

Vehicles can park on sidewalk, blocking pedestriantravel.


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5in Figure 53. A minimum clearance of 0.6meters (2 feet) adjacent to a 1.5-meter (5-foot) bike lane is recommended, creating atotal lane width of 2.1 meters (7 feet). It isrecommended that the pedestrian travelway on the other side of the curb be aminimum of 1.5 meters (5 feet) wide.

Raised Pavement Markers

Raised pavement markers are small plasticdevices that are glued to the pavement surfaceas a delineation technique at the edge ofroadways. State law strongly discouragesthe use of raised pavement markers along theright edge line because they are obstacles forbicycles (WAC 468-95-035 pursuant to RCW47.36.280). Raised or recessed pavementmarkers can be used along right edge lines onthe taper in lane transition sections, onapproaches to objects, and withinchannelization at intersections. Raised orrecessed pavement markers can only be usedalong right edge lines at other locations wherean engineering study has determined thatmarkers are essential to preservingpedestrian, bicycle, and motor vehicle safety.At the initiation of the engineering study,local bicycling organizations, the regionalmember of the state bicycling advisorycommittee, and the WSDOT Bicycle andPedestrian Program Manager shall be notifiedfor review and comment.

Position and spacing of markers must bedetermined by engineering judgement takinginto consideration their effect on bicycle,pedestrian, and motor vehicle safety. Existingraised pavement markers must be removed atthe time roadways are being resurfaced orearlier, at their option. State law requires thisstandard to remain in effect unless thelegislative authority of the local governmentalbody finds that special circumstances existaffecting vehicle and pedestrian safety that

• These may become a barrier to drainage ifdesigned and located improperly and tend tocollect litter, fallen leaves, and debris alongthe roadside (breaks in the curbing atstrategic locations will help, butmaintenance is still more difficult thanother types of curbing).

• Unless backfilled, extruded or timbercurbing can become an obstacle topedestrian and bicycle travel as a raisedelement on the surface. The use of thistype of curbing adjacent to bicycle lanesis strongly discouraged, unless placedoutside the clearance area at theoutside of edge of the bike lane, as shown

Figure 53

Placement of Extruded orTimber Curbing

(When Used*)

* See problems noted in text


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5warrant a site-specific variance to thestandard.

Bike Lanes as Separation

When bike lanes are located between thestreet and the pedestrian travel way, theyprovide a buffer between pedestrians andmotor vehicles. It is recommended that thewidth of the bike lane comply with WSDOTstandards. The adjacent pedestrian travelway be raised and separated by curb (in urbanareas), or at a minimum, a white edge stripe isused at the outside edge, between the bikelane and the shoulder area to be used bypedestrians (in rural areas). Figure 54illustrates how a bike lane provides a bufferbetween pedestrians and motor vehicles.

Concrete Barriers

Concrete barriers (also called New Jerseybarriers) are occasionally used as a protectiveseparation devices between roadways andpedestrian travel ways, although theirprimary purpose is to shield and directvehicles away from potential hazards.

Concrete barriers have some of the samepotential drawbacks as those listed forextruded and timber curbs. Concrete barrierscost significantly more than curbing, and maynot be the most visually appealing solution.When concrete barriers are used forseparation between roadways and multi-usepathways, they need to have a minimumheight of 1.4 meters (4.5 feet) or have asecurely attached vertical railing at thatheight. Refer to the WSDOT Design Manualfor design standards for concrete barriers andrailings. Also, the ITE manual, Design andSafety of Pedestrian Facilities, provides someguidance about when it is necessary to providepedestrian barriers.

Vertical concrete surfaces adjacent topedestrian facilities should be smooth to avoidsnagging of clothing or abrasive injuries fromcontact with the surface. Bolts or otherprotrusions from walls, railings, or barriersneed to be cut off flush to the surface orrecessed.

Street Furnishings,Utilities, and RelatedClearances

Urban streetscapes should be carefullydesigned in order to provide adequate spacefor furnishings and utility facilities, outsidethe main travel way used by pedestrians. Aclear travel way of 0.9 meters (3 feet)minimum is recommended on all sidewalksFigure 54

Bike Lane as Buffer BetweenPedestrians and Motor Vehicles

(Rural Treatment)


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5and walkways and required by the ADA for allaccessible routes of travel. This clearance isonly suitable where pedestrian volumes arelow. Where pedestrian volumes are moderateto high, this clearance should be increased tothe maximum obtainable or the full width ofthe sidewalk. Obstacles, such as signs, streetfurniture, and newspaper stands, should be

placed off to the side of the travel way, in the“fixtures/planting zone,” as discussed later inthis toolkit.

The vertical clearance needed for sidewalksand walkways is typically 2.4 meters (8 feet),as illustrated in Figure 55. The ADA requiresthat “objects protruding from walls (e.g. signs,

Figure 55

Clearance for Sidewalks and Walkways

Figure 56

Pedestrian Travel Way, Clear of Obstructions


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5fixtures, telephones, canopies) with theirleading edge between 685 and 2030 mm (27and 80 inches) above the finished sidewalkshall protrude no more than 100 mm (4 inches)into any portion of the public sidewalk.”Traffic signs located directly adjacent to orwithin the sidewalk need to be mounted andtree branches need to be pruned high enoughso that there is a minimum of 2.1 meters (7feet) of clearance from ground level to thebottom of the sign. Informational anddirectional signs for pedestrians can be lower,if located a minimum of 1 meter (3 feet) fromthe sidewalk. A typical pedestrian travel way,designed to be clear of obstructions, isillustrated in Figure 56.

Landscaping andStreet Trees

The use of planting buffers for separationbetween walkways and streets was discussedpreviously in this toolkit. Landscaping andstreet trees in planting buffers and alongstreets can greatly enhance the pedestrianenvironment and provide shade and shelter,but careful thought needs to be given to theselection of trees and shrubs to be installed.

Using low height shrubs and upwardbranching trees will maintain visibility andsight distance at intersections, driveways,crossings, and other critical areas along thestreet system. It is also important to considerhow high and wide the shrubs and trees willbe at maturity.

Street trees are typically spaced evenly alongthe street, ranging from 7.6 to 15.2 meters (25to 50 feet) apart, depending on the size of thetree at maturity. Trees can also be placedinformally and clustered in areas. Do notlocate trees where they will be an obviousobstruction to visibility.

Selection of plant material also needs toconsider the availability of irrigation water,ways to minimize maintenance, andcommunity preferences for landscapematerials (such as the use of native speciesand informal plantings versus ornamental orformal landscapes).

When tree wells are installed on urbansidewalks, they should be placed out of thepedestrian travel way. Tree wells can vary insize depending on the width of the sidewalk.Tree grates adjacent to or within sidewalksneed to meet the accessibility requirements ofthe ADA — top mounted flush with grade andno openings larger than 1.3 centimeters (0.5inches) in diameter.

Additional design guidelines related tolandscaping adjacent to pedestrian facilities,including recommendations to minimize rootdamage to adjacent paved areas, are providedin Toolkit Section 4 — Trails and Pathways.For additional information, see the WSDOTRoadside Management Manual, M25-30.

Street trees enhance pedestrian environments.


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5Lighting

Lighting of the street system, includingadjacent sidewalks, walkways, and bike lanes,increases security and pedestrian safety andcomfort. Typically, the street lighting systemin urban areas sufficiently serves pedestriansidewalks and walkways along the street. Itsimportant to consider the security and comfortof pedestrians, when designing a streetlighting system.

Where a new lighting system is beingintroduced either to replace or supplement theexisting street lighting system, it may bepossible to incorporate light posts and fixturesthat are more pedestrian friendly (shorter andmore in scale with pedestrians and with lessobtrusive and harsh light sources). Additionallighting may be necessary at pedestriancrossing points, intersections, entrances tobuildings, and other areas to supplementexisting street system lighting.

It is generally recommended that a level oflighting between 0.5 and 2.0 footcandles beprovided along pedestrian travel ways,depending on conditions. Check with yourlocal agency for applicable design standards.Also, refer to the standards and designguidelines of the Illuminating EngineeringSociety of North America. (Note: stateregulations require that exterior accessibleroutes of travel outside of buildings beilluminated with an intensity of not less than1.0 footcandle on the surface of the routeduring any time the building is occupied (WAC51-30).

Signing

Pedestrian facilities generally require minimalsigning. Most regulatory and warning signsare directed at motor vehicle traffic alongstreets and prior to crossings. Directional and

informational signing installed for motorvehicle use may not adequately servepedestrians, so care should be taken toidentify key origins and destinations, such asschools, parks, libraries, museums,entertainment centers, and shopping districts.

Distances to these origins and destinationscan be given in blocks, average walking time,or other measurements meaningful topedestrians. The provision of walking maps,including information about transit routes,make it easier for pedestrians to find theirway around a new urban environment. Somecities and towns have provided maps inscribedin the sidewalk or on manhole covers.Information for pedestrians can also bedisplayed on kiosks or other designated areas.

Signs should be easy to read and understandwith simple phrases and graphics. Lettersand symbols need to be bold with highcontrast to the background. Generally, lightletters and symbols against dark backgroundsare easiest to read.

Signing needs to be understood by the vastmajority of the population, including non-English speaking people and children. Theuse of internationally recognized symbols canbe an effective way to identify features to allpedestrians.

Sidewalks inBusiness Districtsand Downtowns

Sidewalks in central business districts anddowntown areas need to be designed toefficiently accommodate heavy volumes ofpedestrian traffic. Streetscapes in these areasoften function for multiple purposes, and thestreetside generally consists of three zones:the building frontage zone; the pedestrian



travel zone; and the fixtures/planting zone.These three zones and their typicalapproximate widths are illustrated in Figure57. Please note that these widths may varyand may be wider, depending on specificcircumstances within the right-of-way.

Building Frontage Zone

The building frontage zone is the area wherepeople enter and exit buildings adjacent to thestreet right-of-way. People don’t feel

Figure 57

Urban Streetside Zones

Figure 58

Shy Distance Between Buildingand Walkway

comfortable moving at full pace directlyadjacent to the building wall, so this area is tothe side of the primary travel area. It is alsoan area where pedestrians may window shopor move more slowly, restricting otherpedestrians. On some streets, the buildingfrontage zone may become a pedestrian plaza,outdoor cafe, or gathering area in front ofsome buildings, depending on available spacewithin the right-of-way. For this reason, thebuilding frontage zone can vary in width fromapproximately 0.6 to 3.0 meters (2 to 10 feet)or more. At a minimum, people prefer about0.6 meters (2 feet) of “shy” distance whenwalking adjacent to buildings, as illustrated inFigure 58.

Pedestrian Travel Zone

The pedestrian travel zone is the area wheremost pedestrians travel on the downtownsidewalk. The minimum required clear spacefor this zone, free of obstacles and protrusions,is 0.9 meters (3 feet) if the travel way is an


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5accessible route, but it is desirable to provideas wide a clear space for pedestrian travel aspossible, particularly in urban areas wherethere are higher volumes of pedestrians. A 1-meter (3-foot) wide area is not sufficient foruse by more than one person. For this reason,the pedestrian travel zone on downtownstreets should typically be 1.8 to 3.0 meters (6to 10 feet) wide or greater in areas where highvolumes of pedestrians are anticipated.

Fixtures/Planting Zone

The fixtures/planting zone is located directlyadjacent to the street and provides a bufferbetween the street traffic and the pedestriantravel zone. Consolidate or congregate, wherepossible, utilities, street furniture, and otherelements within this zone to minimizeobstacles in the pedestrian travel way andimprove the visual appearance of an area.Examples of consolidating include puttingmore than one utility on a pole system or morethan one sign on a post, and clusteringfurnishings within the planting strip or to oneside of the primary walking area. Theapproximate dimension for this zone istypically 0.9 to 3.0 meters (3 to 10 feet or 4feet, if landscaped), depending on thedimensions of the right-of-way and the other

two zones. Curb extensions provideopportunities to place benches andfurnishings.

On some urban streets with limited right-of-way, it may be necessary to reduce the widthsof the building frontage and fixtures/plantingzones, or eliminate them altogether. Theprovision of at least a pedestrian travel zonewith a minimum width of 1.8 meters (6 feet) isrecommended in this case.

Shoulders asWalkways in RuralAreas

Wide shoulders along roadways can alsofunction as walkways, particularly in ruralareas. Local agencies sometimes considerpaved or unpaved walkways and roadsideshoulders used for pedestrian travel in urbanareas to be interim solutions until fundingpermits construction of full sidewalkimprovements. In rural areas, where fundingfor pedestrian improvements can be limited,

Streetscapes in downtowns need to be designedto accommodate heavy volumes of pedestrians. Shoulder walkway in rural area.


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5walkways and shoulders may be acceptable asa longer-term solution, particularly if thealternative is no pedestrian facilities at all.

Recommended ShoulderDimensions

A 0.9 to 1.5-meter (3 to 5-foot) wide shoulderadjacent to a bike lane and on local roads withlower traffic volumes (less than 400 ADT) mayprovide sufficient walking space for a singlepedestrian. But shoulders that accommodategroups of pedestrians, such as school childrenwalking to and from school, and that arelocated on major collectors and arterials (withmore than 2,000 ADT) need to be wider(WSDOT Design Manual).

At a minimum, A Guidebook for StudentPedestrian Safety recommends 1.5-meter (5-foot) wide shoulders on both sides of the roadfor school walk routes or at least 2.4 meters (8feet wide) if constructed on only one side.Shoulder areas located at school bus stopsneed to be widened to accommodate childrenwaiting at the roadside for the bus (refer toToolkit Section 3 — Children and SchoolZones).

The WSDOT Design Manual states that inrural areas with heavy pedestrian use, anadditional pavement width of up to 1.2 meters(4 feet) is added to the state highway to obtaina maximum shoulder width of 3.0 meters (10feet). Local standards for shoulder widthsmay vary, but shoulder widths should not benarrower than that allowed by local, state, orfederal standards. A typical walking shoulderis illustrated in Figure 59.

Shoulder Surfacing andDelineation

Shoulders may be paved or unpaved. A highvisual and tactile contrast is desirable in order

to clearly define the pedestrian area anddiscourage drivers from straying onto theshoulder. If paved shoulders are to be used bypedestrians, they should be well-marked. Onedesign solution that helps delineate theshoulder walking area is the use of acontrasting paving material or color for thepaved shoulder, or a contrasting stripseparating the shoulder from the street.

Shoulders for walking may also be delineatedby a 10-centimeter (4-inch) wide white stripeat the edge of the vehicular travel lane or bikelane. Alternative striping solutions may alsobe acceptable, such as wider than standardwhite fog lines or edge stripes, dashed stripes,angled stripes, and other techniques.

Raised pavement markers are generally notrecommended as an edge line delineationtreatment because they create an obstacle tobicycle travel (see discussion earlier in thistoolkit). Pavement texturing techniques, suchas chip seal markers, can be used to delineateshoulders and provide both a tactile andaudible warning to pedestrians and motorists.

Figure 59

Shoulder Walkway


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5Unpaved shoulders consisting of compactedcrushed rock or gravel materials can also beinstalled and offer a contrasting materialadjacent to asphalt or concrete roadwaypaving. Crushed rock and gravel shouldersare difficult to travel on unless extremely well-compacted. Compacted earth or low-growinggrass shoulders can also provide a walkingarea for pedestrians, but they function poorlyduring wet weather. Unpaved shoulders canbe less costly to install, but are usually morecostly to maintain.

Operational ConsiderationsRelated to Shoulders

Shoulders are not really appropriate asaccessible routes of travel (see Toolkit 2 —Accessibility). In areas where an accessibleroute of travel is needed along the roadside toprovide access between public buildings orfacilities, a full sidewalk or walkwayimprovement, raised and separated from thestreet, should be constructed.

Shoulders that are intended to be used bypedestrians should not be used as roadsideparking lanes, not even for short-term ortemporary periods (except duringemergencies). Provide signs to prohibitparking along shoulders that are wide enoughfor cars to park on them (1.8 meters [6 feet] orwider). Enforce parking restrictions to ensurethat vehicles do not block the pedestriantravel way.

Shoulders that are heavily relied upon bypedestrians for a regular walking route willnot function adequately if they double as bikelanes. Separate bike lanes are recommended.If a multi-use pathway is to be providedwithin the right-of-way, it should be designedto meet or exceed WSDOT standards.

Recommendations forWalking Shoulders

• Best used in rural areas with lowerpedestrian volumes

• 0.9 to 1.5 meters (3 to 5 feet) wideminimum for roadways with less than400 ADT

• 1.5 meters (5 feet) minimum, bothsides for school walking routes

• 2.4 meters (8 feet) minimum, at leastone side for school walking routes androadways with over 2,000 ADT

• Can be paved or unpaved, but highvisual and tactile contrast fromadjacent roadway is best

• Sign to prohibit parking

• Double use as bike lanes notrecommended (unless designed as amulti-use facility in accordance withlocal, state, and federal standards)

Table 41

Table 41 summarizes a few of the importantconcerns related to roadside shoulder designfor pedestrian use.

Bicycles on Sidewalks

Generally, designating sidewalks for bicycletravel is not recommended even if thesidewalks are wider, for the following reasons:

• Motorists do not expect to see bicycliststraveling on sidewalks and may pull out ofintersections or driveways and collide with abicycle unexpectedly.


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5• The potential for conflicts between bicyclists

and pedestrians greatly increases withshared use.

• Pedestrian movements are oftenunpredictable for an approaching bicyclistfrom behind (especially those of smallchildren), and pedestrians cannot alwayspredict the direction an oncoming bicyclistwill take.

• Sidewalks are usually two-way facilities andbicyclists are encouraged to travel one-way,with the flow of traffic.

• Sight distances are more limited atdriveway crossings.

• There also may be limited sight distance andclearances due to signs, utilities,landscaping, fencing, or other obstaclesbeside or protruding into the sidewalk.

Street DesignConsiderations

Since sidewalks and walkways are developedas integral components of street and roadwaysystems, there are several important aspectsrelated to street design that affectpedestrians.

Parking Along Streets

On-street parking provides a buffer zonebetween the roadway and the sidewalk. Italso narrows the appearance of streets,reducing vehicle speeds. On-street parkingprovides opportunities for people to access thesidewalk directly from their vehicles andincreases street activity. For these reasons,on-street parking is often supported inbusiness and shopping districts. Figure 60

illustrates how on-street parking provides abuffer between street traffic and pedestrians.

In some cases, on-street parking may presentproblems when there is not enough space forpeople to safely get out of their cars or walk

Figure 60

On-Street Parking as a BufferBetween Street and Pedestrian

Walkway


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5between cars. On-street parking on roadwayswhere there are no adjacent pedestrianfacilities or undelineated crossings is notdesirable because pedestrians may be forced towalk in the roadway to get to their destinationor may cross at several points along theroadway rather than at a single point. Acommon cause of collisions is the lack ofvisibility of pedestrians entering the roadwayfrom between parked cars. An example ofthis is when on-street parking is providedinformally adjacent to a park or ballfieldwhere there are high numbers of childrenprone to darting out into streets and notaware of traffic conditions.

Parallel parking stalls need to provideadequate space for pedestrian movementaround the parked car without forcingpedestrians out into the stream of traffic andto prevent car doors from opening into bikelanes. Typical dimensions of 2.7 meters (9feet) wide by 7.3 meters (24 feet) in length(provides space in between cars) arerecommended for on-street parallel parkingstalls (check local standards).

When on-street parking is provided, adjacentpedestrian walkways and clearly identifiedstreet crossing points are also necessary. On-street parking or loading zones that are tooclose to intersections and mid-block crossingscan block views of pedestrians. Parking areasshould be set back from intersections andcrossings to allow pedestrians to see oncomingtraffic. Refer to Toolkit Section 6 —Intersections, for recommended set backdistances for on-street parking nearpedestrian crossing points. Fencing can beinstalled to channelize pedestrians to crossingpoints at specific entrances, but it should bedesigned and placed carefully so as not tobecome an obstacle to pedestrian travel. Bulb-outs and curb extensions also help to definepedestrian crossing points.

When perpendicular parking stalls are locatedadjacent to sidewalks, wheel stops or curbingshould be constructed to eliminate vehicleoverhang that reduces usable sidewalk area.Figure 61 illustrates this treatment.

Access Management and Driveways

Most pedestrian/motor vehicle collisions onbusy streets occur at points of intersectingmovements, such as intersections, driveways,and alleys. Unlimited vehicle access on roadsincreases the level of conflicts betweenpedestrians walking along the roadway andcars entering or leaving the roadway.Pedestrians crossing the roadway need gaps inthe traffic stream, but with unlimited access,vehicles entering the roadway quickly fill theavailable gaps. Pedestrian access to transitmay also be complicated by excessive drivewayaccess points creating obstacles on their wayto the bus stop.

Table 42 lists access management techniquesas well as several benefits for pedestrians thatresult from access management. Figure 62illustrates how controlled access and limiteddriveways reduce conflict points betweenpedestrians and motorists. The level of accessmanagement and its relationship to providingpedestrian facilities along state highways isdescribed later in this section.

Figure 61

Parking Overhang



Driveways that cross sidewalks and walkwaysneed to be carefully designed to minimizeconflicts between pedestrians and vehicles.For design recommendations related todriveway design (for both commercial andresidential sites), refer to Toolkit 10 — SiteDesign for Pedestrians.

Access to Transit

The level of transit use often depends on theextent of improvements provided forpedestrians. Transit stops are provided inboth urban and rural areas, and oftenpedestrians rely heavily on access to transit astheir primary mode of transportation.Sidewalks, walkways, crossings, and otherpedestrian facilities adjacent to and neartransit stops need to be carefully planned and

well designed as a collaborative effort betweenthe transit agency and the public works andtraffic engineering departments of the localjurisdiction. Design recommendations relatedto transit stops and facilities are provided inToolkit Section 9 — Pedestrian Access toTransit.

Benefits and Disadvantages of One-Way Streets for Pedestrians

One-way streets can provide certain benefitsto pedestrian travel if appropriatelyimplemented. However, when they aredesigned to increase traffic speeds, they createan unfriendly and uninviting environment forpedestrians. Some of the benefits anddisadvantages related to the use of one-waystreets are described in Table 43.

Table 42

Source: Adapted from Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan

Techniques

• Reducing the number of existingdriveways or consolidating drivewaysto parking areas and businesses

• Providing raised or landscapedmedians or concrete barriers to controlturning movements from the street(with these treatments, it is importantto provide accessible pedestriancrossing opportunities with breaks inthe medians or barriers at suitablecrossing points)

Benefits

• The number of conflict points isreduced (particularly with the use ofcenter medians to reduce the numberof conflicts between left-turningvehicles and pedestrians)

Access Management

• Pedestrian crossing opportunities areenhanced with an accessible raisedmedian and fewer conflicts withturning cars

• Accommodating people withdisabilities becomes easier with thereduced need for special treatments atdriveway cuts

• Traffic volumes may decrease if localtraffic can use other available routes(note that volumes may increase if theroute becomes more efficient forvehicles to use)

• Improved traffic flow may reduce theneed for road-widening, allowing morespace within the right-of-way for useby pedestrians, bicyclists, andenhancements and maintaining fewertravel lanes to cross at intersections



When considering conversion to a one-waystreet system, communities need to considerall the potential implications. Additionalinformation that may be helpful tocommunities in considering whether or not toconvert to a one-way street system is availablein the Florida Pedestrian Planning andDesign Guidelines and the ITE TrafficEngineering Handbook.

Figure 62

Access Management

Excessive access pointsrequire pedestrians tocross ingress/egresstraffic more thannecessary.

Reducing the number ofaccess points improvessafety and comfort forpedestrians.


Pedestrian Facilities Along StateHighways

State Highways as Main StreetsIn many small towns and cities, statehighways serve as the main street andprimary arterial through the center of town.They function as the major route into whichlocal arterials and collectors feed. In somesmaller cities and towns, the state highway isoften the only arterial connecting virtually allmajor destination points.

The provision of adequate pedestrian facilitiesalong the state highways in these settings is a


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5critical component to incorporatingpedestrians into the overall transportationnetwork. Sidewalks for these main streetsneed to be designed the same as they would befor the urban centers of larger cities — able tosupport heavy pedestrian use. (Refer tospecific design recommendations earlier in

this toolkit section, including the discussion onSidewalks in Business Districts andDowntowns.) It is important to rememberthat there are differences between the smalltown main street environment and the largercity street environment, and applied designtreatments should reflect communitypreferences.

State Highways as Connectors BetweenTowns and CitiesProviding sidewalks and walkways alongsections of urban highways that have manypotential trip generators, such as schools,parks, scenic stops, and residential andcommercial areas within proximity to oneanother, is recommended.

Maintenance

Clear smooth level surfaces are essential forpedestrians and particularly for people inwheelchairs, older adults, and young children.Sidewalks and walkways need to be cleared ofsnow and ice. Drainage systems should bekept in good working order to avoidaccumulation of water over pedestrianwalking areas.

Table 43 Main street through small town.

Benefits and Disadvantagesof One-Way Streets

Benefits for Pedestrians

• One-way streets in downtown areas orelsewhere, where practical, may behelpful to pedestrian travel becausepedestrians have to watch traffic fromonly one direction when crossing.

• May also allow more space within theright-of-way in certain cases, creatingmore areas for pedestrians, parking,and other purposes.

• Can create smaller block patterns andallows reduced curve radii on cornerswhere vehicular turning traffic doesn’toccur, which equates to shortercrossing distances for pedestrians

• Improved signal timing because one-way streets can create consistentsignal spacing (so pedestrians maywalk at a continuous pace betweenintersections; but this can be adisadvantage in that it may speedtraffic)

Disadvantages for Pedestrians

• Vehicles are likely to travel faster ifthe travel lanes are wide or there aremultiple lanes

• May adversely affect transitoperations and transfer opportunities


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5Construction and installation of utility linesand elements should be coordinated betweenthe utility company and local agency withjurisdiction over the street system.Interruptions to pedestrian travel need to beminimized and construction should avoiddamage to pedestrian facilities. In some cases,it may be possible to improve conditions forpedestrians as part of an overall utilityproject. Such a project may create theopportunity to relocate a utility pole or boxoutside the pedestrian travel way.


The following sources of information arerecommended for design of sidewalks andwalkways. Please see the Resource Guideincluded at the end of this guidebook forcomplete bibliography information.

A Guide to Land Use and PublicTransportation, Volume II: Applying theConcepts, The Snohomish CountyTransportation Authority

A Guidebook for Student Pedestrian Safety,Final Report, KJS Associates Inc.

A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways andStreets, 1994, American Association of StateHighway and Transportation Officials

A Working Approach to Accessibility in PublicRights of Way, Montana Department ofTransportation

Accessible Sidewalks: A Design Manual, USArchitectural and Transportation BarriersCompliance Board (The Access Board)

Accessibility Design for All, An IllustratedHandbook, 1995 Washington State

Regulations, Barbara L. Allan and Frank C.Moffett, AIA, PE


Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA)Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings andFacilities; State and Local GovernmentFacilities; Interim Final Rule, FederalRegister, Part II, Architectural andTransportation Barriers Compliance Board

“Boulder Brings Back the NeighborhoodStreet,” John Fernandez, Planning

City Comforts, How to Build An UrbanVillage, David Sucher

City of Issaquah Urban Trails Plan (Non-Motorized Transportation), City of Issaquah



Design Guidelines, Building/SidewalkRelationships, Central Business District, Cityof Bellevue

Design Manual, 1020 Facilities forNonmotorized Transportation, WashingtonState Department of Transportation

Effects of Site Design on Pedestrian Travel inMixed-Use Medium Density Environments,Anne Vernez-Moudon, PhD

Engineering Design and DevelopmentStandards, Snohomish County Public Works


Sidewalks and Walkwaysuuuuu5Florida Pedestrian Planning and DesignGuidelines, University of North Carolina

Great Streets, Allan B. Jacobs



Livable Neighborhoods: RethinkingResidential Streets, American Public WorksAssociation and the University of Wisconsin-Madison

Livable Streets, Donald Appleyard

Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devicesfro Streets and Highways, 1988 Edition, USDepartment of Transportation


Planning and Implementing PedestrianFacilities in Suburban and Developing RuralAreas Research Report, S.A. Smith, K.S.Opiela, and L.L. Impett

Planning Design and Maintenance ofPedestrian Facilities, Goodell-Grivas, Inc.

Public Streets for Public Use, Anne VernezMoudon

Reclaiming Our Streets, Traffic Solutions,Safer Streets, More Livable Neighborhoods,Community Action Plan To CalmNeighborhood Traffic, Reclaiming Our StreetsTask Force

Redevelopment for Livable Communities,Washington State Energy Office, theWashington State Department ofTransportation, the Department of Ecology,and the Energy Outreach Center

Residential Streets, American Society of CivilEngineers

Safe Walkways for Clark County, 1993-98Walkway Construction Program, A Report tothe Clark County Board of Commissioners

Sharing Our Sidewalks, Ensuring Access inPortland’s Shopping and CommercialDistricts, Metropolitan Human RightsCommission

Sidewalk and Curb Ramp Design, Governor’sCommittee on Concerns of the HandicappedStreets for People, A Primer for Americans,Bernard Rudofsky

The Car and the City, 24 Steps to Safe Streetsand Healthy Communities, Alan TheinDurning

Time-Saver Standards for LandscapeArchitecture, Design and Construction Data,Charles W. Harris

Washington’s Transportation Plan, StateBicycle Transportation and PedestrianWalkways Plan, Washington StateDepartment of Transportation


Intersectionsuuuuu6

Intersections

uuuuuToolkit 6

This Toolkit SectionAddress:

• Effects of Pedestrian Improvements onVehicle Capacity

• Common Design Practices for PedestrianCrossings at Intersections

• Minimizing the Crossing Distances atIntersections

• Minimizing Pedestrian/Motor VehicleConflicts


This toolkit section addresses pedestrianfacilities at intersections, as well as trafficregulating practices that can improveconditions for pedestrians at intersections.

Intersections are commonly designed with afocus towards motor vehicles thanpedestrians. Even the best network of streetswith well developed pedestrian facilities cansuffer from low pedestrian use if there areinadequate facilities and obstacles atintersections.

Intersections can be made more pedestrianfriendly by implementing designs thatimprove crossing conditions, reduce crossingdistances and minimize conflicts betweenpedestrians and other intersection users.

Intersections are the most common location for pedestrian and motor vehicle collisions.

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Intersectionsuuuuu6


Effects of PedestrianImprovements onVehicle Capacity

The needs of pedestrians deserve equalconsideration with the needs of motorists andother intersection users. Pedestrians havehistorically been treated as an afterthought indesign of transportation facilities, but currentpractices encourage design approaches thatimprove conditions for pedestrians and fullyintegrate them into the transportationsystem.

The installation of improvements that reducepedestrian crossing distances at intersectionscan affect vehicular capacity. Principal effectson capacity are caused by narrowing lanesand reducing curb radii. Other conditionsthat may affect intersection capacity areincreased numbers of pedestrian crossingsand bus stop relocations.

When determining the type and extent ofimprovements needed at intersections, theneeds of all user groups should be consideredand balanced. In some cases, it may benecessary to reduce motor vehicle capacity atintersections in order to achieve the bestoverall solution.

A traffic engineering analysis should beconducted as part of the design process toclearly determine needs and providerecommendations for channelization, turnlanes, acceleration and deceleration lanes,intersection configurations, illumination, andtraffic control devices. Solutions should seekto provide maximum protection to pedestrianswhile still accommodating the operationalneeds of motor vehicles and other intersectionusers.

Common DesignPractices forPedestrian Crossingsat Intersections

Intersection design requires consideration ofall potential users of the facility, includingpedestrians. Design approaches need to findways to protect the access and safety ofpedestrians, the most vulnerable user groupat intersections while still adequately meetingthe needs of motor vehicles.

Table 44

Basic Principles of IntersectionDesign to Accommodate

Pedestrians

• Intersections that function well forpedestrians are typically compact.

• Free-flowing motor vehicle movementsare either eliminated or vehicles areforced to a significantly slower speedthrough the intersection.

• All legs of an intersection should beavailable for pedestrian use; closing acrosswalk doesn’t necessarily preventpedestrians from crossing in thatdirection. (Note that on some Teeintersections, it may not be desirablefor pedestrians to cross in front of leftturning vehicles.)

• Pedestrians need to be able to travel ina direct line across the intersection legand the direction of travel needs to beclearly identified for all pedestrians,including those with sightimpairments.

• Avoid increasing potential conflicts orthe level of pedestrian exposure tomotor vehicles (as would occur atmultiple and skewed intersections).


Intersectionsuuuuu6Sometimes meeting the needs of pedestriansmay require a compromise in providing fullservice and capacity to motor vehicles atintersections, but more often, designers canbalance these competing needs, resulting inadequate levels of operation for all users.Table 44 lists some basic principles ofintersection design related to the needs ofpedestrians.

Crosswalk Use

Whether marked or unmarked, crosswalksfunction as extensions of the approachingsidewalks, and when pedestrians are crossingin these areas, they have the right of way.RCW 46.61.235 (Rules of the Road) states:

“The operator of an approaching vehicleshall stop and remain stopped to allowa pedestrian to cross the roadwaywithin an unmarked or markedcrosswalk when the pedestrian is uponor within one lane of the half of theroadway upon which the vehicle istraveling or onto which it is turning.”

RCW 46.61.240 states:

“Every pedestrian crossing a roadway atany point other than within a markedcrosswalk or within an unmarkedcrosswalk at an intersection, shall yieldthe right of way to all vehicles upon theroadway. (And) Between adjacentintersections at which traffic controlsignals are in operation, pedestriansshall not cross at any place except in amarked crosswalk.”

Given that crosswalk use is legally required,designing them to adequately meet the needsof all pedestrians is important. But designisn’t the only consideration. If crossing

improvements are not functioning properly,there may be other problems, such asinadequate enforcement, poor visibility andobstructed sight lines, or level of servicedeficiencies.

Effectiveness of CrossingImprovements

Crossing improvements at intersections,such as crosswalk markings, signs, signals,refuge islands, and other elements, help toclearly delineate the pedestrian right-of-wayto all users, including motorists, bicyclists,and pedestrians. The MUTCD lists fivebasic requirements for traffic controldevices, which include intersectionimprovements, in order for them to functioneffectively.

Typical Marked Crosswalk at Intersection

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Intersectionsuuuuu6


Determining the Need forCrossing Improvements atIntersections

An important question often asked is, “Howshould the need for crossing improvements atintersections be determined?” The Manual onUniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD)provides warrants for various crossingimprovements, including signals, crosswalks,and other devices, and these warrants shouldbe analyzed for all intersection projects. Inaddition to reviewing the MUTCD and otherguidelines, good professional judgement andspecific traffic engineering analyses on a caseby case basis are recommended.

This toolkit generally describes currentestablished processes for determining theneed for improvements at intersections, suchas marked crosswalks and signals.

Marked Versus UnmarkedCrosswalks

A crosswalk is generally defined as theportion of the roadway designated forpedestrians to use in crossing the street.Marked crosswalks increase visibility of thepedestrian crossing area, define the space forcrossing, and draw pedestrians to theappropriate crossing point. There is no legaldifference between a marked or unmarkedintersection crossing. Unmarked and markedcrosswalks must be respected by drivers andpedestrians at intersections (see Figure 63 foran illustration of marked and unmarkedcrosswalks at an intersection). Mid-blockcrosswalks should always be marked.

The issue of marked versus unmarkedcrosswalks is often debated. Several studieshave been completed over the past 25 yearson the subject. Some of these studies haveindicated that motorists are more likely to

Figure 63

Marked and UnmarkedCrosswalks at Intersection

stop for pedestrians in marked crosswalks,rather than unmarked. Other studies haveindicated that marked crosswalks may givepedestrians a false sense of security whencrossing the street.

The 1972 publication of a five-year study ofcrosswalks in San Diego by B.F. Hermsgenerated controversy by showing thatpedestrian collision rates at markedcrosswalks were twice that of unmarkedcrosswalks. Although Herms concluded that“it is appropriate to restate that markedcrosswalks will continue to be a useful trafficcontrol device,” a perception that emergedfrom this study was that crosswalks were anattractive nuisance. Some agencies concludedthat crosswalks generate too much of a falsesense of security among pedestrians and donot command the attention and respect ofmotorists. These agencies became less willingto install marked crosswalks.

A subsequent study by Bowman, Fruin, andZeeger questioned Herms’ results. Theycalled attention to the study’s failure toconsider the possibility that known high-riskpedestrian groups, such as children and theelderly, were likely to prefer markedcrosswalks to unmarked crosswalks. The1972 study had indicated that these two


Intersectionsuuuuu6groups incurred most of the recorded injuries.The study’s failure to collect usage data byage may have overlooked an important bias —that the most accident-prone pedestrians arelikely to prefer marked crosswalks overunmarked crosswalks, if both options areavailable.

Further studies, most notably by Knoblauch,Tustin, Smith, and Pietrucha, applied morerigorous research and experimentaltechniques to crossings. They determinedthat marked crosswalks are safer and morepreferred by both pedestrians and motoriststhan unmarked crosswalks under mostconditions. The effectiveness and utility ofmarked crosswalks has been reaffirmed insurveys of both users and traffic officials innumerous studies (including Pfefer andSorton, Zeeger and Zeeger, and E.A. Axler).

(Note the above summary of research findingswas obtained from the Pedestrian CrossingStudy, by Arctic Slope Consulting Group, Inc.for the City of Bellevue, March 1991.)

Marked crosswalks send an importantmessage to motorists:

The crosswalk area is a definedpedestrian crossing space thatshould not be intruded upon.

For marked crosswalks to be continuallyeffective, they must be located and designedin accordance with good judgement andaccepted engineering practices. The MUTCDstates that “crosswalk markings should not beused indiscriminately,” and this serves as aguiding premise to most local agencies.

Knoblauch et. al. developed a set of locationguidelines based upon a comprehensive two-phase research and survey process. Theseguidelines state that as a general rule,crosswalks markings should be provided at:

• All signalized intersections with pedestriansignal heads

• All locations where a school crossing guardis normally stationed to assist childrencrossing the street

•All intersections and mid-block crossingssatisfying minimum vehicular andpedestrian volume criteria in Figure 64 andthe following basic criteria:- Speed limit equal to or less than 72 kph

(45 mph)- Adequate stopping sight distance- For mid-block crosswalks, block length of at least 183 meters (600 feet)- Adequate crosswalk illumination- Minimal conflicting attention demands

• All other locations where there is a need toclarify the preferred crossing locationbecause the proper location for crossingwould otherwise be confusing

(Source: Guidelines for the Installation ofCrosswalk Markings, Smith and Knoblauch,AAA Transportation Research Record 1141)

Some local jurisdictions are developing theirown processes for determining the need forintersection crossing improvements that aresuited to conditions within their community.For example, the City of Kirkland, a cityknown for its pedestrian friendly atmosphere,has established guidelines for installation ofpedestrian crossing improvements. The firststep in this process involves consideration ofseveral basic conditions, listed in Table 45. Atleast one of these basic conditions must existat the location being evaluated in order tofurther consider installation of crossingimprovements. (Check with your local agencyfor project specific requirements.)

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Intersectionsuuuuu6


Figure 64

Source: Smith and Knoblauch, AAA Transportation Research Record 1141 as reprinted in the ITE manual, Design andSafety of Pedestrian Facilities

Guidelines for the Installation of Marked Crosswalks at UncontrolledIntersections and Mid-Block Crossings

Table 45

Source: City of Kirkland Transportation Department

Guidelines for Installation of Pedestrian Crossing Improvements(City of Kirkland Recommendation)

• A high majority of peopleserved by the crossinghave a more difficultthan average timecrossing the street

• A safety problem can besolved by improving thecrosswalk

• Significant benefit totransit

• Distance to a better(higher level ofprotection or better sightdistance or otherwiseeasier to cross) crossingpoint must be more than300 feet

• Part of a school walkingroute

• Part of a route identifiedin the non-motorizedplan

• Connects to significantretail

Basic Conditions to Be Considered


Intersectionsuuuuu6

The City of Bellevue has developed a list ofconsiderations for determining whether or notto mark pedestrian crossings. Theseconsiderations are listed in Table 46.

Crosswalk Dimensions

The MUTCD outlines requirements forminimum crosswalk widths and markings.The MUTCD requires a minimum crosswalkwidth of 1.8 meters (6 feet). Wider crosswalksare often installed, particularly at crossingsthat receive high use. A width of 3.0 meters(10 feet) is commonly used for crosswalks.Crosswalks need to be at least the width ofthe approaching sidewalk. (ITE Design andSafety of Pedestrian Facilities). Theapproaching sidewalk or walkway and cornerarea at the intersection needs to be free ofobstructions so that pedestrians can freely

Table 46

How the above elements apply to crosswalk decisions varies depending on location.Planning studies may denote desirable pedestrian linkages; however, site specific engineering judgement/study should beconducted before implementation.Source: City of Bellevue Transportation Department

• Special concerns —school walking routes,elderly needs, bus stops

• Collision history

• Distance to nearestcrosswalk/intersection

• Number of lanes to becrossed

• Opportunity toconcentrate pedestriancrossings at one location

• Citizen support

• Mid-block versusintersection

• Compliance with adoptedstandards (MUTCD) andother guidelines

• Traffic Patterns andCharacteristics

• Driveway Locations/Number

• Other Site Specific orArea-WideConsiderations

• Pedestrian demand

• Sight distance

• Traffic volumes (dailyand peak hour)

• Vehicle gaps

• Vehicle speeds

• Existing and desirablelighting levels

• Channelization refuge(island) opportunity

City of Bellevue Recommended Elements to Be AnalyzedWhen Determining the Need for Marked Crosswalks

Figure 65

Clear Travel Area for Pedestriansat Intersection Corners

travel in either direction to cross the street(see Figure 65). Dimensional guidelines forcrosswalks are summarized in Table 47.

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Intersectionsuuuuu6


Crosswalk Markings

Crosswalks can be marked using variousmethods. Crosswalk marking patterns varyand limited information is available about theeffectiveness of different designs. There is noevidence to support that one design is betterthan another, but some designs provide bettervisibility than others. Local jurisdictionshave developed their own preferences, socheck in your area for the standard practice.

Generally, high visibility markings aresuggested for locations where greatermotorist information is considered beneficialand where pedestrians may not be expected tocross (such as mid-block locations), or wherethere are substantially higher pedestriancrossing volumes. Horizontal bars (twostripes perpendicular to vehicle traffic) aremost often used at stop controlledintersections.

Diagonal markings or “zebra” stripes aremore visible than horizontal bars, butdiagonal markings tend to requirereplacement more often since they are subjectto more friction from the wheels of motorvehicles. Piano bar markings are being used

Example of Ladder Bar Crosswalk

Table 47

MUTCDMinimumRequirement

RecommendedPractice

Crosswalk Width

6 ft.

10 ft.(or width of approachingsidewalks, if greater)

Crosswalk Width and MarkingGuidelines

more frequently because they provide thebenefit of good visibility and easiermaintenance. With the piano bar pattern(and the ladder bar), the wheels of motorvehicles typically pass on either side of themarkings, minimizing friction anddeterioration. Table 48illustrates severalstyles of crosswalk markings and listsadvantages and disadvantages of each.

The minimum width of the horizontal barsrecommended by the MUTCD is 15.2centimeters (6 inches). Wider bars, 25 to 30centimeters (10 to 12 inches), arerecommended by the ITE, particularly atcrosswalks that receive high use or deservespecial attention.

Stop bars are typically placed at intersectionswhere motorists are required to stop to


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Table 48

Advantages and Disadvantages of Crosswalk Marking Patterns

Marking Pattern

Horizontal Bars

Zebra

Ladder Bar

Piano

Dashed (European)

Solid

Advantages

Common practice atstop controlledintersections, lessexpensive, easy toinstall andmaintain

Highly visible

Highly visible

Highly visible andbecoming morecommonly used;easy to maintainsince stripes can beplaced outside thewheel friction areas

Captures attentionbecause it is not acommonly usedpattern

Visible (but may notbe as eye catchingas other patterns);not commonly used

Disadvantages

Not as visible assome othermarking types; barstend to wear fasterthan other types;not appropriate formid-block locations

More maintenancerequired sincewheel friction rubsoff diagonal stripes;surface can beslippery

Wider stripes ruboff with wheelfriction, but can beplaced to minimizethis effect; surfacecan be slippery

May not definespace as well assome of the otherchoices

Expensive; moredifficult to installand maintain;surface can beslippery

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prevent overhang into crosswalk areas. Stoplines are normally 0.3 to 0.6-meter (12 to 24-inch) wide white stripes that extend across allapproach lanes. Stop bars need to be locatedat least 1.2 meters (4 feet) in advance of thecrosswalk, and can either be parallel to thecrosswalk or angled or staggered in each laneto increase visibility. Strategically locatingand skewing stop bars improves visibility ofpedestrians, as well as operations for right-turn-on-red vehicles and for vehicles turningleft from the cross street.

Rumble strips with raised pavement markersor buttons are sometimes placed in advance ofcrosswalks in rows, which create a “rumbling”effect alerting approaching drivers of theupcoming crosswalk. Use of these types ofmarkers is not generally recommended unlessthey can be placed far enough in advance ofthe crosswalk to be an effective warningdevice (at the same location as the crosswalkadvance warning sign). Raised pavementmarkers are not allowed to be placed near theright edge line because they are an obstacle tobicycle travel (see discussion in Toolkit 5 —Sidewalks and Walkways). If raisedpavement markers are used, they must beplaced outside the required clearance area ofbike lanes. The use of raised pavementmarkers is required to be analyzed on a case-by-case basis. They should only be installedafter a traffic engineering study determinesthey are needed.

Markings should be monitored regularly andmaintained in good condition. They shouldalso be removed when no longer needed.Painted markings are less expensive thanplastic markings, but the plastic markershave a longer life. Check with your localagency for crosswalk and pavement markingrequirements. Also, for more specific designdetails related to pavement striping andmarking techniques, refer to other sources,

such as the MUTCD and the WSDOT DesignManual.

Curb Ramps

Curb ramps are often considered to be themost important elements of an accessiblepedestrian environment. Curb ramps provideaccessibility at the grade transition betweenintersection corners and lower street grades.They facilitate crossing for wheelchair users,people pushing strollers, bicyclists and others.If properly located, they can also help todirect pedestrians, including sight-impairedpeople in the direction of the crosswalk if theyare properly located. Toolkit 2 —Accessibility, discusses placement and designof curb ramps.

Lighting

The street lighting level provided atintersections may need to be supplementedwith additional lighting in areas of heavypedestrian traffic during early morning, lateevening, or nighttime hours. Refer to thestandards and design guidelines of theIlluminating Engineering Society of NorthAmerica.

Location of Drainage Inlets andGrates

Drainage grates should be located away fromcrosswalks and curb ramps and outside theroute of pedestrian travel. It is preferable tolocate drainage inlets on the upstream site ofthe crosswalk to avoid excessive drainageflows across the crossing area. Roads andgutters should be graded to direct drainageaway from intersection corners and walkingareas.


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Pedestrian Related Signs

It may be necessary to provide signs at ornear an intersection. Regulatory signs aregenerally rectangular shaped signs thatidentify special conditions and regulatemotorists and pedestrians. Warning signs arediamond shaped, with black and yellow colorsand are used to identify upcoming conditionsthat may not be expected.

Pedestrian related warning signs include thestandard pedestrian crossing signs used atlocations to identify upcoming crossings (referto Figure 66). The pedestrian warning signwith the pedestrian symbol and no crosswalkshould be used in advance of crossings orareas of high pedestrian use. Refer toMUTCD for distance requirements foradvance signing. The warning sign with thepedestrian symbol in the crosswalk shouldonly be used at the crosswalk location.

Minimizing theCrossing Distancesat Intersections

Minimizing the crossing distance atintersections enables pedestrians to cross thestreet more safely and comfortably.Techniques that reduce pedestrian crossing

distance and time also provide the addedbenefit of improved timing at signalizedintersections (without sacrificing the need foran adequate protection phase for thepedestrian). Several design techniques forreducing crossing distances at intersectionsare described in the following text.

Curb Return Radius

Historically, design of curb return radii atintersections has not typically considered theneeds of pedestrians. With new design andretrofit design of intersections, it is importantto consider the needs of all users of theintersection and to balance these needs toprovide the safest operating conditions for all.

The use of shorter curb return radii atintersections is beneficial for pedestriansbecause it reduces the crossing distance of theintersection. Reduced radii also help to slowvehicles as they travel through theintersection, enabling drivers to respond morequickly to signal changes and crossingpedestrians.

The need for shorter pedestrian crossingdistances and reduced vehicle speeds needs tobe balanced with the need to provideadequate curb radius lengths to accommodatethe types of vehicles that turn at theintersection. A radius that is too small cancause large vehicles and buses to jump thecurb, causing deterioration of the curb andintrusion into the waiting and standing spacefor pedestrians.

It may not always be practical to reduce thecurb return radii at all intersections used bypedestrians, particularly at existingintersections. But at intersections wherethere is heavy pedestrian crossing activityand limited truck and bus turning

Figure 66

W11-2 W11A-2

Crossing Signs


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movements, it may be desirable to shorten theradius by adding curb extensions or bulb-outs.It may also be desirable to analyzetransportation routes in the area and toreroute trucks onto streets that receive lesspedestrian use. This would enable streetsmore heavily used by pedestrians to beretrofitted with shortened curb radii withoutsignificantly affecting the overall operationalneeds of large trucks and buses in the area.

If truck and bus turning activity occurs at aminimal level, AASHTO standards permit 5.1to 7.6 meters (15 to 25 feet) curb radii onminor streets. On major streets, AASHTOallows a minimum turning radius of 9.1 meter(30 feet) if the occasional truck can turn withsome minimal encroachment. Thesestandards may vary at the local level. Insome cases local jurisdictions may encouragethe use of shorter than standard curb radii atintersections where there is likely to befrequent pedestrian crossing activity.

Curb return radii larger than 9.1 meters (30feet) generally are not desirable at urbanintersections where there are high numbers ofpedestrians crossing. It may be necessary toprovide a 9.1-meter (30-foot) radius or largerat urban intersections where large trucks andbuses turn frequently.

Figure 68 illustrates how reduced curb radiusat an intersection shortens the pedestriancrossing distance by comparing the crossingdistance between two 4.6-meter (15-foot)radius corners with the crossing distancebetween two 9.1-meter (30-foot) radiuscorners at an intersection.

In certain situations, very short curb radii of1.5 meters (5 feet) can be used on one-waystreets at the corner where no turningmovements are possible. Figure 67 illustrateshow the use of one-way street patterns can

enable reduced curb radii at the non-turningcorners of the intersection. For morediscussion on one-way streets, refer to Toolkit5 — Sidewalks and Walkways.

Table 49 summarizes the benefits anddisadvantages related to shortening curb radiiat intersections.

Reduced Crossing Distance WithReduced Curb Radius

Figure 68

Reduced Curb Radii at One-WayIntersection

Source:

Figure 67

Source:


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Right-Turn Channelization (Slip)Lane with Refuge Island

At wide intersections, there is often atriangular space between the through-laneand the right-turn lane (also called a “slip”lane) unused by motor vehicles. Placing araised island in this area provides pedestriansa refuge area when crossing. This may be anappropriate solution where curb return radiiof larger than 9.1 meters (30 feet) areunavoidable. This type of design is onlyappropriate for use when it fully addressesthe needs of pedestrians. If designedproperly, these devices can help to balancethe needs of large vehicles and pedestrians atbusy intersections.

At locations with extremely high numbers ofright turning movements, slip lanes should beprotected with a signal to provide pedestriansopportunities to cross.

Also, refuge islands should be designed withan elongated tail (see Figure 69), whichstretches out the turning movement andprovides vehicles more space to slow and

observe pedestrians crossing the lane. (Thiselongated design is recommended by theHandbook for Walkable Communities as amethod to make right-turn slip lanes safer forpedestrians. It has not yet been incorporatedinto the AASHTO Green Book.)

The refuge islands should be raised to providea vertical barrier and added protectionbetween vehicles and pedestrians. Refugeislands need to provide curb cuts, or cut-throughs if space is limited, for accessiblepassage. AASHTO requires that curbedislands generally be no smaller than 5 squaremeters (54 square feet), but preferably aminimum of 9 square meters, (97 square feet).Triangular refuge islands should be aminimum of 6.1 to 7.6 meters (20 to 25 feet)long and not less than 1 meter (3.3 feet) widein the crossing region and 0.5 meters (1.6feet) wide in the tail region. A wider area isneeded to provide curb ramps and a level areabetween the curb ramps in the crossingregion.

Pedestrian push buttons may be needed whenthe signal timing doesn't allow all pedestriansto cross the street on one crossing phase.

Table 49

Disadvantages

• May not be feasible at intersectionswhere buses and large trucks turnfrequently

• If radii are too small, larger vehiclesmay either have to swing intoopposing traffic or drive over thecurbing at the corner causingdeterioration and intruding intopedestrian waiting space

• Decreases vehicular capacity at intersection

Benefits

• Reduces crossing distances forpedestrians

• Slows vehicular movement throughintersection

• Heightens awareness of pedestrians

• Improves signal timing because thetime for the pedestrian crossing phasecan be reduced

Benefits and Disadvantages of Shortening Curb Radii

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These areas should be clear of obstacles suchas utility facilities and landscaping above 0.6meters (2 feet). The crossing point may bemarked with a highly visible crosswalk designand a stop bar. Directional barriers or

Figure 69

Source: Handbook for Walkable Communities, Burden and Wallwork

Elongated Refuge Island at Right-Turn Slip Lane

Right-Turn Slip Lane and Refuge Island

Figure 70

devices (such as bollards, signs, or otherelements) may be necessary to keeppedestrians from stepping off the curb inareas other than the crosswalk.


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Table 50 lists typical conditions where refugeislands can provide the greatest benefit.

Medians and center refuge islands need to belarge enough to provide refuge for severalpedestrians waiting at once. They generallyshould be a minimum of 1.8 m (6 feet) wideand preferably 2.4 m (8 feet) wide or morewhere possible. These areas also need to beaccessible, with either curb ramps or at-gradecuts. Cut-throughs are generally easier toconstruct and easier for pedestrians tonegotiate than curb ramps, particularly onsmaller islands.

Refuge islands should be raised to provide avertical barrier between pedestrians andmotor vehicles. Sometimes a small nose canbe placed in front of the crosswalk to provideadditional protection to pedestrians waiting

Right-Turn Slip Lane With Refuge Island

Table 50

Locations Where Refuge Islandsare Most Beneficial

• Wide, two-way streets (four lanes ormore with high traffic volumes, hightravel speeds, and large pedestrianvolumes

• Wide streets where children, peoplewith disabilities, or elderly peoplecross regularly

• Wide two-way intersections with hightraffic volumes and significantnumbers of crossing pedestrians

• Low volume side street trafficdemands with insufficient time tocross

• Minor access/local residential streetswhere they function both as trafficcalming devices and street crossingaids

Refer to Figure 70 for an example of a right-turn channelization lane and refuge island ata larger curb radius intersection.

Medians and Center RefugeIslands

Medians and center refuge islands atintersections provide waiting areas forpedestrians and eliminate the need forpedestrian to cross both directions of trafficall at once. Medians and center refugeislands can be created at intersections or mid-block to help define the pedestrian walkingspace and provide protection and refuge frommotor vehicles.

Refuge islands are typically shorter thanmedians, but either can be used atintersections. Medians and center refugeislands provide the benefit of turning one two-way street into two one-way streets from theperspective of the pedestrian. Pedestriansonly have to cross one direction of traffic at atime and can wait and rest in between ifnecessary. Medians and refuge islands aregenerally most necessary where the length ofcrossing exceeds 18.3 meters (60 feet),depending on the signal timing, but can beused at intersections with shorter crossingdistances where a need has been determined.

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at the median and refuge island. The use ofmedians and refuge islands at intersectionsalso help to provide added protection duringleft-turning movements. Pedestrian pushbuttons should be mounted in the islands toprovide pedestrians control over the signalphases from their refuge position. Pushbutton posts and other poles need to belocated out of the pedestrian travel way, butnot inconveniently far from reach.

Figure 71 illustrates a median/refuge islandat an intersection. For more discussion onmedians and refuge islands, refer to Toolkit 7— Crossings.

Curb Bulb-Outs and Extensions

In addition to reducing crossing distances,curb bulb-outs and extensions makepedestrians more visible to motorists atintersections. Curb bulb-outs and extensionsat intersections and mid-block crossings mayhelp to slow traffic by narrowing the street.

Curb extensions and bulb-outs workparticularly well on urban streets where thereis limited turning traffic by buses and large

Typical Curb Extension Design

Figure 72

Figure 73

Typical Curb Bulb-Out Design

Median/Refuge Island at anIntersection

Figure 71


Intersectionsuuuuu6MinimizingPedestrian/MotorVehicle Conflicts

Visibility and Sight Distance

Providing good sight distance at intersectionsis commonly overlooked. Facilities such assigns, utility poles, bus stops, benches, andother elements are often added after designand construction of an intersection, inhibitingdriver and pedestrian visibility. Theseelements should not be located in areas thatinterfere with sight distances. Figure 75illustrates the area at an intersection thattypically should be kept clear of obstructions.Refer to WSDOT or local agency designstandards for the adopted method to calculatesight distance triangles at intersections anddriveways.

Elements that obstruct the downward viewsof high-seat position drivers (such as bus andtruck drivers) should also be avoided atintersections (within the sight distancetriangle area), including trees, signs, hangingbanners, or other elements.

vehicles or that accommodate one-way traffic,and on minor streets in residential areas.They are also effective in delineating on-street parking zones. Other types of trafficcalming techniques are described in Toolkit 8— Traffic Calming. Figure 72 illustrates atypical curb extension design, and Figure 73illustrates curb bulb-outs. Figure 74illustrates how crossing distance is reducedthrough the use of curb extensions.

Avoiding or ReconfiguringMultiple and SkewedIntersections

Multiple intersections are intersections withmore than four legs or vehicle approaches.Skewed intersections are created whenintersections join at awkward angles.

Figure 75

Sight Distance at IntersectionCorners

Figure 74


Source:

8.7m (29')

17.4m (58')

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On-Street Parking Restrictions

On-street parking near pedestrian crossingpoints can interfere with visibility. When carsare parked too close to crossing points, theymay block the line of sight between the driverand the pedestrian stepping off the curb tocross.

RCW 46.61.570 prohibits parking within 6.1meters (20 feet) of a crosswalk and within 9.1meters (30 feet) of a stop sign, signal, orflashing beacon. The ITE Design and Safetyof Pedestrian Facilities recommends thatparking be restricted within 15.2 meters (50feet) of all intersection crossings where thespeed of travel on the street is 56 to 72 kph (35to 45 mph), and be restricted within 30.5meters (100 feet) at intersections on streetswhere the speed of travel is above 72 kph (45mph) and at mid-block crossings.

This guidebook recommends that professionaljudgement be applied when considering theappropriate distance for parking setbacksfrom specific pedestrian crossing points.In certain situations, it may be appropriate torequire a greater setback distance from

crossing points 15.2 to 30.5 meters (50 to 100feet), such as: •near schools where many children are

crossing; •at intersections or crossings that are not

signalized; •on roadways where travel speeds exceed 35

mph; and •on roadways with elements that affect sight

and stopping distance (curves, bridges,vegetation, etc.)

In some situations, a setback less than 50 feetmay be appropriate, such as in centralbusiness districts, downtowns, or other areaswhere travel speeds are typically slower(between 20 and 30 mph), and at signalizedintersections or crossings. Curb extensions(bulb-outs) at intersections and crossing pointsprovide space for pedestrians to stand inbetter view of approaching vehicles, and on-street parking can be placed closer to thecrossing point without affecting visibility ofpedestrians.

Uncontrolled intersections and mid-blockcrossings are of particular concern whereinadequate sight distance exists, because

Figure 76

Recommended Parking Setback for Sight Distance


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actuated equipment and when pedestrianactuators have been installed.

Pedestrian indications and signal heads needto be installed in clearly visible locations fromthe crosswalk approaches. Audible devicesare being used in some areas. This type ofindication is particularly helpful to sightimpaired pedestrians.

Research has documented that manypedestrians do not understand the meaning ofpedestrian signal indications, particularly theflashing “DON’T WALK” symbol.

Figure 77 illustrates the pedestrian indicationsymbols commonly used in Washington andthroughout the United States, as well as theaction to be taken during each phase of thesignal indication.

there is no control (stop sign or signal) overthe movements of vehicles and pedestrians.Additional considerations related to on-streetparking are discussed in Toolkit 5 —Sidewalks and Walkways.

Traffic Regulation and AccessManagement

Traffic regulation and access managementpractices can help reduce potential conflictsbetween pedestrians and motor vehicles atintersections. For more information aboutaccess management, refer to Toolkit 5 —Sidewalks and Walkways and Toolkit 10 —Site Design. Traffic control and regulationdevices are discussed in more detail in thefollowing text.

Signalization

The WSDOT Design Manual states that theneeds of all pedestrians shall be considered atall traffic signal installations wherepedestrian activity might be expected.

Pedestrian Indications (Signal Headsand Symbols) and Exclusive PedestrianPhasePedestrian signal indications include walk/don’t walk or the symbolic man/hand symbolused in conjunction with traffic signals. TheMUTCD provides a list of warrants forpedestrian indications. Traffic signal symbolsused to direct motorists may not provide thecorrect message to pedestrians. For thisreason, it is strongly suggested that trafficengineers fully consider the need forpedestrian indications at all signalizedcrossings that have the potential to be used bypedestrians.

Pedestrian indications are typically providedwhen vehicular movement is controlled by

Figure 77


Pedestrian Indication Sequence

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Where there is heavy pedestrian crossingactivity (near a transit center or collegecampus, for example), an exclusive pedestriansignal phase may be provided to allowpedestrians to cross in one or more directions.A “pedestrian scramble,” where pedestriansare allowed to cross at all directions(including diagonal) within a well definedintersection area is an example of anexclusive phase application. During thisexclusive pedestrian phase, no vehicularmovement typically takes place.

Pedestrian Actuated SignalsPedestrian actuated signals may bewarranted at intersections (and mid-blocklocations) where the there are inadequategaps in the stream of traffic to providefrequent enough opportunities for pedestriansto cross. Install pedestrian actuated signalsonly at locations where they are warranted inaccordance with the MUTCD guidelines.Adequate sight distance is necessary at theselocations, and warning signs should beinstalled in advance of the signal.

Some examples of locations where pedestrianactuated signals may be appropriate include:

• Intersection crossings where the level ofpedestrian activity may be relatively low,but the traffic volume and speed of vehiclesis high, or gaps in traffic are not adequateto allow pedestrians to cross

• Mid-block crossings on streets wherepedestrian activity is high and the volumesand speeds of vehicular traffic are also high

• Heavily used mid-block bus stops (provideincreased responsiveness of the actuationduring times of peak hour pedestrian accessto the bus stop)

The MUTCD provides signal warrantguidelines related to pedestrian actuatedsignals. Local jurisdictions may use othercriteria to determine the need for thesesignals. Toolkit 3 — Children and SchoolZones and Toolkit 7 — Crossings also discussthe use of pedestrian actuated signals.

Push Buttons (Actuators/Detectors)Pedestrian push buttons and detectiondevices should be conveniently located nearthe end of crosswalks and in easy to reachpositions. They should be located no morethan 1.5 meters (5 feet) from the pedestriantravel way and face toward pedestrians. It isrecommended that signs be mounted on thepush-button poles to identify which button tocross for each crossing direction. The purposeand use of push buttons should be clearlyidentified, and they should clarify whichcrosswalk they are linked to.

In addition to being located at intersections,pedestrian actuators may also be located inintersection or mid-block refuge areas, wherepedestrians may be caught crossing duringthe end of the walk cycle. In some areas withheavy pedestrian volumes, or where signal

Table 51

Measures to Improve theEffectiveness of Push Buttons

• Maintain push buttons as necessary toensure they are functioning

• Make push buttons responsive topedestrians

• Provide signing to show which streetcrossing push button controls

• Sign operating times for push buttonsdesigned to operate only duringcertain times


Intersectionsuuuuu6cycles are particularly long, it may help toplace additional actuators in advance of theintersection to decrease pedestrian waitingtime. Research shows that when pedestrianshave to wait on average over 30 seconds, theyhave a tendency to not wait. Pedestrian useshould be considered when selecting cyclelengths. Table 51 lists recommendedmeasures to improve the effectiveness of pushbuttons.

The use of motion detectors, infrared, or videodevices to automatically change the signalphase when pedestrians approach thecrossing is experimental. Also, special signalsare being tested that allow vehicles to proceed

Table 52

Crossing Distances, Speeds, and Time

CrossingDistance

7.3 m (24 ft)2 lanes*

10.4 m (34 ft)2 lanes with bikelanes




Average PedestrianCrossing Time at1.2 m/second(4 ft/second)

6 seconds

8.5 seconds

11.5 seconds

14.4 seconds

17.5 seconds

Older AdultCrossing Time at0.9 m/second(3 ft/second)

8 seconds

11.3 seconds

15.3 seconds

19.3 seconds

23.3 seconds

Mobility ImpairedPedestrianCrossing Time at0.8 m/second(2.5 ft/second)

9.6 seconds

13.6 seconds

18.4 seconds

23.2 seconds

28 seconds

* Assumes 3.7-meter (12-foot) vehicular lane width and 1.5-meter (5-foot) bike lane width.Source: Adapted from walking speed estimates

in an intersection during the pedestrian cyclewhen there are no pedestrians present (seediscussion on PUFFINs and PELICANs inToolkit Section 7 — Crossings.)

Refer to the MUTCD and the WSDOT DesignManual for additional information. Figure 95illustrates the WSDOT Design Manual detailsfor pedestrian push buttons, including therecommended mounting height of 1.1 meters(3.5 feet) from ground level.

Signal TimingSignals are often installed with a focustoward accommodating smooth motor vehicleflows rather than accommodating the needs of

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pedestrians. Traffic signals are usually timedfor vehicle speeds, causing pedestrians tohave to stop at nearly every intersection.

Signals with excessively long waits may causepedestrians to cross against the signal,increasing the potential for pedestrian/motorvehicle conflicts. Research indicates thatmany pedestrians stop watching for the lightto change, and instead start looking for gapsto cross streets when their delay exceeds 30seconds. Installation of pedestrian actuationdevices can help with this problem.

Signals that do not provide enough time forpedestrians to cross are also a major concern.The walking speed normally used forcalculating pedestrian walking time is 1.2meters (4 feet) per second, but this may notprovide adequate crossing time for allpedestrians.

Studies have indicated that up to 30 percentof the population do not normally walk asquickly as 1.2 meters (4 feet) per second.Recent research by Knoblauch, Pietrucha, andNitzburg determined that for designpurposes, values of 0.91 meters (3 feet) persecond are appropriate for older pedestrians.Other studies have indicated that somepedestrians with mobility impairments travelat 0.8 meters (2.5 feet) per second or slower.Table 52 depicts the length of time necessaryto cross various distances at these speeds.This table is provided to compare thedifferences in crossing time that can occurwith different pedestrian groups.

Set or adjust signal timing to accommodate agreater cross-section of the population.Several sources, including the ITE manualDesign and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities, arerecommending the use of the 0.9 meters (3feet) per second travel speed for signal timing.When there is a known presence of slower

pedestrians (including elderly and peoplewith mobility impairments) who regularly usea crossing (near a retirement home orhospital), the possibility of extending signalcrossing time in these areas should beconsidered.

WALK Signal TimingAt some intersections, the 4 to 7 second“start-up” time walk interval recommendedby the MUTCD may present a dilemma topedestrians who see the “DON’T WALK”display before they are more than one or twolanes across the street, especially since asdiscussed earlier, many pedestrians do notalways understanding that the flashing“DON’T WALK” symbol doesn’t mean to stopwalking. It may be desirable to provide alonger “WALK” interval at some locations,like at particularly wide intersections, or inareas where there is clearly confusion amongcrossing pedestrians.

Turning Movements

Regulating turning movements atintersections can improve conditions forpedestrians. According to the ITE, 37 percentof all pedestrian/motor vehicle collisions atsignalized intersections involve left- or right-turning vehicles. Table 53 lists potentialsolutions to minimize pedestrian/motorvehicle conflicts involving left- or right-turning vehicles.

Right-turn channelization should be used onlywhere warranted by traffic study. Theaddition of a right-turn lane increasescrossing distances for pedestrians and allowsvehicles to travel more freely when turningright through the intersection. This maycause inattentive drivers to not noticepedestrians on the right. Elimination of free-right-turn-on-red movements may be anappropriate solution at certain intersections


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where there is a high level of anticipatedconflict with motor vehicles.

Dual Turning MovementsIt is strongly recommended that dual turningmovements be avoided at intersections usedby pedestrians. Warrants for dual turn lanesshould be used to ensure that they are

provided only if necessary. If dual turn lanesare installed, a separate pedestrian crossingphase in a signal or prohibiting crossing maybe necessary.

Dual turning movement lanes are particularlydifficult for pedestrians. Dual turn lanesincrease the level of unpredictable movementsat intersections. Visibility is impaired whenmultiple vehicles are turning at the sametime. In addition, dual turning lanes may notbe well utilized by motor vehicles. One lanemay be favored and as a result, motor vehiclespeeds may be different in each lane. Driversare often not able to see beyond the car infront or to the side of them to determine ifthere is a pedestrian crossing the street.

For right-turn channelization lanes, considerthe possibility of adding a controlled slip lanewith a refuge island, which provides addedprotection for crossing pedestrians if designedproperly (see discussion earlier in thissection).

Interchanges and ExpresswayRamps

Expressways and freeways often presentbarriers to pedestrian circulation.Pedestrians crossing exit and entrance rampsoften conflict with drivers traveling at highspeeds. Drivers' attention is often focused onother traffic and not on pedestrians.

Several design treatments can be applied toimprove pedestrian crossing at interchanges.

• Provide as short a crossing distance aspossible and at a right angle to the ramp

• The crossing point should be located ateither the terminus or the beginning of theramp, where the vehicle is just entering orhas slowed from its exit

Table 53

Reducing Turning Conflicts

• Design compact intersections withsmall turning radii that force slowerspeeds

• Prohibit right-turn-on-red

• When right-turn slip-lanes are used,place crosswalks as far upstream aspossible and provide highly visiblemarkings

• Use a separate left—turn phase inconjunction with a WALK/DON’TWALK signal; or restrict left turns atdowntown intersections and oncommercial streets, during certainhours when there are higherconcentrations of pedestrians atintersections

• Shorten crossing distance andexposure time with curb extensions orbulb-outs

• Provide medians and refuge islands

• Place signs to remind motorists oftheir duty to yield to pedestrians whileturning left or right

• Provide well-illuminated crossings

• Improve marking and visibility ofcrosswalks

Sources: Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities,

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• Entrance and exit ramps that encouragefree-flowing motor vehicle movements arenot desirable in areas where there is heavypedestrian crossing traffic. Slowing orstopping of motor vehicles in these areas isstrongly recommended.

• Interchanges and access ramps connectingto local streets at right angles are easiestfor pedestrians to cross, because crossingdistances are reduced and visibility isenhanced. These intersections should bedesigned in accordance with acceptedpractices. Controls such as stop signs andsignals provide pedestrians opportunities tocross.

• With ramps that merge into the local streetsystem at expressway access points,channelization islands can be installed toprovide refuge area for crossingpedestrians. This reduces crossing distancefor pedestrians, which helps to improvesignal timing. The shorter the rampcrossing distance, the better.

• Pedestrian crossings at controlled accessramps need to be clearly marked andidentifiable to approaching motorists.

• Good sight distance and visibility at rampterminals is an important necessity.

• Grade separation may be necessary (seediscussion later in this section).

Grade Separation

Grade separation may be necessary atcrossings where extreme conditions dictatethe need for pedestrians to be completelyseparated from the roadway (or from railroadtracks or waterways). Overpasses andtunnels can provide safe pedestrian crossing

opportunities. However, they can also beextremely costly and make it difficult toprovide accessibility, unless there is sufficientspace for ramping (if not, elevators arenecessary). In some cases, if the added traveldistances are excessive, pedestrians who wantthe most direct route may be discouragedfrom using the grade separated crossing. Theuse and placement of grade separatedcrossings should be carefully considered.Criteria for determining the need for gradeseparation and additional design informationis provided in Toolkit 7 — Crossings.

Traffic Circles — RoundaboutsVersus Traffic Calming Circles

Various types of traffic circle designs existaround the world. Traffic circles providedifferent solutions for different traffic needsand some designs are more beneficial forpedestrians than others. There are two typesof traffic circles commonly used —roundabouts and traffic calming circles.Roundabouts typically increase the volume oftraffic traveling through intersections. Trafficcalming circles decrease traffic speeds and aremost appropriate on low volume streets.

Roundabouts are used at intersections inplace of signals and carry significant trafficvolumes. Their primary purpose is to providemotor vehicles free flowing mobility at a lowerspeed. Figure 78 illustrates an example of amodern roundabout design.

Traffic calming circles are used at low volumeneighborhood intersections for speed controland to discourage through trips. Figure 79illustrates an example of a traffic calmingcircle.

For these reasons, roundabouts typicallycreate less favorable conditions for


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pedestrians than traffic calming circles.Characteristics related to roundabouts andtraffic calming circles and their effect onpedestrian travel are summarized below.Additional information about traffic calmingcircles and other traffic calming devices isprovided in Toolkit 8 — Traffic Calming.

RoundaboutsModern roundabouts are designed to slowtraffic, reduce delays, and handle highertraffic volumes. Research has shown fewerpedestrian collisions occur at roundabouts

than at signalized or unsignalizedintersections. Properly designed roundaboutscan create a positive environment forpedestrians.

Roundabouts allow pedestrians to crossfrequently, without waiting for traffic to stop(when vehicular volumes are low tomoderate). However, pedestrians crossing arenot protected since vehicles are free flowing.Pedestrians identify and accept gaps in trafficand cross when it is safe.

Modern Roundabout Design

Figure 78

138

Intersectionsuuuuu6


Splitter islands are used to deflect the path ofmotor vehicles and to slow them as theyapproach the roundabout. This deflectionreduces vehicle speeds making it easier forpedestrians to cross the path of a vehicleentering the roundabout. Splitter islands alsoprovide crossing refuge for pedestrians.Locate pedestrian crossings about 20 feetfrom the yield line. This allows pedestrians tocross behind the first motor vehicle trying toenter the roundabout.

Consider providing priority crossings wherepedestrian volumes are high, or where thereare many young, elderly, or disabled citizenswanting to cross or where pedestrian delaysare long. Place these crossings at least 75 feetdownstream of the exit and possibly add apedestrian signal, particularly for largerroundabouts. Placing the pedestrian crossingfurther from the larger roundabouts helps toreduce backup of traffic into the roundaboutwhen traffic is stopped.

Traffic Calming CirclesTraffic calming circles are very effective inreducing vehicle speeds and discouragingnon-local trips through neighborhoods, whichbenefits pedestrians. Traffic calming circlesalso create a condition where vehicles areforced to stop or significantly reduce theirspeed at the intersection, which allows betteropportunities for pedestrians to cross.

A drawback of some traffic calming circledesigns is that vehicles need to swing wide atthe intersection to avoid the center barrierand vehicles may intrude into the pedestriancrossing area if insufficient space is providedfor the turning movement. A minimum of 4.0meters (13 feet) of clearance between thecircle edge and the crossing location isrecommended when designing traffic circles.Another drawback is that some drivers try totake the shortest path through the trafficcalming circle and turn toward the left, ratherthan going all the way around the circle. Thiscreates an unexpected movement for crossingpedestrians.

Raised Intersections

In some cases, raised intersections may be asuitable solution, but this practice is stillconsidered experimental in most areas.Raised intersections create an area thatclearly functions for primary use bypedestrians. Approaching motorists can seethat the intersection is not a location designedfor rapid, through-movement, which causesthem to slow down and yield the right-of-wayto pedestrians. Raised intersections are notappropriate for high-speed thoroughfares andmajor arterials and collectors. Localrequirements may prohibit their use under avariety of circumstances. Raised intersectionsmay be most appropriate in urban centers and

Figure 79

Traffic Calming Circle


Intersectionsuuuuu6

downtowns where traffic is already movingslowly through intersections.

Raised intersections make it easier to meetthe ADA requirements because the crosswalkis a natural extension of the sidewalk, with nochange in grade. Raised intersections requirespecial treatment, such as tactile warningstrips or audible signals, to make themdetectable to the visually-impaired.

Placement of drainage inlets is simplified atraised intersections, because surface waterwill drain away from the center of theintersection.

Special Paving

Special paving techniques are commonly usedto mark crossings at intersections in urbanareas, particularly in special districts.Changes in pavement color and texture raisea motorist’s awareness through increasedvisibility, noise, and vibration (see Figure 80).

Crossings constructed with special pavingshould use nonslip bricks or unit pavers.Scored or stamped colored concrete surfacescan also be used, and are generally moredurable over the long term than unit pavers,with more uniform joints and less chance of

displacement. Special paving surfaces shouldbe installed and maintained in a smooth,level, and clean condition. Care should betaken to ensure that grooves and joints do notimpact accessibility.

Research is ongoing and design professionalsand traffic engineers should investigate thebenefits and disadvantages of the latesttechniques and approaches when seeking toimplement innovative treatments atintersections.


The following sources of information arerecommended for design of intersections.Please see the Resource Guide included at theend of this guidebook for completebibliography information.

Figure 80

Special Paving

Source:

Colored and Textured Paving in a Crosswalk

140

Intersectionsuuuuu6


A Policy on Geometric Design of Highwaysand Streets, 1994, American Association ofState Highway and Transportation Officials

An Analysis of Pedestrian Conflicts with Left-Turning Traffic, Dominique Lord

Flashing Beacons, Association of WashingtonCities and the County Road AdministrationBoard

Curb Ramps for Accessible Pathways, Bureauof Transportation Engineering andDevelopment, Office of Transportation, City ofPortland


Design Manual, Washington StateDepartment of Transportation

Field Studies of Pedestrian Walking Speedand Start-Up Time, Richard L. Knoblauch,Martin T. Pietrucha, and Marsha Nitzburg





Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, AnElement of the Oregon Transportation Plan,Oregon Department of Transportation Bicycleand Pedestrian Program

“Pedestrian Actuated Crosswalk FlashingBeacons,” John W. VanWinkle

Pedestrian Crossing Study, Final Submittal,Pedestrian Traffic Control Measures, ArcticSlope Consulting Group, Inc.

Pedestrian Improvements DemonstrationProject, Kirkland Avenue at Main Street,Kirkland Avenue at Third Street, Lake StreetSouth, Specifications and ContractDocuments, KPG, Inc.

Pedestrian Signal Installation Policy, DavidI. Hamlin and Associates

“Pedestrian Signs at Crosswalks SparkControversy in New Jersey,” The UrbanTransportation Monitor, Volume 10, Number19

PUFFIN and PELICAN Crossings to ReduceDelays, Office of the Minister for Roads andPorts

Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings, NewZealand’s Technical Recommendation, RogerC.M. Dunn


Crossings uuuuu7

Crossings

uuuuuToolkit 7


• Determining the Need for Mid-BlockCrossings

• Mid-Block Crossing Design

• Railroad Crossings

• Grade Separated Crossings

• Multi-Use Trail Intersections and Crossings

• Boardwalks and Trestles


This section discusses the need for anddescribes different types of mid-block crossingtreatments, including marked crosswalks,mid-block actuated signals, median refugeislands, overhead signs, and flashing beacons.Standard practices, as well as some newtechniques being tried around the countryand in Canada are discussed. Other types ofnon-street intersection crossings, such asrailroad crossings, grade-separated crossings,multi-use trail and pathway crossings, andbridges are also addressed. Crossing designtreatments for street intersections arecovered in Toolkit 6 — Intersections.

In all cases, the crossing treatment designapplied to a specific location should be guidedby a traffic engineering study of the existingconditions and intended function of thecrossing.

Mid-block crossing with median refuge island.


Crossingsuuuuu7Determining the Needfor Mid-BlockCrossings

In some urban areas where distances betweenintersections are long, mid-block crossingpoints provide pedestrians opportunities tocross safely. Mid-block crossings can alsoprovide convenience and safety in lessdeveloped areas, where pedestrian activity ishigh (such as between an apartment site anda grocery store; a school and park; or a transitstop and a residential neighborhood). Figure81 illustrates a typical mid-block crossing.

Locations being considered for a mid-blockcrossing needs to be carefully studied. Thefollowing guidance for determining locationsfor mid-block crossing installation is providedby the ITE manual, Design and Safety ofPedestrian Facilities:

• Where significant pedestrian crossings andsubstantial pedestrian/vehicle conflictsexist; (should not be used indiscriminately)

• Where the crossing can serve to concentrateor channelize multiple pedestrian crossingsto a single location

• At approved school crossings or crossings onrecommended safe school walk routes

• Where land uses create high concentrationsof pedestrians needing to cross (such asresidential areas across from retail orrecreation, and transit stops across fromresidential or employment)

• Where pedestrians could not otherwiserecognize the proper place to cross or thereis a need to delineate the optimal location tocross

Figure 81

Typical Mid-Block Crossing


Crossings uuuuu7• Where there is adequate sight distance for

the motorist and pedestrian. Any obstaclesthat would interfere with visibility at thecrossing location (mailboxes, utility poles,street furniture, and landscaping) should beremoved or relocated. On-street parkingshould be set back from the crossing pointfor improved visibility. Refer to Toolkit 6 —Intersections for recommended parking setback distances.

• Installed on the basis of an engineeringstudy if located at other than an existingstop sign or traffic signal

Smith and Knoblauch developed criteriarelating to pedestrian and vehicle volumes fordetermining where marked crossings shouldbe located. Refer to Toolkit 6 — Intersections,which provides a chart illustrating thiscriteria. This chart also takes into accountstreet widths and other factors (such asconcentrations of children, elderly, anddisabled pedestrians).

Mid-block crosswalks should generally beavoided under the following circumstances(unless they are stop controlled):

• Immediately downstream (less than 91meters [300 feet]) from a traffic signal orbus stop where motorists are not expectingpedestrians to cross

• Within 183 meters (600 feet) of anothercrossing point (Knoblauch et. al.), except incentral business districts or other locationswhere there is a well defined need. Therecommended minimum separation in mostcases is 91 meters (300 feet).

• On high speed streets with speed limitsabove 72 kph (45 mph)

Refer to Toolkit 6 — Intersections for designguidelines related to crosswalks, includingsome local agency approaches to crosswalkinstallation.

Mid-Block CrossingDesign

Crossing design treatments are often used incombination with one another at mid-blockcrossings. Standard practices, as well assome more innovative techniques being testedaround the country are described.Determining methods of crossing designtreatments and related traffic control requirescareful consideration and traffic engineeringanalysis of existing conditions on a project byproject basis.

Marked Crosswalks

It is strongly recommended that all mid-blockcrossings be marked with highly visiblecrosswalks, otherwise pedestrians andmotorists may have trouble recognizing thedesignated crossing point. According to theWashington “Rules of the Road” (RCW46.61.240), pedestrians are not allowed tocross at any place except in a markedcrosswalk between adjacent intersectionswhere traffic control signals are in operation.The rules also state that every pedestriancrossing a roadway at any point other thanwithin a marked crosswalk or within anunmarked crosswalk at an intersection shallyield the right of way to all vehicles upon theroadway. These rules confirm that all mid-block crossings should be clearly marked sothat they are easily recognizable topedestrians and motorists.

It should be noted that marked crosswalksare meant to guide pedestrians to cross at thesafest location. They are not safety devices to


Crossingsuuuuu7protect pedestrians from vehicles. Therehave been studies that have shown thatmarked crosswalks may instill a false sense ofsecurity in pedestrians (see discussion inToolkit 6 — Intersections). There are alsoconcerns that when crosswalks are installedindiscriminately or too frequently, they mayeventually become less obvious to motorists.For these reasons, it is important to fullyconsider the need for mid-block crossingsbefore installation. Mid-block crossingsshould always include marked crosswalks, butmid-block crossings should only be locatedwhere a specific need has been determined.

Various crosswalk designs are discussed inToolkit 6 — Intersections. The use of zebra,ladder, or piano bar markings are highlyrecommended over the use of other types ofcrosswalk markings because of their highvisibility. Horizontal bars are not typicallyused at locations other than controlledintersections. Crosswalk markings should beat 90 degrees to the street to designate theshortest path for crossing and minimizepedestrian exposure. In refuge islands,

angling the crossing provides an opportunityfor pedestrians to view oncoming traffic.

Stop lines or bars should be placed in advanceof crosswalks. These are usually 0.3 to 0.6meters (12 to 24 inches) wide solid white linesthat extend across all approaching lanes.They are usually installed at a minimum of1.2 meters (4 feet) in advance of the crosswalkto prevent motorists from encroaching intothe pedestrian crossing space. Somejurisdictions install stop lines further inadvance of crosswalks at mid-block locationsto provide improved visibility and bufferdistance between the motor vehicle and thecrosswalk.

Raised pavement markers placed in rows, areoften used in advance of mid-blockcrosswalks. If used, they need to be placedfar enough in advance of the crosswalk for therumble effect to provide adequate warning tothe motorist. They should be placed incombination with and at the same distance aspedestrian advance warning signs to enhancemotorist awareness. Because raised buttonsand pavement markers can be an hindrance

Figure 82

Mid-Block Crossing of Two-Lane Arterial

Source: Adapted from City of Bellevue Neighborhood Links to Transit Study


Crossings uuuuu7to bicycle travel, they cannot be placedadjacent to the right edge line or within bikelanes. A minimum clearance of 0.6 meters (2feet) is recommended between such markersand any bicycle travel area. Raisedpavement markers are difficult to maintain inareas of snow removal.

A mid-block crossing of a two-lane arterial isillustrated in Figure 82. Various types ofdevices that can be used in conjunction withcrosswalks at mid-block locations arediscussed below.

Mid-Block Pedestrian ActuatedSignals

The MUTCD bases the need for pedestriancrossing traffic control on the number ofadequate gaps or space between the vehiclesin the roadway’s traffic stream. It states thatpedestrians must wait for a gap in traffic thatis of sufficient duration to permit streetcrossings without interference from vehiculartraffic. When the delay between adequategaps or spaces becomes excessive, pedestriansmay become impatient and endangerthemselves by attempting to cross the streetduring inadequate gaps.

When adequate gaps occur less frequentlythan an average of once per minute, someform of traffic control is necessary.Pedestrian actuated signals or gradeseparated facilities should be considered aspossible solutions for roadways with thesecharacteristics.

Pedestrian actuated signals are oftenappropriate for roadways that have hightraffic volumes or speeds, or four or morelanes. Since these signals only operate in thepresence of foot traffic, they do not causeundue delay to vehicles during periods of lowpedestrian volumes.Pedestrian actuated signals should beconsidered in locations where pedestrian walkroutes cross major arterials or other highvolume or high speed facilities. A signalwarrant analysis should be performed tostudy specific conditions and determine if apedestrian actuated signal should beinstalled.

Medians and Refuge Islands

Medians and refuge islands are raisedlongitudinal spaces separating the two maindirections of traffic movement in the street.Refuge islands are shorter than medians,typically up to 6.1 meters (20 feet) long,compared to over 30.5 meters (100 feet) long.Refuge islands are more commonly used atmid-block crossings than medians, but eitherprovides major benefits for pedestrians andmotorists.

Medians and refuge islands reduce crossingdistances for pedestrians and effectively turnone two-way street into two one-way streetsfor pedestrians. Pedestrians only have tocross one direction of traffic at a time and canwait or rest in between. This creates a betteropportunity for pedestrians to find gaps in theflow of traffic before crossing the street.

Pedestrian actuated signals at mid-blockcrossings only operate in the presence of foottraffic. Notice how median path directspedestrians to look at oncoming traffic.


Crossingsuuuuu7Medians and refuge islands are a benefit todrivers when located at mid-block crossings,because they help to better identify theupcoming crossing point. They also provide alocation for a pedestrian crossing sign in themiddle of the street, providing anotheropportunity to warn drivers of the crossing.

Medians or refuge islands are recommendedwhenever crossing distances exceed 18.3meters (60 feet) to provide a waiting andresting area for slower pedestrians. Medians

Figure 83

Source:

Mid-Block Crossing of Five-Lane Arterial With Existing Median

Mid-Block Refuge Island


Crossings uuuuu7and refuge islands also can be designed toblock side street or driveway crossings of themain road and block left-turning movements.Because medians reduce turning movements,they have the ability to increase the flow rateand safety of the roadway.

Refuge islands can be installed with moreflexibility in a variety of locations because

they are shorter. Refuge islands are easilylocated on low volume, low speed roadways,such as 40 to 48 kph (25 to 30 mph) collectorsor subcollectors through neighborhoods.When collectors are longer and handle moretraffic and higher speeds, medians or refugeislands are helpful. On multi-lane minor andmajor arterials, raised medians or refugeislands are essential.

Table 54

• Medians and refuge islands should bea desirable width of 2.4 to 3 meters (8to 10 feet) wide and a minimum widthof 1.8 meters (6 feet) wide to preventwheelchairs propelled by attendants,bicyclists, and people with strollersfrom projecting out into the stream ofmotor vehicle traffic. In some cases,smaller width medians and refugeislands may be acceptable, particularlywhen there is limited space in theright-of-way, depending on localrequirements and existing conditions(check with your local agency).

• In order to obtain appropriate medianwidth, travel lanes can be narrowed to3.3 meters (11 feet), if allowed by localstandards. In locations where vehiclespeeds range from 32 to 48 kph (20 to30 mph), the travel lanes can bereduced further to 3.0 to 2.7 meters(10 or 9 feet), if allowed by localstandards.

• Trees in medians and at the sides ofstreets can help to narrow the longrange field of vision for approachingdrivers, causing them to slow down asthey near the crossing point.Landscaping in median refuge islandsmust be handled carefully. It isessential that landscaping not blockthe sight lines of pedestrians andmotorists at the crossing area.

• Curb ramps or full cut-throughsshould be installed in all medianrefuge islands. Cut-throughsare more common because themedian width is sometimes notlarge enough to accommodateramps that meet the ADArequirements. Cut-throughsshould be designed with a 2percent cross slope to allowwater, silt, and debris to drainfrom the area.

• A pedestrian push button shouldbe placed in the median ofsignalized mid-block crossingswhere the crossing distanceexceeds 18.2 meters (60 feet).

• The use of angled (45 degrees+)refuge areas in the island shouldbe considered (see figures laterin this section). These providethe benefit of directing andencouraging pedestrians to lookin the direction of oncomingtraffic, helping them to be moreaware of approaching vehicles.Pedestrians are also preventedfrom darting directly out intotraffic.

• Medians and refuge islandsshould be illuminated.

Design Guidelines for Medians and Refuge Islands


Crossingsuuuuu7Figure 83 illustrates a mid-block crossingdesign. Table 54 lists several designguidelines for medians and refuge islands.

Raised Mid-Block Crossings

Raised mid-block crossings are sometimesconstructed to provide a well-definedpedestrian crossing as well as traffic calming.This type of crossing is only suitable for lowspeed low volume local streets, since theraised crossing is essentially functioning as aspeed table or hump.

Raised crossings enhance pedestrian safety bycreating a vertical pavement undulation thatforces motorists to slow down whenapproaching. Raised crossings function as anextension of the sidewalk and allowpedestrians to cross at a constant grade,without the need for curb ramps or mediancut-throughs.

Raised crossings should have a 1.8-meter (6-foot) parabolic approach transition, raisingthe vehicle 7.6 to 10.2 centimeters (3 to 4inches) above the nominal pavement grade.The flat section of the crossing table should be3.0 to 3.7 meters (10 to 12 feet) wide.

Raised crossings need to be highly visible,either striped as a mid-block crossing orconstructed of a contrasting pavement design

Raised Mid-Block Crossing

(such as unit pavers and stamped or coloredconcrete). The pavement surface must besmooth and stable, without deep grooves orjoints to provide maximum accessibility (AGuidebook for Residential TrafficManagement).

Raised crossings should be signed withadvance warning signs and pedestriancrossing signs in the same manner as othermid-block crossings. Refer to Toolkit 8 —Traffic Calming for more discussion on trafficcalming techniques.

Flashing Beacons

The use of flashing beacons is controversial,because if they are used indiscriminately,they eventually become “invisible” tomotorists (see more discussion in Toolkit 3 —Children and School Zones). A crosswalk witha flashing beacon provides a relatively lowcost treatment for mid-block pedestriancrossings. These devices are authorized bythe MUTCD, under the sections related tohazard identification beacons. The flashinglight alerts drivers in advance of potentialpedestrians without forcing them to stop,unless there is actually a pedestrian in thecrosswalk. This sort of device can be used onroadways with higher vehicular volumeswithout causing any undue delay to drivers.

Flashing beacons are most effective if theyare operating only during times when there isa clear need to alert the motorist, like whenpedestrians are actually present (rather thanconstantly flashing all the time). Somecommunities around the country areexperimenting with different types ofpedestrian actuated flashing beacons.

In California and some east coast states,flashing lights are being installed at grade toidentify crosswalks to motorists at night. A


Crossings uuuuu7

few jurisdictions around the county areexperimenting with strobe lights imbedded inthe pavement. The flashing lights onlyoperate when a pedestrian is crossing. Thelights are designed and installed at a level sothat they can be an effective warning, withoutimpairing nighttime vision.

A pedestrian-actuated flashing beacon hasbeen used successfully for a number of yearsin Chattanooga, Tennessee (ITE Journal,January 1997). The typical design consists ofoverhead signs with the message “Yield toPedestrians — 25 MPH When Flashing” withdual 20-centimeter (8-inch) beacons mountedapproximately 91 meters (300 feet) in advanceof the crosswalk in both directions. Pushbuttons are mounted on pedestal poles onboth sides of the crosswalk, along withauxiliary flashers that confirm to thepedestrian that the overhead beacons havebeen activated. Signs are also postedinstructing the pedestrian in the use of theflashers. Once activated, the beacons arecontrolled by a timer housed in the flashercabinet. For more information, contact theChattanooga City Traffic Engineer at (423)757-5005.

Overhead Flashing Beacon

Figure 84

W11-2 W11A-2

Advance Warning Signs andPedestrian Crossing Signs (Sideor Overhead)

Advance Pedestrian Crossing signs shouldalways be installed in advance of mid-blockcrossings (MUTCD Sign W11-2; see Figure84). Placement of advance warning signsdepends on the speed of motor vehicle traveland other conditions, such as available sightdistance. Refer to the MUTCD for signplacement criteria.

Advance Pedestrian Crossing signs should notbe mounted with another warning sign(except for a supplemental distance sign orand advisory speed plate) or regulatory sign(except for NO PARKING signs) to avoidinformation overload and allow for animproved driver response.

The Pedestrian Crossing sign (MUTCD SignW11A-2; see Figure 84) is similar to theAdvance Pedestrian Crossing sign, but hasthe crosswalk lines shown on it. This signshould be used only at the crosswalk locationand not in advance of it. This sign is nowcommonly being placed overhead of thecrossing on a steel pole and mast arm. Insome situations the sign is equipped withinternal lighting for increased visibility atnight.

Crossing Signs



Crossingsuuuuu7

Soft Sandwich

This technique is being used in New Jerseyand involves the use of heavy plastic“sandwich board” signs cautioning motoriststo yield to pedestrians. These signs aretypically placed in the center of the roadway(see Figure 85). Earlier “hard” versions ofthese signs were banned by the New JerseyDOT because they could become projectileobjects when hit by a vehicle. Some towns arenow testing flexible or “soft” versions of thesesigns that will not injure pedestrians or carswhen hit. Contact the New Jersey DOT formore information.

PUFFIN and PELICAN Crossings

Victoria, British Columbia is experimentingwith signalization techniques that help toreduce delays for motorists and pedestrians atpedestrian crossings. PUFFIN (PedestrianUser Friendly INtelligent) signals involve theuse of special microwave detectors that sensethe presence of pedestrians in the crossingand prevent the light from changing until all

pedestrians have cleared the roadway.PUFFIN crossings can help at locations wherethere is high usage by slow movingpedestrians (hospitals, schools, andretirement homes).

PELICAN (PEdestrian LIght CONtrolled)signals are different from usual pedestrianoperated signals in that motorists will face ayellow flashing light sequence in the changeover from red to green that allows drivers toproceed if there are no pedestrians in thecrossing. For more information on thesetechniques, contact Nick Mahaer, Office of theMinister for Roads and Ports, Victoria, B.C.

Portable Pedestrian Flags

The City of Kirkland has been experimentingwith portable orange flags at intersectionsand mid-block crossings. The flags are beingused by some people (but not by everyone)and have been viewed as an effective measureto increase driver awareness of upcomingcrossing activity. People who are using themsay they feel more comfortable crossing whileholding the flags. The City has experiencedsome loss of flags to vandals, but overallreports that the program has been successful(see Figure 86).

Other Design Considerations

It is usually necessary to supplement theexisting street lighting system with additionallighting at new mid-block crossing locations.It is extremely important that these crossinglocations be well-illuminated, so they areclearly visible to motorists driving at night.

Fences, barriers, signs, or sidewalk ramps canbe used at mid-block crossings and refugeislands to channelize pedestrians to thecrossing. Trees and landscaping can also beused to enhance and identify the crossing

Figure 85

Soft Sandwich

Source: Adaptable Barricade Clifton and Cone System,New Jersey


Crossings uuuuu7

area, but care must be taken to ensure thatthese do not obstruct visibility at the crossingin any way.

See Toolkit Section 6 — Intersections forrecommended setback distances for on-streetparking.

Railroad Crossings

Crossing Design Options

At-grade railroad crossings can be difficult forpedestrians to negotiate. They differ fromroadway crossings in that when a train

Figure 86

Portable Pedestrian Flags

reaches a crossing it always has the right-of-way and cannot stop to avoid a pedestrian.There are three types of railroad crossingdesigns: those with crossbuck signs, thosewith crossbucks and flashing light signals,and those featuring automatic gates inaddition to the crossbucks and flashing lights.

Pedestrian safety improvement options arelimited at these locations, since stopping thetrain is not a viable option. The only recourseto improving conditions for pedestrians is toimprove the method of stopping pedestriansor to grade separate pedestrians from thetracks. If the crossing is heavily used bypedestrians on a daily basis (located on aschool walk route, or near pedestrian origins

Railroad crossings are different than roadcrossing in that trains always have the right-of-way.

Railing is used to channelize pedestrians so theycan view oncoming traffic.


Crossingsuuuuu7Grade SeparatedCrossings

Determining the Need for GradeSeparated Crossings

Grade separated pedestrian crossings areinstalled when it is necessary to physicallyseparate the crossing of a heavy volume ofpedestrians from a roadway with heavy motorvehicle traffic (including freeways andexpressways). Grade separation is also usedat some railroad crossings and watercrossings.

The effectiveness of grade separated crossingsdepends on their perceived ease ofaccessibility by pedestrians. An overpass orunderpass will not necessarily be used simplybecause it improves safety. Because of thehigh cost of grade-separated facilities, theyshould be incorporated into the early stages ofnew developments that are intended togenerate substantial volumes of pedestrians.According to a study by Zegeer and Zegeer,state and local agencies consider grade-separated crossings to be most beneficialunder the following conditions:

• Moderate to high pedestrian demand tocross a freeway or expressway

• Large number of young children(particularly near schools) who mustregularly cross a high-speed or high-volumeroadway

• Streets with high vehicle and pedestriancrossing volumes where there is an extremehazard for pedestrians (for example, widestreets with high speed traffic and poorsight distance)

and destinations), it is recommended that itbe designed to include the crossbuck sign,flashing light signals, and automatic gates. Awarrant analysis should be completed todetermine if grade separation is a suitablesolution. Another lower cost solution forcrossings located on school walk routes is toassign a crossing guard to that location.

Surface Smoothness

The smoothness of the surface is an importantconsideration, especially when providingcrossings that are part of an accessible routeof travel. Concrete used at the crossing areaprovides smoothness and performs best underwet conditions. Rubberized material canprovide a durable, smooth crossing, but canbecome slippery when wet. If asphaltpavement is used, it must be regularlymaintained to prevent ridge buildup next tothe rail lines. Timber crossings wear downrapidly and are slippery when wet. The ADArequires smooth surfaces and a maximum lifttolerance between surfaces or at pavementjoints of 1.3 centimeters (0.5 inches).

Signing and Marking

It is desirable for stencils and signs to beplaced prior to railroad crossings to warnoncoming pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorvehicles, particularly at locations with heavypedestrian activity.

Angle of Crossing

Since trains may be coming in eitherdirection, the optimum condition is forpedestrians to cross at a 90 degree angle tothe rail line.


Crossings uuuuu7• Where one of the above conditions exists in

conjunction with a well-defined pedestrianorigin and destination (residentialneighborhood across a busy street from aschool, a parking structure affiliated with auniversity, or an apartment complex near ashopping mall)

Refer to the ITE manual Design and Safety ofPedestrian Facilities, the WSDOT DesignManual (Section 1020 Facilities forNonmotorized Transportation), and theMUTCD for more specific information andwarrants to determine the need for gradeseparated crossings.

Overpasses and Bridges

Overpasses and bridges should be easy andconvenient for pedestrians to access. If agrade separated crossing would be lessconvenient than the at-grade condition, somepedestrians may try to cross at grade, whichis not desirable when the purpose of thecrossing is to increase safety. Pedestrianbridges can vary in their structure and maybe constructed of cast-in-place concrete,prestressed concrete, steel, or wood. Choosingthe appropriate type of structure requiresknowledge of the conditions at the proposedlocation. Consideration should be given tocost, constructability, maintenance,aesthetics, and physical site constraints.

Structure SelectionThe type of structure will depend on the spanlength of the bridge as well as the availabledepth for the superstructure. The depth isusually controlled by the deflection ofsuperstructure due to live load. Sincepedestrians will be sensitive to movements ofthe bridge, a maximum deflection of spanlength divided by 1,000 should be used.Based on this deflection, the required depthfor any given span length can be determined.

Cast-in-place concrete generally has thelongest life and the least future maintenance,but it is difficult to construct over an existingroadway that requires continuous traffic flow.Steel usually has a smaller depth to spanratio, but is more costly than concrete. Woodis used for bridges in rural or forested areas,but requires considerable maintenance.Prestressed concrete slabs and girders arereadily available and easy to install for shortto medium spans.

For example, a steel or wood structure wouldcreate less dead load to a foundation than aconcrete structure.

AestheticsThe type of structure chosen shouldcomplement the site where it will be located.Different materials are more appropriate indifferent settings. For instance, a timbertruss would fit a rural setting, whereas a steeltruss would fit an industrial setting. Whendesigning the structure, detail structuralelements to blend with the environment.Taper girder haunches or arch superstructureto create a structures that are aestheticallyappealing.

Design LoadAASHTO and WSDOT require a design liveload of 38.6 kilograms per square foot (85

Pedestrian Bridge Over Sammamish River


Crossingsuuuuu7pounds per square foot). Some local buildingcodes require a design live load of 45.4kilograms per square foot (100 pounds persquare foot). Other loads, such as seismic,stream flow, and wind loads should also beconsidered in accordance with applicablecodes. If the structure is to provide access foremergency or maintenance vehicles, theappropriate design loads should be used.

GeometryWith accessibility requirements resulting inramped accessible bridges, all bridges must beassumed to provide service to bothpedestrians and bicyclists. As a result, arailing to railing width of 3.7 meters (12 feet)is preferable. If a bridge is to accommodateemergency or maintenance vehicles, a 3.7-meter (12-foot) width is mandatory.

Bridges built over roadways must maintain5.3 meters (17.5 feet) of clearance under thestructure. Since pedestrian bridges arelighter than vehicular bridges and wouldsustain greater damages from vehicle impact,it is good practice to provide 5.5 to 6.7 meters(18 to 22 feet) of clearance to prevent damage.Clearance over railroad tracks is controlled bythe railroad company but is generally at least7.0 meters (23 feet). Bridges built overwaterways must maintain a minimumclearance above the 100-year flood level

(check local guidelines for clearance). Bridgesover navigable waters must satisfyrequirements of the Coast Guard. Figure 87illustrates typical geometry of overheadcrossings.

Approaches to bridges should consist of rampsthat meet ramp accessibility standardsdiscussed in Toolkit 2 — Accessibility. Iframps are not feasible or would provide adeterrent to using the bridge due to longlength, elevators should be installed toprovide users access to the bridge.

SafetyFor information on protective screening referto WSDOT/AASHTO. For bridges nearschools, overhead fencing is recommended.Railings 1.4 meters (4.5 feet) in height arerequired on both sides of the bridge. Refer tothe WSDOT Design Manual (Section 1020Facilities for Nonmotorized Transportation)for design guidelines related to railings onbridges.

Skywalks and Skyways

Skywalks or skyways are fully enclosedwalkways between buildings at mid-block.They allow pedestrians to pass betweenbuildings without going to street level orbeing exposed to weather. Design of skywalksAbove Grade Crossing in Seattle

Ramp Leading to Overhead Crossing in


Crossings uuuuu7will largely be determined by the buildingsinto which they are built and thus are notdiscussed in detail in this guidebook.Skywalks can function successfully, especiallyin areas where inclement weather is common.One note of caution related to the use ofskywalks: some communities haveexperienced a loss of pedestrian activity atthe street level, negatively impacting theretail businesses and economic vitality of thearea. When skywalks are being considered,ways to ensure that street level retail will stillbe fully accessible and inviting to pedestriansneed to be identified.

Underpasses and Tunnels

Figure 87

Typical Geometries of Overhead Crossings

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan

Skywalk in Spokane


Crossingsuuuuu7Tunnels and underpasses provide a walkwayfor pedestrians underneath the roadway.Pedestrians are often more apt to useoverpasses than underpasses or tunnels, andoverpasses are easier to supervise andmaintain. Tunnels are less desirable thanbridges due to greater potential costs and thepossibility of drainage problems causingincreased maintenance. Before choosing toinstall a tunnel, soil exploration is required todetermine whether a tunnel is constructibleand whether drainage will be a problem.

Tunnels can be designed to let more naturallight in and with wide openings to be moreinviting to pedestrians. To encouragemaximum pedestrian use, tunnels should beeasy to access and should be as short aspossible.

GeometryWhen designing tunnels for pedestrians, thealignment with approaching walkways mustprovide the pedestrians with a clear view ofthe end of the tunnel. One way to accomplishthis is to raise the roadway about halfway to

reduce the change in elevation for the tunnel.Tunnels and underpasses created by avehicular overcrossing must have anoverhead clearance of at least 3.0 meters (10feet) and be at least 3.7 meters (12 feet) wideto accommodate bicycle travel. Figure 88illustrates a typical tunnel design, with wideopenings at either end that serve to let morelight into the tunnel and make it feel lessimposing on pedestrians and Figure 89illustrates typical geometries of underpasses.

SafetyTunnels must be well lit throughout. Poorlyilluminated tunnels will discouragepedestrian use. The ITE manual, Design andSafety of Pedestrian Facilities, recommendsplacing tunnels near places of high activitysuch as entertainment complexes or otheractivity centers. This helps to discouragecrime in and around the tunnel.

Multi-Use TrailIntersections andCrossings

Treat trail crossings the same as a roadwayintersection. There should be adequate sightdistance, traffic control (as warranted),medians or refuge islands, pavementmarkings, signing, lighting, access control,and other devices to ensure the safest possiblecondition for trail users and motorists. Curbcuts should be provided, as well as mediancut-throughs if necessary, to facilitatebicycles, wheelchairs, and strollers.Information related to multi-use pathwayintersections with roads is provided in Toolkit4 — Trails and Pathways. A verycomprehensive source of information on trailintersection design is Trail IntersectionDesign Guidelines, by the North CarolinaHighway Safety Research Center, prepared

Figure 88

Tunnel


Crossings uuuuu7

Figure 89

Typical Geometries of Underpasses

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan

The basic design, geometry, and safetycriteria for boardwalks and trestles are thesame as bridges. A few more specificconsiderations are summarized below.

Boardwalks and trestles are surfaced withwood decking, which can be an accessiblesurface, if the spaces between the decking donot exceed 0.6 to 1.3 centimeters (0.25 to 0.5inches) and the deck boards are attachedevenly, with no boards, screws, or nailsprotruding from the surface.

When there is a drop off the edge of theboardwalks of less than 0.8 meters (2.5 feet),an edge (wood or other material) needs to beprovided to keep wheelchairs and strollersdirected onto the decking surface. For gradedrops of more than 0.8 meters (2.5 feet), a full

for the Florida Department of Transportationin June 1996.

Boardwalks andTrestles

Boardwalks and trestles are simply smallbridges consisting of multiple small spans.Boardwalks are usually only a few feet abovegrade. They provide a walkway that is justabove the ground to allow pedestrians accessacross sensitive and previously inaccessibleareas, such as wetlands and streams in parks.Boardwalks and trestles are attractive innatural settings because they are typicallyconstructed of wood.


Crossingsuuuuu7

railing needs to be provided (see Toolkit 4 —Trails and Pathways and Toolkit 5 —Sidewalks and Walkways for railing designrecommendations).

A good resource for information about designof boardwalks and trestles is Time-SaverStandards for Landscape Architecture.


The following sources of information arerecommended for design of crossings. Pleasesee the Resource Guide included at the end ofthis guidebook for complete bibliographyinformation.

A Guidebook for Residential TrafficManagement, Final Report, Washington StateDepartment of TransportationA Guidebook for Student Pedestrian Safety,Final Report, KJS Associates Inc.

A Policy on Geometric Design of Highwaysand Streets, 1994, American Association ofState Highway and Transportation Officials

An Analysis of Pedestrian Conflicts with Left-Turning Traffic, Dominique Lord


“A Toolbox Approach to Residential TrafficManagement,” Joseph Savage and R. DavidMacDonald

Bellevue Transit Neighborhood Links Project,Otak, Inc.

“Boulder Brings Back the NeighborhoodStreet,” John Fernandez


Design Manual, Washington StateDepartment of Transportation





NE 124th Street Sidewalk, 100th Avenue NEand 108th Avenue NE Median Islands,Specifications and Contract Documents, KPG,Inc.

Wood Trestle With Edge


Crossings uuuuu7Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, AnElement of the Oregon Transportation Plan,Oregon Department of Transportation Bicycleand Pedestrian Program

“Pedestrian Actuated Crosswalk FlashingBeacons,” John W. VanWinkle

Pedestrian Crossing Study, Final Submittal,Pedestrian Traffic Control Measures, ArcticSlope Consulting Group, Inc.

“Pedestrian Signs at Crosswalks SparkControversy in New Jersey,” The UrbanTransportation Monitor

Proposed Warrants for South African Mid-Block Pedestrian Crossings, H. Ribbens, G.Brafman Bahar

PUFFIN and PELICAN Crossings to ReduceDelays, Office of the Minister for Roads andPorts

Streetscape Manual, City of Toronto

Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings, NewZealand’s Technical Recommendation, RogerC.M. Dunn


Traffic Calming uuuuu8

Traffic Calming

uuuuuToolkit 8


• Why Is Traffic Calming Used?

• Residential Traffic Management

• Traffic Calming and Management Methods


Traffic calming uses various techniques toreduce vehicle speeds, vehicle noise, visualimpacts, and through traffic volumes. Trafficcalming techniques use various means toinfluence the behavior of motorists: physical,psychological, visual, social, and legal(regulatory and enforcement).

Even though traffic calming is not specificallya “pedestrian facility,” it relates topedestrians by improving their environment.There are many good resources that provideinformation about the effectiveness anddesign approaches related to traffic calmingmethods. This toolkit provides an overview ofsome of the more common types of trafficcalming methods used. Please refer to the listof sources at the end of this section to obtainmore specific information related to designand application of these techniques.

Traffic Circle in Residential Neighborhood


Traffic Calminguuuuu8Why is TrafficCalming Used?

In the last decade, collisions between motorvehicles and pedestrians or bicyclists were thesecond leading cause of accidental deaths inWashington State for children between 5 and14 years old. Studies show that most youngpedestrians (under 15) killed or injured werecrossing the road mid-block; lower collisionlevels occurred at intersections. Mostpedestrian collisions occur from 3:00 to 6:00pm, when children are most likely to bewalking home from school, or out in theneighborhood, and also the time when mostvehicles are on the road.

In the United States, the need for reducedspeeds in residential areas is echoed in ITE’sHandbook on Residential Street Design,published in 1989:

“...research has shown that pedestriansare not usually seriously injured whenhit by a car moving at a speed of lessthan 20 miles per hour (30km/h) at thetime of impact. If impact speeds arebetween 20 and 35 mph (30 and 55 km/h), injuries are usually serious, while atspeeds above 35 mph (55 km/h) theyusually endanger life and are fatal.”

Statistics provide important insight into theneed to improve traffic conditions to increasepedestrian safety. Along with this increasingneed, a trend for more livable and sustainablecommunities has been gaining momentumover the past several years. People aredemanding that their neighborhoods becomeless oriented toward automobiles and moreoriented toward walking, bicycling, andaccess to transit.

Residential TrafficManagement

Traffic calming programs seek to reducetraffic speeds and volumes on neighborhoodstreets to make them safer for pedestrians,bicyclists, and residents with special regardfor children.

Although traffic management and calmingtechniques are often used in areas other thanresidential neighborhoods, most programs arefocused in residential areas, where trafficproblems are more prevalent and have themost influence on the day to day livability ofthe community. There are also moreopportunities for traffic managementapproaches to be successful in residentialareas, where they are typically applied on awider basis. A wider range of techniques isgenerally more acceptable in residential areaswhere streets provide local access and do notfunction as major conveyors of commutingtraffic or as primary emergency routes.

When traffic calming techniques are appliedto identified target neighborhoods anddistricts, rather than in isolated locations, thebehavior of motorists tends to be moresignificantly influenced and the trafficproblems of the area are more noticeablyimproved. Isolated applications can beproblematic because they may divert traffic toother areas in the neighborhood rather thanmanaging it on an area wide basis.Residential traffic management programsseek to make residential streets safer andreduce traffic intrusion by reducing trafficspeeds and to a lesser extent, traffic volumes.Figure 90 illustrates a typical urbanneighborhood and its traffic related problems,and how these can be resolved through theuse of various traffic management tools.



Figure 90

Sources: Adapted from State of the Art Report: Residential Traffic Management, Federal Highway Administration; AGuidebook for Residential Traffic Management, WSDOT; and Traffic Calming, Hoyle

Traffic Management Approach — Solving the Problems

Traffic Calming andManagementMethods

A Guidebook for Residential TrafficManagement (KJS Associates, Inc.), publishedby WSDOT, identified references to morethan 80 individual traffic control devices ormeasures that have been used for residentialtraffic management. These devices rangedfrom traffic circles and speed humps tovariable spaced transverse pavement markersand odd speed limit signs (for example, “16”

mph). The reported levels of success andapplication feasibility of these devices variedgreatly as well. Table 55 illustrates commonactions of residential traffic managementprograms.

Table 56 illustrates some of the more commontypes of traffic calming methods currentlyused. Each of the techniques illustrated anddescribed can be effective in managing trafficand creating improved conditions forpedestrians. These techniques have shownsuccessful results in slowing traffic andreducing collisions on residential streets.


Traffic Calminguuuuu8

Table 56

Reducing

Traffic volumes

Vehicle noise

Visual impacts

Traffic speeds

Collisions/speeding

By What Means

Physical

Psychological

Visual

Social; physical

Legal; physical

Examples

Traffic circles, traffic diverters

Variable-spaced paint stripes

Landscaping to block through views

Neighborhood “Speed Watch” program; speedhumps/tables

Strict speed enforcement; spot safetyimprovements

Common Residential Traffic Management Program Actions

Table 55

Source: Adapted from A Guidebook for Residence Traffic Management

Common Types of Traffic Calming Methods

Drawing Technique

Traffic Circles

Chicanes

Curb Bulb-Outs,Chokers/Neckdowns

Description

Circular raised islands centered withinintersections. Circles can be landscaped orsurfaced with special paving. Landscaping can bemaintained by the local jurisdiction or byneighborhood volunteers.

Alternately placed curb extensions into the streetthat force motorists to drive in a serpentinepattern. Chicanes are offset from each other inmid-block locations and can be used to keepthrough-trucks versus local delivery offresidential streets.

Curb extensions placed at mid-block locations orintersections which narrow the street to providevisual distinction and reduce pedestrian crossingdistances. Bulb-outs help to provide a clearvisual signal to drivers that a crossing isapproaching and makes waiting pedestriansmore visible. Neckdowns are often longer thanbulb-outs and often line up with and help todefine parallel street parking areas. They narrowthe appearance of the street and can beattractive, especially when landscaped.




Common Types of Traffic Calming Methods(Continued)

Technique

DiagonalDiverters

Forced Turnsand PartialDiverters

Cul-de-sac/StreetClosures

One-Way Entryand Exit

Narrower Streets

Speed Humps/Tables

Drawing Description

Eliminates through traffic while providingpartial access in opposite directions; island canbecome amenity and provide refuge forpedestrians.

Truncated diagonal diverters (one end remainsopen) and other types of partial divertersdiscourage commuter traffic by forcing turns,but provides local access opportunities

Street is closed and turned into a cul-de-sac;end of street becomes a neighborhood amenityand focal point (landscaped mini park); theongoing provision of pedestrian and bicycleaccess is important.

Curb bulbs/extensions are used to close onelane of traffic at intersections; stops throughtraffic but allows ingress or egress dependingon the direction and location of the closure.

Narrower streets limit the expanse ofpavement visible to the driver and can beeffective in slowing traffic, especially whenlined with trees or on-street parking.

A speed hump is wider and smoother than aspeed bump, and effective in slowing cars asthey approach pedestrian zones. These aremost appropriately used on neighborhoodstreets.




Common Types of Traffic Calming Methods(Continued)

Technique

Signs andNeighborhoodGateways

Special Paving

Speed WatchPrograms

Drawing Description

Signs such as “Residential Street,” “LocalAccess Only”, or monuments that identifyneighborhood districts can be effective,especially when used conjunction with othertechniques, including those listed above andothers, such as pavement markings andtextured warning strips.

Alternative road surfaces, such as brick, coloredconcrete or special pavers, can be used atcrossings, intersections, or along the sides ofthe street to break up the visual expanse ofpavement and define areas of pedestrian travel.

Citizens and organizations can utilize a radardevice and electronic sign board to measurespeeds of passing vehicles in theirneighborhoods. Letters of warning can be sentto the registered owners of offending vehicles.These programs promote neighborhood

to 20 feet) are used to control speeds at theintersection of two local streets. Thesesmaller to intermediate circles are commonlyused for neighborhood traffic calming on localstreets.

Traffic calming circles are very effective inreducing vehicle speeds and discouragingnon-local trips through neighborhoods, whichbenefits pedestrians. Traffic calming circlescreate a condition where vehicles are forced tostop or significantly reduce their speed at theintersection, which allows betteropportunities for pedestrians to cross.

A drawback of some traffic calming circledesigns is that vehicles need to swing wide atthe intersection to avoid the center barrierand vehicles may intrude into the pedestrian

For additional information related to thedifferent types of traffic calming techniques,refer to the sources listed at the end of thissection. Included on this list is A Guidebookfor Residential Traffic Management, availablefrom WSDOT, which provides comprehensiveinformation about traffic managementtechniques in practices throughout the worldtoday.

Traffic Calming Circles

As discussed in Toolkit 6 — Intersections,there are many types of traffic circles. Largertraffic circles, such as rotaries androundabouts, function primarily to improvetraffic flow through the intersection. Smallerto intermediate circles, 3.0 to 6.1 meters (10


Traffic Calming uuuuu8crossing area if insufficient space is providedfor the turning movement. A minimum of 4.0meters (13 feet) of clearance between thecircle edge and the crossing location isrecommended when designing traffic circles.

Another drawback is that some drivers try totake the shortest path through the trafficcalming circle and turn toward the left, ratherthan going all the way around the circle. Thiscreates an unexpected movement to crossingpedestrians. For this reason it is best not tolocate traffic circles at intersections wherethere are a high volume of left-turningmovements.

Traffic circles are often landscaped andprovide a nice amenity to the neighborhood.Sometimes local residents take on theresponsibility of maintaining the circle and itbecomes a neighborhood “p-patch.” Caremust be taken to select landscaping that willnot block views between motorists andpedestrians crossing on opposite legs of theintersection. Upward high branching treesare suggested, along with shrubs (as well asannuals and perennials) that do not exceed aheight of 0.6 to 0.9 meters (2 to 3 feet).

Mountable curbs at the perimeter of thetraffic circle are recommended to provide theability for large vehicles, including emergencyvehicles, to drive over the edge of the circle ifthey are having trouble making the turnaround the island.

Figure 91 illustrates a variation of trafficcircles and it is based on the traffic circledesign successfully used throughout Seattleneighborhoods. For more information ontraffic circle and roundabout design, refer tothe list of resources at the end of this toolkitsection.

Figure 91

Source: Adapted from the City of Seattle standarddesign for traffic circles.

Recommended Traffic CalmingCircle Design

Narrow Streets

Narrowed streets that are either physicallynarrower or that create the perception thatthey are narrower are effective methods forcalming traffic. Reduced street widths inresidential and suburban areas are morecommonly allowed by local jurisdictions.Narrow streets not only provide the benefit oftraffic calming, but also help to create a moreattractive and pedestrian friendly character


Traffic Calminguuuuu8along the street. Narrow streets also reduceconstruction and maintenance costs.

Street trees lined on either side of the streetnarrow the driver's field of vision. When thedriver's field of vision is narrowed, theautomatic reaction is to slow down. On-streetparking, separated walkways with plantingstrips, and bike lanes also narrow the look ofa street. The use of contrasting pavement ortexture in the bike lane or as a dividing stripat the edge of the road can further help tomake the roadway appear narrower. Figure92 illustrates an example of how a street linedwith trees and bike lanes looks narrower thanone identical in width without these elements.

Medians and Refuge Islands

The benefits medians and refuge islandsprovide for pedestrians and recommendeddesign guidelines are discussed in Toolkit 6— Intersections and Toolkit 7 — Crossings.Medians and refuge islands provide trafficcalming because they help to narrow the fieldof vision of the approaching motorist,especially when they contain trees andlandscaping (low growing shrubs orgroundcover).

Chicanes

Chicanes are curb extensions or otherfeatures (such as landscape islands and on-street parking) that alternate from one side ofthe street to the other, where either one laneof traffic is fully closed at “pinch points”where one car has to wait for another to passbefore proceeding, or partially closed andenough roadway width remains for two carsto pass. A study of the use of chicanes inSeattle in 1988 showed varying decreases intraffic volumes ranging from 6 percent to 48percent on higher volume streets (SeattleTransportation Division, Traffic Calming,Hoyle). The study also found a significantreduction in vehicle speeds and concludedthat speeds on neighboring streets continuedto increase without chicanes.

Chicanes provide the advantage of notblocking emergency vehicle access andallowing local access opportunities. Driversare more likely to violate chicanes, especiallyat intersections with low traffic volumes.Chicanes should be made visible with signs,painted curbs, landscaping, reflectors, andstreet lights. Figure 93 illustrates anexample of chicanes used along aneighborhood street. On-street parking isnot permitted at the ends of the street.

Figure 92 Figure 93

Source: Traffic Calming, Hoyle

Chicanes

Narrowed Street(Before)

(After)


Traffic Calming uuuuu8Curb Extensions and Bulb-Outs

Curb extensions and bulb-outs can bedesigned in a variety of ways. When placed atintersections and mid-block crossings, theyprovide the advantage of reducing thecrossing width for pedestrians. Curbextensions are often used in conjunction withlandscape treatments to enhance the streetand buffer adjacent parking. They also helpto more clearly identify mid-block crossinglocations to both pedestrians and motorists.

In some cases, a curb extension or “choker” isused at intersections to create a one-wayentry or exit point for that specific streetsegment. Autos are allowed to exit the street,but entrance occurs at side streets.Pedestrians and bicyclists are allowed totravel in both directions.

Figure 94 illustrates typical curb extensionand bulb-out designs.

Diverters and Street Closures

Diagonal diverters close roads and eliminatethrough traffic, while providing access to thesurrounding neighborhood. The diverterisland provides an area for landscaping andaesthetic enhancement. The island alsoprovides a crossing refuge area forpedestrians.

Full street closures eliminate all throughtraffic, improving the safety of the street bysignificantly reducing traffic volumes andspeeds near the closure.

A disadvantage of full street closures anddiagonal diverters is that they cut offemergency vehicle access unless anotherroute can be provided. They also limit accessopportunities for the affected residents.Through-traffic may transfer to other local

streets in the area if not managed. Anotherconcern is that the closure of streets maycontradict other transportation and land useplanning goals that encourage an open gridsystem of streets.

Partial street closures reduce through-trafficin one direction and partially in the other.Traffic is diverted, while allowing foremergency vehicle and local resident access.

When streets are either fully or partiallyclosed, it is always important to continue toprovide pedestrian and bicycle access throughthe closed area.

Raised Intersections

Raised (or tabled) intersections provide theadvantage of slowing vehicles at one of themost critical locations for pedestrian crossingactivity. Raised intersections are often pavedwith contrasting material (stamped, scored, orcolored concrete or unit pavers) to the

Figure 94


8.7m (29')

17.4m (58')


Traffic Calminguuuuu8roadway and stand out visually toapproaching motorists. The use of specialpaving also helps to delineate the pedestriancrossing area.

Raised intersections create an area clearlydesignated for pedestrians. Approachingmotorists can see that the intersection is not alocation designed for rapid, through-movement, which causes them to slow downand yield the right-of-way to pedestrians.Raised intersections are not appropriate forhigh speed thoroughfares and major arterialsand collectors. Local requirements mayprohibit their use under a variety ofcircumstances.

Raised intersections make it easier to meetthe ADA requirements because the crosswalkis a natural extension of the sidewalk, with nochange in grade. Raised intersections requirespecial treatment, such as tactile warningstrips or audible signals, to make themdetectable to the visually-impaired.

Placement of drainage inlets is simplified atraised intersections, because surface waterwill drain away from the center of theintersection.

Changes in pavement color and texture at theintersection raise a motorist’s awarenessthrough increased visibility, noise, andvibration. Crossings constructed with specialpaving should use nonslip bricks or unitpavers. Scored or stamped and coloredconcrete surfaces can also be used, and aregenerally more durable over the long termthan unit pavers, with more uniform jointsand less chance of displacement. Specialpaving surfaces should be installed andmaintained in a smooth, level, and cleancondition. Care should be taken to ensurethat grooves and joints are not so deep as toimpact accessibility.

Speed Humps (Not Speed Bumps)

Speed humps are raised areas in the roadwaythat do not function as crossing areas, butthat are designed similarly to raisedcrosswalks and speed tables. Speed humpsare typically located on local or neighborhoodcollector streets with daily vehicle volumesgreater than 300 vehicles per day but lessthan 3,000 vehicles per day. Well designedspeed humps allow vehicles to proceed overthe hump at the intended speed, usually 24kph (15 mph) with minimal discomfort, butdriving over the hump at higher speeds willrock the vehicle.

Speed humps are not speed bumps, which aresmaller raised areas 0.3 to 0.9 meters (1 to 3feet) wide. Speed bumps are not suitable forpublic roads. Speed humps are marked onthe street as “Speed Bumps,” by mostjurisdictions because the term “bump” is morewidely understood than “hump.”

Many designs have been developed for speedhumps. The Institute of TransportationEngineers (ITE) has recommended a parabolicspeed hump that is based on a profiledeveloped by the Transport and RoadResearch Laboratory in Great Britain. Thisdesign is illustrated in Figure 95 , andprovides for vehicle speeds of 24 kph (15 mph)at the hump and 32 to 40 kph (20 to 25 mph)between properly spaced humps.

There are generally no accepted standards forsigning and marking speed humps. It isdesirable to install advance warning signs30.5 meters (100 feet) in advance of speedhumps. The City of Bellevue speed humpdesign, as well as signing and markingrecommendations, are illustrated in Figure96.



Figure 96

Sources: A Guidebook for Residential Traffic Management, WSDOT, and the City of Bellevue

City of Bellevue Speed Hump Design

Figure 95

Sources: A Guidebook for Residential Traffic Management, WSDOT, and the City of Bellevue

Parabolic Speed Hump



Raised Crosswalks/Speed Tables

Raised crosswalks are speed humps that aremarked as designated crossings. They may bewider than typical speed hump designs.Raised crosswalks or speed tables areappropriate at mid-block locations on localstreets, some subcollectors and collectorroads, and in other locations like at airportdrop-off and pickup zones, shopping centers,and campuses. Raised crosswalks aretypically marked with high visibilitycrosswalk designs or may be surfaced withspecial paving (see Raised Intersections).Figure 97 illustrates a typical raisedcrosswalk.

Gateways

Gateway treatments generally encompass awide variety of techniques that provideneighborhood identification, such as signs,monuments, landscaping, special paving,narrowed entrances, and other elements.These enhancements help to provide anindication to motorists that they are enteringa neighborhood area from an arterial road orother type of street where traffic was movingat higher speeds.


The following sources of information arerecommended for traffic calming. Please seethe Resource Guide included at the end of thisguidebook for complete bibliographyinformation.

A Guidebook for Residential TrafficManagement, Final Report, Washington StateDepartment of Transportation

A Sampler of Neighborhood Traffic CalmingEfforts, Chris Leman

“A Toolbox Approach to Residential TrafficManagement,” Joseph Savage and R. DavidMacDonald


“Boulder Brings Back the NeighborhoodStreet,” John Fernandez




Great Streets, Allan B. Jacobs


Figure 97

Raised Crosswalk/Speed Table


Traffic Calming uuuuu8King County Neighborhood Traffic ControlDemonstration Program, The KJSA Team

Livable Neighborhoods: RethinkingResidential Streets, American Public WorksAssociation and the University of Wisconsin-Madison

Livable Streets, Donald Appleyard

Portland Pedestrian Crossing Toolbox forPedestrian Program Bureau of TransportationEngineering and Development, Charles V.Zegeer

Preparing Your Own Design Guidelines, AHandbook for Seattle’ Neighborhoods, City ofSeattle Department of Construction and LandUse and Planning Department

Reclaiming Our Streets, Traffic Solutions,Safer Streets, More Livable Neighborhoods,Community Action Plan To CalmNeighborhood Traffic, Reclaiming Our StreetsTask Force, City of Portland Bureau of TrafficManagement

Redevelopment for Livable Communities,Washington State Energy Office, theWashington State Department ofTransportation, the Department of Ecology,and the Energy Outreach Center

Residential Streets, American Society of CivilEngineers

Traditional Neighborhood Development: Willthe Traffic Work? Walter Kulash

Traffic Calming, Cynthia L. Hoyle

Traffic Calming, A Guide to Street Sharing,Michael J. Wallwork, PE

“Traffic Calming — An Overview,” WalterKulash

Traffic Calming — The Solution to UrbanTraffic and a New Vision for NeighborhoodLivability, Citizens Advocating ResponsibleTransportation, Ashgrove, Queensland,Australia

175

Pedestrian Access to Transit uuuuu9



• Transit Compatible Design

• Improving Transit Facilities forPedestrians

• Transit Stops and Bus Pullouts

• Transit Centers

• Park-and-Ride Facilities

• Transit Malls

• Coordination Between Agencies


PedestrianAccess to Transit

uuuuuToolkit 9

Transit includes several types oftransportation modes, including public busservices, commuter and light rail lines,ferries, van pools, subways, and monorails.Expanding access to transit and improvingtransit facilities are complementary topromoting pedestrian travel as an alternativetransportation mode. Transit compatibleplanning and design and efficient transitservice are supportive of one another inthriving communities.

This section discusses design practices thatpromote and enhance transit access forpedestrians and improve conditions at transitfacilities, encouraging both transit use andhigher levels of walking. The focus of thissection is not on overall design of transitfacilities, but rather on specific design offeatures and facilities for pedestriansaccessing transit facilities. Several otheruseful documents related to transit facilitydesign are available for reference. Refer tothe list at the end of this toolkit.

Many of the design guidelines suggested inthis section are a summary of varyingpractices. Consult with local transit agenciesto verify local requirements for boarding pads,bus stop locations, and other important designcriteria that may be unique to individualtransit authorities.

Transit and walking are alternative modes oftransportation that are complementary andsupportive to each other.

176

Pedestrian Access to Transituuuuu9


Transit CompatibleDesign

Planning and design for areas where transitservice is available, or may become availablein the future, should provide transitcompatible features, as illustrated in Figure98. Refer to A Guide to Land Use and PublicTransportation, Volume II: Applying theConcepts for other transit compatibleplanning and design recommendations.

Enhancing pedestrian access to transit increasestransit use.

Figure 98

Source: A Guide to Land Use and Public Transportation, Volume II: Applying the Concepts

Transit Compatible Objectives(Apartment Complex)

1 Local street improves access,circulation, and buildingorientation

2 Walkways throughout thesite provide convenient accessto neighboring stores, offices,and bus stops

3 Plazas betweenbuildings create apedestrian friendlyenvironment

4 Undergroundparking frees sitefor open space,mixed uses, andcreates pedestrianfriendlyenvironment

5 Bus stops areaccessible to entiredevelopment

177



for an illustration of a widened bus loadingarea. Figure 100 illustrates a typical busstop cross-section.

• Encourage transit use by providingshortcuts that reduce the distance apedestrian must walk. Bridges overstreams, paths through parks andneighborhoods, and walkways that connectto dead-end streets can provide expandedaccess opportunities for pedestrians.

Improving TransitFacilities forPedestrians

The success of transit as a mode oftransportation is highly dependent onpedestrian access. People with disabilities(including people who use wheelchairs or aresight impaired) often rely on transit as theirprimary source of transportation, and transitfacilities need to be designed to meet theirneeds. (Refer to the section called AboutPedestrians for a discussion on the spatialneeds for pedestrians, and Toolkit 2 —Accessibility.) Some important designguidelines can be followed to encourage andimprove access to transit facilities forpedestrian riders:

• Provide sidewalks, walkways, or informalpaths on streets with bus routes that lead totransit stops

• Design sidewalks that access transit with aminimum of 1.8 meters (6 feet) in width,enabling two adults to walk comfortablyside-by-side. In urban areas, where streetfurnishings, parking meters, sign posts, andother elements clutter the sidewalk, thedesirable minimum width is 3 meters (10feet).

• Provide a 2.7-meter (9-foot) long by 1.5-meter (5-foot) wide landing pad at busentrances and exits (measured from thedirection of getting on or off the bus), asrequired by the ADA for some bus stoplocations. It may be desirable to build acontinuous strip of 2.4-meter (8-foot)sidewalk or shoulder along the entire lengthof the bus stop, rather than to try andpredict where in the sidewalk the landingsshould be. The buses may not stop in theexact location each time. Refer to Figure 99 Figure 100

Source: A Guide to Land Use and PublicTransportation, Volume II: Applying the Concepts

Typical Bus Stop Cross-Section

Figure 99

Widened Sidewalk inBus Loading Area

178



• Provide well-lit access ways to transitfacilities, since transit riders often commuteto work or school in early morning and lateafternoon and evening hours.

• Keep pedestrian signals and other trafficcontrol devices operational and set withtimings that allow pedestrians tocomfortably cross streets to reach transitstations and bus stops.

• Provide separate spaces for those waiting,passing through, transferring betweenbuses, and queuing to board and deboard toimprove pedestrian mobility and transitfunction.

• Locate bus stops to discourage crossing ofstreets at undesirable locations.

• Create space directly adjacent to busloading areas that is free of all street levelobstacles. Street furnishings (except for busstop signs) such as benches, pay phones,light posts, shelters, kiosks, and garbagereceptacles should be set back a minimumof 2.4 meters (8 feet) from the curb whereadequate space is available. Where space is

not available, the lateral clearance requiredby the ADA is 0.9 meters (3 feet).

• Maintain open sight lines between the busoperator’s view and the passenger waitingand loading areas. Shelters should beconstructed with windows and clearmaterials to provide a view of the waitingpassengers inside. The recommendedminimum for height clearance for all signsin the bus stop zone is 2.1 meters (7 feet)from the bottom of the sign to ground level.Overhanging tree branches need to be atleast 2.4 meters (8 feet) from the ground toavoid signing obstruction or interferencewith mirrors on the buses.

• Provide open zones that promote visibilityof users and visibility for users to increasetheir perception of personal security.

• Provide shelters and covered structureswhere feasible to protect passenger waitingareas from wind and precipitation (seeFigure 101).

• Provide accessibility to people withdisabilities with curb cuts, ramps, and

Installing street furnishings set back from the curbincreases pedestrian mobility and visibility. Figure 101

Source: A Guide to Land Use and PublicTransportation, Volume II: Applying the Concepts

Bus Shelters and CoveredStructures

179



clearly defined and delineated pedestrianspace.

• Reduce risks of slipping and falling byproviding paving surfaces with goodtraction. Pavement texture and color canalso be used to communicate function andspatial relationships for the visuallyimpaired.

• Install street furniture that is durable andvandal resistant.

• Consider aesthetics and maintenancerequirements in the initial design phase,rather than as an afterthought.

Some relatively low-cost improvements thatcan increase pedestrian access to transit arelisted in Table 57.

Transit Stops andBus Pullouts

Transit stops and bus pullouts or zonesprovide designated space for loading orunloading passengers. A zone accommodating

one bus is normally from 24.4 to 48.8 meters(80 to 160 feet) in length, and longer inbusiness districts with high levels of use. Busstops can be as simple as a sign and a pulloutarea, designated space at the curb, orshoulder for the bus to stop. Or, they mayinclude other facilities, such as shelters,benches, and other furnishings.

There are three choices for location of busstops — near-side, far-side, and mid-block.Near-side stops are located on theapproaching side of an intersection in relationto the direction of travel. Far-side stops arelocated on the departing side. Mid-block stopsare not close enough to an intersection to beaffected by the intersection. Far-side stopsare generally more desirable than near-sidestops from the perspective of the pedestrian,but near-side stops can be successfullydesigned to adequately accommodatepedestrians.

The following considerations for pedestriansshould be made when designing bus stops andpullouts:

• Provide a minimum 1.2-meter (4-foot) wideclearance zone from the curb so thatopening bus doors are not blocked by streetfurnishings, sign posts, landscaping, orother obstructions.

• Provide 2.7 meters (9 feet) of clearance fromthe curb for wheelchair lift operation; 1.2meters (4 feet) for the lift to extend and 1.2meters (4 feet) for the wheelchair tomaneuver beyond the lift. The ADArequires a minimum width of 1 meter (3feet) for accessible paths of travel. Designbus stops to accommodate wheelchair lifts.Only as a last resort should a zone or stopbe inaccessible.

Table 57

Low Cost Improvements toIncrease Pedestrian Access to

Transit

• Pavement markings where sidewalksor other pedestrian facilities do notexist

• Marked crosswalks

• Removal of sidewalk obstructions

• Changes in signal phasing atintersections and crossings nearstations and bus stops

180



• Provide open sight lines and avoid placingshelters, furnishings, and vegetation thatmay obstruct driver and waiting passengerviews, as discussed previously.

• Shelters should be well-lit and constructedof materials that do not obstruct views outof or into the shelter.

• Sidewalks should be provided withindesignated bus zones with a landing areafor wheelchair access to transit services.

• Transit riders need to be able to cross theroad safely at transit stops. On a typicaltwo-way street, with residences anddevelopment on both sides, half the riderswill need to cross the road when boarding orexiting the bus. Mid-block crossingfacilities should be provided at mid-blockbus stop locations. See Toolkit 7 —Crossings for discussion on mid-blockcrossings.

• Curb heights should never be higher thanthe height of the bus step to prevent fallsduring passenger boarding and departing.Older buses tend to have a bottom step thatis 0.4 to 0.5 meters (14 to 18 inches) abovethe roadway. Newer buses can have bottomsteps as low as 0.3 meters (11 inches) abovethe roadway.

• On streets with parallel parking, near-sidebus stops can benefit from elongated curbbulb-outs (or neck-downs) that providepassengers adequate area to board or exitthe bus without having to step into thestreet or the stream of pedestrian travel onthe adjacent sidewalk. With this facility,buses are able to pull up directly adjacent tothe curb.

• Bus stop design should avoid conflicts withother types of uses. For example, bus stops

should not interrupt bike lanes, and waitingareas and shelters should be provided to theside of the walkway so that pedestrians canpass passengers waiting to board.

• When there is a planting strip directlyadjacent to the curb, provide a sidewalkslab that extends from the existing sidewalkto the curb so that passengers do not haveto cross wet grass or mud during inclementweather.

• Avoid locating bus stops where there arecurbs of varying heights.

• Strategically locate bus stops to minimizecrosswalk movements of transferringpassengers if transfer movements betweenbus routes are heavy. For example, locatebus stops on the same corner of anintersection so users are not required tocross the street (see Figure 102).

• All transit stops should be easy to reach bywalkways.

• Transit stops should include sheltered,visible, and comfortable seating areas andwaiting spaces, set back from the walkway.

Figure 102

Same Corner Bus Stop Locations

181



• Bus stops should provide shelters forprotection from weather and secure waitingplace for transit riders.

• Bus pullout locations are often warrantedwhere there are heavy traffic conditions.When pullouts are to be located nearintersections, a far-side location ispreferred. The needs of the passengersboarding and exiting the bus should notconflict with the needs of pedestrians andbicyclists moving through the area. Curbbulb-outs at the nearby intersection helppedestrian crossing movements, preventmotorists from entering the bus pulloutarea, and reduce conflicts with bicycliststraveling through. Pullouts should bedesigned to meet roadway conditions andbus characteristics. Configurations ofpullouts should allow buses to pull updirectly adjacent to the curb.

Transit Centers

Transit centers provide an area for buses ontwo or more routes to come together at thesame time for transferring riders, or as pointsof origin and destination. Transit centers canbe sited to optimize pedestrian access tomajor activity centers, such as shoppingcenters and college campuses. Transitcenters can also promote transfer connectionsbetween different transportation systems.Because they are highly visible facilitieswithin the community, transit centers helpincrease public awareness of the availabilityof transit service. Both off-street and on-street transit centers can be developed,depending on the space requirements, streettraffic volumes, passengers within walkingdistance, and other factors.

Transit centers function best when designedto meet the demands of peak user levels.Platform space needs to be adequate to

accommodate all pedestrians, including thosewho are waiting, queueing, or simply walkingup and down the sidewalk or platform. Acommon rule of thumb for determining spacerequirements for platform areas is 3 squaremeters (10 square feet) per person, using thepeak pedestrian volume anticipated.

The most important element of design fortransit centers is minimizing circulationconflicts between buses, pedestrians, andautos. Pavement delineation with texture,color, striping, or other means can helpidentify spaces that are for exclusive use bypedestrians. Buffering techniques withplanter boxes, street trees, furnishings, orother circulation design elements can be usedto provide separation between pedestriansand automobiles wherever possible.

Park-and-RideFacilities

In addition to the general conditionsrecommended for all transit facilitiesdescribed previously, park-and-ride lots thatfunction well for pedestrians generallyinclude:

Transit centers help increase public awarenessof the availability of transit service.

182



• At least one accessible route of travel, 1meter (3 feet) wide safely delineated overthe entire site

• Sidewalks next to curb-side parking lanesand to all loading zones

• Minimum 1.8-meter (6-foot) wide sidewalksfor two-way pedestrian travel, and greaterwidth if feasible; the recommendedminimum width of sidewalks adjacent to abus or taxi loading zone is 3.7 meters (12feet), with 2.4 meters (8 feet) ofunobstructed space next to the curb

• A maximum walking distance of 244 meters(800 feet) from the car to the bus loadingzone

• Security lighting

• Public pay phones

In addition, other desirable features caninclude drinking fountains and restroomswhere feasible and justified.

Transit Malls

Transit malls are created by removingautomobile and truck traffic on sections ofexisting street systems, usually on principalstreets within the urban network. Onlybuses, taxis, and light rail are allowed toaccess the transit mall area. Parking isprohibited and walks are widened toaccommodate higher volumes of pedestrians.Streetscape improvements, including specialpavement, public art and sculpture pieces,benches, and other furnishings are typicallyfound at a successful transit mall. Transitmalls function well as social gathering spacesand can become a good location for artexhibits and a variety of downtown activities,

as long as these activities do not interferewith the principal purpose of the facility —convenient access to transit.

A transit mall serves as a linear linkagesystem between activities along its route,including housing, retail, office, hotels, andentertainment. A transit mall may also be anarea of concentrated transit facilities withhigh volumes of transferring or transit ridersbeing picked up and dropped off. Transitmalls typically function best in places wherethere is a diversity of uses (for example, inretail districts or downtown cores) and with asignificant ridership source nearby, such asemployment centers, college campuses, andsports stadiums. Several elements canencourage use of transit malls by pedestriansand keep them looking attractive:

• Shaded, sheltered areas to sit and read orwalk around

• A well-planned layout with adequateclearances for accessibility and sufficientspace for high volumes of pedestrians

• Security through adequate lighting, clearsight lines, visibility, and regular patrols

Transit malls can accommodate higher volumesof pedestrians.

183



• Aesthetically pleasing and interestingthings to look at, such as artwork, colorfulplanters, and fountains

• Quality paving materials and streetfurnishings

• Litter receptacles and cigarette ash cans

Restrooms and drinking fountains improveuser comfort but are often too costly toinclude.

CoordinationBetween Agencies

Coordination between transit agencies, localjurisdictions, and transportation systemplanners and designers is essential whenplanning and designing pedestrian facilitiesfor access to transit. Often, transit stops arelocated without the benefit of crosswalks orsidewalks nearby. Land use planning effortssometimes do not consider ways to supporttransit use in communities. Communicationand coordinated reviews between transitagency staff and local planners and engineersshould occur during the beginning stages ofnew projects.


The following sources of information arerecommended for pedestrian access to transit.Please see the Resource Guide included at theend of this guidebook for completebibliography information.

A Guide to Land Use and PublicTransportation, The Snohomish CountyTransportation Authority



Bellevue Transit Neighborhood Links Project,Otak, Inc.


Developing Your Center: A Step-by-StepApproach, Puget Sound Regional Council

Linking Bicycle/Pedestrian Facilities WithTransit, M. Replogle and H. Parcells

Metro Transportation Facility DesignGuidelines, Municipality of MetropolitanSeattle

Non-Motorized Access to Transit, FinalReport, Wilbur Smith Associates

Non-Motorized Access to Transit, TechnicalAppendices, Wilbur Smith Associates


Planning and Design for Transit, Tri-CountyMetropolitan Transportation District ofOregon

Using GIS for Transit Pedestrian AccessAnalysis, Orange County TransportationAuthority Transit Programs Department


Site Design for Pedestriansuuuuu10

Site Designfor Pedestrians

uuuuuToolkit10

Sites should be designed to be accessible, safe,and pedestrian friendly.


• Thinking About Pedestrians as Part of SiteDevelopment

• Pedestrian Friendly Site Design

• Walkways and Accessible Routes

• Site Access and Driveway Design

• On-Site Circulation and Parking

• Building Location and Design

• Landscaping and Furnishings

• Ramps, Stairways, and Steps

• Sites Used Exclusively by Pedestrians

• Strategy for Increasing Pedestrian Travel —Mixed-Use Site Development


Good site design accomplishes manyimportant objectives related to pedestrians,including safer conditions, more convenientaccess, and increased pedestrian travel.When sites are designed with the pedestrianin mind at the onset, rather than as anafterthought, a more pedestrian friendlyenvironment can be created. Pedestrians caneasily tell whether or not their needs arebeing adequately considered at thebusinesses, shopping centers, communitybuildings, and other sites they frequent.

This toolkit section provides site design anddevelopment recommendations intended tomake designers of private and public sitesmore aware of the needs of pedestrians.When pedestrian conditions are improved,pedestrian travel and activity in the areaincreases. Well designed sites that invitepedestrians and provide convenient facilitiesfor them are also often successful businessesand vital areas within the community.


Site Design for Pedestriansuuuuu10by pedestrians and mixed use development asa strategy to increase pedestrian travel.)

Pedestrian FriendlySite Design

Designing sites to meet the needs ofpedestrians doesn’t have to be complicated. Asimple approach can help designers envision agood pedestrian environment.

When reviewing a site for the first time,designers and developers should consider thepoint of view of a pedestrian walking throughthe site. There are several helpful questionsdesigners can ask themselves at thebeginning of the site design process.

Table 58

Pedestrian FriendlySite Design Checklist

• Delineated walkways through parkinglots

• Connections to neighborhoods andsurrounding areas

• Easy to identify building entrancesand building frontages located alongstreets rather than across parking lots

• Convenient and safe access to transitand adjacent sidewalks

• Alignment of walkways forconvenience and reduced traveldistances

• Accessible routes of travel to and fromthe site, as well as throughout the site

• No barriers (walls, ditches,landscaping, or roads without safecrossings) to pedestrian travel

Thinking AboutPedestrians as Partof Site Development

Integrating pedestrians into site developmentis important. Increased pedestrian activitycan be beneficial to business and can improvethe safety and character of the community.Often, site development is oriented moretoward creating convenient and efficientaccess and circulation for motor vehicles,rather than pedestrians. In order to fullyintegrate pedestrians into the overalltransportation system, all places used bypedestrians need to be designed for theirsafety, convenience, and comfort, not justpublic rights-of-way.

What can be done to ensure that pedestriansare considered and planned for as part of allsite development in our communities? Tobegin with, all development, public andprivate, should be required to includepedestrian facilities. Cities and countiesshould adopt ordinances and coderequirements that encourage pedestrianfriendly site design and development.

Perhaps one of the most important thingsthat can be done to consider pedestrians insite design and development is for designprofessionals and developers to be moreconscious of pedestrian needs at the onset ofthe planning and design process, rather thanas an afterthought. Information provided inthis toolkit addresses how to design severalsite elements with pedestrians in mind. Thisdesign guidance can be applied as appropriateto all types of sites, including office buildings,shopping centers, and multifamilydevelopments, and other areas. (Refer to thediscussion at the end of this toolkit forinformation related to sites used exclusively



Figure 103

1 Buildings and walkways located forsafer and easier pedestrian access

2 Covered walkway links bus stop withstores

3 Pedestrian access from neighboringresidences

4 Free standing businesses located oncorner for better pedestrian access

5 Interior walkways connected withperimeter sidewalks

Pedestrian Friendly Shopping Center

Source: A Guide to Land Use and Public Transportation, Volume II: Applying the Concepts, The Snohomish CountyTransportation Authority

By considering these questions, the needs ofpedestrians will be addressed as a basicpremise of the overall site design process.Site planners and designers can begin toconsider how various site elements can bespecifically designed to improve conditions forpedestrians. There are many ways to makesites more friendly and accessible topedestrians.

Table 58 provides an overview of some basicsite design solutions that improve conditionsfor pedestrians. These solutions and otherdesign recommendations related to varioussite elements are described in more detailover the next several pages. Figure 103illustrates a good example of pedestrianfriendly site design.

Walkways andAccessible Routes

Layout of walkways as part of site design is akey ingredient in making the site efficient for

pedestrian travel. The directions pedestrianswill travel on sites in sometimes difficult topredict. Pedestrians will walk along routesthat are the most convenient and direct totheir destinations.

In urban areas and on sites where the priorityfor pedestrians is efficient access to and frombuildings, parking, bus stops, and other siteelements, walkways should be aligned alongthe most direct routes. Meandering walkwaysmay look nice in certain settings, but are notthe most efficient way of getting people fromone place to another. People may not use awalkway if it does not provide the most directroute, especially during times of inclementweather or when they are in a hurry (on theway to work or class).

The Americans with Disabilities Act designguidelines require all sites to provide anaccessible route of travel between accessiblesite elements such as parking areas,buildings, transit stops, perimeter sidewalks,


Site Design for Pedestriansuuuuu10and other facilities. An accessible route is aclear level walkway that provides access forall pedestrians, including people withdisabilities. Specific design requirementsrelated to accessible routes of travel areprovided in Toolkit Section 2 — Accessibility.

Figure 104 illustrates a building entrancedirectly accessible from the street.

Other walkway design treatments that canhelp to improve conditions for pedestriansinclude:

• Covered walkways and shelters increasepedestrian comfort and provide protectionfrom weather

• Well illuminated walkways and corridorsincrease pedestrian security

• Raised walkways through parking areas(with curb cuts to provide accessibility) toavoid the need for “puddle jumping” during

wet weather, and to more clearly define thepedestrian travel way (see Figure 105)

For more information related to walkway andpathway design, including dimensionalguidelines, suggested surfacing materials,and other treatments, refer to Toolkit 4 —Trails and Pathways and Toolkit 5 —Sidewalks and Walkways.

Site Access andDriveway Design

Much can be done through accessmanagement and driveway design to improvepedestrian mobility and safety. Accessmanagement suggestions include:

• Limit the quantity and frequency ofdriveway access points and entrances tosites from streets to minimize interruptionof pedestrian travel on adjacent sidewalksand walkways.

• Design sites so that adjacent properties canshare access points where possible.

Figure 105

Source: A Guide to Land Use and PublicTransportation, Volume II: Applying the Concepts,The Snohomish County Transportation Authority

Covered Walkways

Figure 104

Source: Accessibility Design for All, An IllustratedHandbook, Barbara Allan et. al., and A Guide toLand Use and Public Transportation, Volume II:Applying the Concepts, The Snohomish CountyTransportation Authority

Accessible Building Entrance



• Separate pedestrian and vehicle access tothe site to minimize conflicts.

• Design emergency vehicle access to allowquick access and minimum conflict withpedestrians.

For more discussion related to accessmanagement techniques and benefits, refer toToolkit 5 — Sidewalks and Walkways.

Driveways can be designed or retrofit so thatthey are easier for pedestrians to cross.Generally, the narrower the driveway width,the better for pedestrians. The shorter thecrossing distance, the less likelihood of aconflict with a motor vehicle. The provision ofclear sight lines between the pedestrian andthe motorist pulling out of or into thedriveway is very important.

Driveways that provide access to businesses,offices, or other commercial buildings can bebuilt as conventional driveways or withdesigns that resemble street intersections(with right-in/right-out access control). Forpedestrian safety and comfort, theconventional driveway design is moredesirable, because motorists are forced to slow

down when turning into the driveway and thepedestrian right-of-way is more clearlyestablished. Most residential driveways aredesigned in the conventional style.

Figure 106 illustrates three differentdriveway designs commonly beingconstructed. The least desirable of the threeis the first design, which shows a very widedriveway with no refuge for pedestrians andundelineated crossing area. The driveway isdesigned to resemble a street intersection,which may encourage higher speed turns anddiscourage stopping for pedestrians sincetheir right-of-way is not clearly delineated. Inthis design, the movement of the vehicleclearly takes priority over crossingpedestrians.

The second design (center drawing) is moredesirable and is suggested for commercialdriveways when it is not feasible to provide aconventional driveway apron design. Thesecond design still treats the driveway like astreet intersection, but it limits the drivewaywidth to two lanes and provides a refugeisland in the middle for crossing pedestrians.One additional element that would make this

Figure 106

Better Design for SomeCommercial Driveways

Most Desirable Design for allDriveways

Driveway Design Comparisons

Least Desirable


Site Design for Pedestriansuuuuu10design better would be if the pedestrian travelway across the lanes were striped.

The third drawing (on the right) is the mostdesirable design. This design provides adelineated walkway across the driveway neck.In this conventional driveway design thepedestrian travel way is clear to the driver,the crossing distance is narrower, and thewalkway stays at a constant grade.

Sidewalks that cross driveways and alleys canbe problematic if sight distance is limited byadjacent buildings, landscaping, or otherelements. Often drivers pulling into or out ofthe driveways are concentrating on the flow ofvehicular traffic and may not notice oncomingpedestrians. Several measures can be appliedto improve pedestrian visibility and makethese crossings easier for pedestrians:

• Unit pavers or colored pavement bands inthe sidewalks prior to driveway entrancesto provide a visual and tactile forewarningof the upcoming driveway crossing, or analternative texture or pavement color acrossthe entire pedestrian travel way at thedriveway or alley access point to helpmotorists identify a pedestrian crossingzone

• Signs located to the side of the pedestriantravel way to identify upcoming driveways,and alleys

• Stop signs at an access point used bymultiple drivers

• Curb stops at the access point to keep thefront of the vehicle from protruding onto thesidewalk.

• Auditory warnings can be provided whenvehicles are entering and exiting (oftenused in downtown areas where vehicles areexiting from parking garages)

• Mirrors placed in strategic locations soexiting drivers can see approachingpedestrians (Mirrors need to be placedcarefully to avoid glare and obstruction topedestrian travel.)

• Planting buffers that separate the walkwayfrom the street allow some extra space

Site access should be well delineated tominimize conflict between pedestrians andvehicles. Figure 107


Wide Planting Areas at Driveway



Figure 108

Source: City of Issaquah Urban Trails Plan (Non-Motorized Transportation), City of Issaquah

Pedestrian path running through the site to connect totransit stop

Building entrance oriented to street and transit stop

Access to Transit

between pedestrians crossing the drivewayand vehicles pulling into the driveway; theyalso provide room for the driveway apron toramp up before the walkway, creating amore constant grade on the walkway(rather than dipping up and down at eachdriveway cut)

Wider planting areas at the perimeter of sitesprovide space for vehicles pulling out ofdriveways, eliminating the problem ofblocking the sidewalk used by pedestrians(see Figure 107.) Note that when trees areplanted in planting buffers near driveways,they should be placed to avoid affecting sightdistance and upward branching speciesshould be selected. Typically, tree trunksdon’t create a sight obstruction becausedrivers can pull up or back a few inches to seearound them. It is important to ensure thatany landscaping placed within proximity todriveways does not block visibility. (SeeToolkit 5 — Sidewalks and Walkways formore information on trees and landscapingnear walkways.)

On-Site Circulationand Parking

One of the biggest concerns for pedestrians insite design is conflict with motor vehicles.The following design strategies can minimizeconflicts and help clarify pedestriancirculation.

• Clearly define pedestrian access ways.Striping, delineation of walking zones withcurbs and landscaping, centralized walkwaymedians and islands, and textured pavingare all good examples of ways to providedefined walking spaces within parkingareas and adjacent to vehicular circulation.

• Provide direct access to the buildingentrance from the street and sidewalkwhere pedestrians, bicyclists, and transitriders are traveling.

• Locate transit stops adjacent to or on thesite, and provide direct access to a variety oforigins and destinations on the site. Figure108 illustrates two site designs that providegood transit access.


Site Design for Pedestriansuuuuu10• Provide well delineated and marked drop-

off and pickup zones for pedestrians thatare separated from the flow of vehicletraffic. These areas, as well as all areas infront of building entrances, should bedesignated as no parking zones.

• Avoid conflict between pedestrians andmotor vehicles by minimizing pedestriancrossings in vehicle circulation zones anddesigning motor vehicle circulation aisles sothat crossing pedestrian travel ways isminimized.

• Consider the use of raised crossings, speedhumps, and speed tables to discourage hightraffic speeds in parking lots wherepedestrian volumes are high.

• Design parking lots so they can be sharedby more than one building on the site or bybuildings on neighboring sites; also limitparking in certain areas to help increasepedestrian trips and transit use, and

Source: Adapted from Highway 99 StreetscapeImprovement Guidelines, City of Lynnwood

Shared Parking Lot

Figure 109

decrease motor vehicle use. Figure 109illustrates an example of a site designwhere three buildings share a singleparking area.

• Locate parking areas behind buildings orunderneath buildings, rather than betweenthe building and the street, where possible.

• Provide one-way traffic flow throughparking lots, where appropriate, tominimize pedestrian confusion and conflictswith automobiles.

• Fully illuminate pedestrian walking areasthrough parking lots.

• Provide good drainage to avoid puddles andconcentrated runoff areas across pedestrianwalking routes.

• Provide separate access to parking garagesand structures for pedestrians.

• Avoid locating pedestrian walking areasnear truck and freight delivery zones.Trucks backing up without being able to seepedestrians is a common cause of collisions.

Pavement texture or scoring can be used todelineate the pedestrian travel area in a parkinglot.



Building Location andDesign

There are several design guidelines related tobuilding location and architecture thatencourage pedestrian access by providing anattractive and welcoming environment.

• Locate buildings directly adjacent to thesidewalk and street environment, avoidingplacement of parking between the streetand buildings. This allows pedestrians toaccess the buildings directly from the street,encouraging a friendly street atmosphere,and avoids forcing pedestrians to crossparking lots to get to building entrances.

• Create a pedestrian friendly atmosphere bylaying out buildings and other site elementsin configurations that define spaces forpeople to walk and gather around the site.

• Create plazas, seating areas, displays andexhibits that draw pedestrians to thebuilding.

• Building design should reflect the characterof the surrounding neighborhood or districtand respond to the preferences of thecommunity.

• Building wall design and finishes thatrelate to pedestrian scale should beprovided on sides of the building that facetowards streets and pedestrian access ways.Architectural elements such as windows,balconies, and entries that “create acomplementary pattern or rhythm, dividinglarge buildings into smaller identifiablepieces” should be encouraged. (DefinitionsRelated to the Draft Villages and CentersOrdinance, City of Olympia PlanningDepartment)

• Color, texture, landscaping (climbing vines)and other techniques can soften hardsurfaces and bring human scale to buildingfrontages. Blank walls are not desirable.

• On sites where there are a high volume ofpedestrians entering the building andtraveling across vehicle circulation (atshopping centers and grocery stores), thearea in front of the building(s) can bestriped or delineated with special paving todirect pedestrians to the building entrances.

• Pedestrian friendly buildings andbusinesses should include displays, signs,retail features and outdoor seating areascombined with wide storefront walkways towelcome the pedestrian .

Pedestrian access to building entrances shouldbe well delineated.

Pedestrian scale architecture along pedestrianaccess ways invites pedestrians into businesses.


Site Design for Pedestriansuuuuu10Landscaping andFurnishings

Successful pedestrian environments providefurnishings and create attractive settings forpedestrians to gather, rest, socialize, andorient themselves. Examples ofcomplementary elements on pedestrianoriented sites include:

• Trees of heights and patternscomplementary to human scale, with highbranches and upward branching habitsalong walking areas, and with the capabilityto provide shade and shelter; trees shouldbe installed to avoid buckling of adjacentpavement by root systems

• Perimeter landscaping with defined edgesthat reduce the impact of parked vehiclesand enhance the streetscape

• Shrubs and ground covers that don’t blockwalkways or interfere with visibility andsecurity

• Shopping cart storage in several convenientand easy to find locations

• Wind screens to protect pedestrians fromcold winds, particularly in downtown areaswhere wind tunnels are often created

• Benches or seating areas outdoors or inbuilding alcoves that allow pedestrians tostop and rest

• Access to restrooms

• Strategically located garbage receptaclesand cigarette ash cans that help keep anarea clean and attractive; and fullyscreened garbage bins with self closingdoors and landscaping

• Public artwork that creates interest in aplace as a destination

Ramps, Stairways,and Steps

Pedestrian routes with stairways and stepsshould be avoided where possible, and rampsshould be provided to allow easy access foreveryone. More information about rampdesign is provided in Toolkit Section 2 —Accessibility.

Sometimes steps and stairways areunavoidable in areas where there aresignificant grade changes. When stairwaysand steps must be installed in pedestrianenvironments, several design guidelinesshould be followed. Some of the mostimportant guidelines are described in thefollowing text. Please check other sources formore detailed information.

Stairs are often necessary in areas of significantgrade changes.



Stairway Width

The minimum width of public stairwaysshould be 1.5 meters (5 feet), and theminimum width for private stairways shouldbe 1.1 meters (4.5 feet).

Step Dimensions

Treads and risers should be uniform in heightand depth, with treads no less than 0.3meters (11 inches) wide and risers no deeperthan 0.2 meters (7.5 inches). It is generallypreferred that risers for outdoor stairways bea minimum of 11.2 centimeters (4.5 inches)and a maximum of 17.5 centimeters (7 inches)in depth.

Tread to Riser Ratio

The tread to riser ratio should be consistent.A typical formula for tread to riser ratio is:

2R + T = 65.0 to 67.5 cm (26 to 27 inches)where R = riser and T = tread

Height between Landings

Typical height between landings can vary.The Uniform Building Code allows up to amaximum height of 3.8 meters (12 feet).Lesser heights are generally recommended toprovide more frequent resting opportunitiesfor pedestrians and to breakup the visualexpanse of the stairway.

Landing Dimensions

Landings should be long enough to allow aminimum of three strides on the landingbefore proceeding onto the next set of steps.A 1.5-meter (5-foot) landing is a typicalminimum length. Longer landings aretypically in lengths of multiples of 1.5 meters(5 feet). The width of the landing should be at

least the width of the stairway. Landingplacement for stairways is illustrated inFigure 110.

Tread Design

Nosings, the outer exposed corners of steps orstairs, should not be abrupt. Designs thatcreate a potential tripping hazard should beavoided. Nosings should be easy to see andnot obscured by confusing surface patterns.Nosing edges should be chamfered or haverounded corners. Beveled shadow lines helpto create a visual distinction between steps.The heights of the bevels should be kept to aminimum to avoid tripping, with nosingundersides not exceeding 1.3 centimeters (0.5inches). Closed, beveled risers are preferredover 90-degree square risers, risers withrecesses, or open steps. Figure 111 illustratesrecommended nosing configurations. Treadsshould be pitched downgrade at a 2 percentslope for proper drainage.

Sites UsedExclusively byPedestrians

Pedestrian malls, plazas, and special districtsincluding tourist and recreation sites, areoften developed for either exclusive use bypedestrians or with the focus that pedestriansare the primary user group. These spacesprovide important opportunities to increasepedestrian travel in our communities and theenjoyment of Washington’s unique features.Since these sites serve high numbers ofpedestrians, they are usually designed withthe specific needs of pedestrians in mind.Figure 112 (on page 197) illustrates anexample of a pedestrian plaza design.



Figure 110

Figure 111

Stair/Step Nosing Design

Landing Placement for Stairways

Source: Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Architecture

Source: Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Architecture



Sometimes turning over a street for useentirely by pedestrians is a failure fordowntown businesses, because they rely onvisibility from passing vehicles. Conversely,the use of underground walkways, skywalks,and other systems that take pedestrianactivity away from the street can alsosometimes reduce the vitality of downtownstreet level retail. In some cases, exclusivepedestrian facilities are successful; mostlywhere there are a diverse mix of usesconcentrated around the mall or plaza withoffice workers or college students nearby.

Many urban planning experts agree that thevitality of downtown areas is strengthenedwhen streets serve a mix of transportationmodes (pedestrians, bicyclists, transit, andmotor vehicles) with the needs of all usergroups being carefully considered andbalanced in the planning and design process.

Design guidelines that can help to establishpedestrian malls, plazas and special districtsas vibrant public gathering spaces are listedbelow.

• Special paving and accents can enhanceplazas and special districts and provide aclear message to tourists as to where theyshould walk.

• With many tourist attractions andrecreation areas located adjacent to busyhighways, pedestrian access is sometimes amajor concern, especially with the highvisitation some of these sites receive.Consider grade separated crossings in theseareas, but only if their use will beconvenient for pedestrians.

• Drop-off and pickup zones for buses,trolleys, and other touring vehicles shouldbe clearly delineated and located to avoidinterrupting pedestrian travel alongsidewalks and impeding views ofpedestrians and motorists.

• Signing is an important tool in these areas,and can be used both to identify elementswithin the district and to clearly orientpedestrians.

• Maps engraved in sidewalks or on manholecovers provide a unique opportunity todirect pedestrians.

• Eliminate left-turns and free-right turns atintersections where high volumes ofpedestrians cross.

• Create places where pedestrian activitythrives by introducing, specialentertainment, music, concessions, seating,and outdoor cafes.

Figure 112

Source: Vision 2020 Growth and TransportationStrategy for the Central Puget Sound Region,Puget Sound Regional Council

Pedestrian Plaza


Site Design for Pedestriansuuuuu10• Complementary land uses

• Located within convenient walking distanceof each other

• Connected by safe, direct walkways

Table 59 provides a checklist for successfulmixed use site developments.

Figure 113


Mixed-Use Site DevelopmentConcept

Strategy forIncreasingPedestrian Travel �Mixed Use SiteDevelopment

Over the past 50 years, arrangement anddesign of land uses has been scaled to drivingrather than walking. Momentum in manycommunities is mixed use site development,where compatible land uses are developed ona single site. Mixed use development was anintegral component of traditional towns builtbefore the automobile became the focus.Figure 113 illustrates a mixed use sitedevelopment concept.

Examples of mixed use include apartmentslocated over retail shops or housing, services,and shopping opportunities all sited within aconvenient walking distance, usually 0.4kilometers (0.25 miles) or less). A Guide toLand Use and Public Transportation, VolumeII by SNO-TRAN identifies three basiccriteria of successful mixed use developments:

Table 59

Checklist for Successful Mixed UseSite Developments

• Are the uses complementary?

• Are the uses located within convenientwalking distance of each other?

• Are the uses linked by sidewalks orpaved paths?

• Are the walking routes short anddirect?

• Do the buildings fit with andcomplement each other?

• Do the uses create activity at differenttimes of the day?

• Is parking kept out of the pedestrian’spath of travel?

• Do the uses support one anothereconomically?





The following sources of information arerecommended for site design for pedestrians.Please see the Resource Guide included at theend of this guidebook for completebibliography information.


Accessibility Design for All, An IllustratedHandbook, 1995 Washington StateRegulations, Barbara L. Allan and Frank C.Moffett, AIA, PE


Bus Stop Placement and Design, Tri-Met


City of Issaquah Urban Trails Plan (Non-Motorized Transportation), City of Issaquah



Designing Urban Corridors, Kirk R. Bishop

Developing Your Center: A Step-by-StepApproach, Puget Sound Regional Council

Effects of Site Design on Pedestrian Travel inMixed-Use Medium Density Environments,Anne Vernez-Moudon, PhD



Mukilteo Multimodal Terminal & AccessStudy, Urban Design Concepts, Hewitt Isley

Pedestrian Corridor and Major Public OpenSpace Design Guidelines, Don MilesAssociates/PPS


Site Planning, Kevin Lynch

Site Planning and Community Design forGreat Neighborhoods, Frederick D. Jarvis


Urban Spaces, David Kenneth Specter

Vision 2020, Growth and TransportationStrategy for the Central Puget Sound Region,Puget Sound Regional Council


Safety in Work Zonesuuuuu11


• Protective Barriers

• Covered Walkways

• Sidewalk Closure During Construction

• Intersections and Crossings Near WorkZones

• Maintenance


Safety inWork Zones

uuuuuToolkit 11

Pedestrian safety is an important issue in andaround work zones. Pedestrians travel atslower speeds than other modes oftransportation and are more susceptible tothe impacts of access, dirt, noise, and fumesfrom construction areas. Temporary accessand detours should be provided to ensure safeunimpeded pedestrian travel in and aroundwork zones. Access to pedestrian facilities,such as bus stops, crosswalks, and linksbetween origins and destinations should beprovided. Pedestrians should feel safe andsecure when traveling near work zones.

Urban and suburban settings have thehighest volume of pedestrian traffic, andconstruction projects are most likely to impactpedestrians in these areas. Safe andconvenient passage through or around a workzone should be provided. Pedestrians mayignore a detour that is out of the direction oftheir travel.

Local jurisdictions responsible for trafficsafety in work areas should train constructioninspection staff to recognize improper andunsafe pedestrian facilities duringconstruction.

Fencing used to secure a work area supported byblocks needs to be positioned to avoid creatingobstacles or tripping hazards for pedestrians.


uuuuu11 Safety in Work Zones

Protective Barriers

Near work zones where higher volumes ofpedestrian traffic or school children exist,pedestrian fences or other protective barriersmay be needed to prevent pedestrian accessinto a construction area. Pedestrian fencesneed to be high enough to discouragepedestrians from climbing over the fence.Table 60 lists considerations for encouragingsafety in work zones.

Covered Walkways

For construction of structures adjacent tosidewalks, a covered walkway may be

Table 60

Considerations for PedestrianSafety in Work Zones

• Separate pedestrians from conflictswith construction vehicles, equipment,and operations

• Separate pedestrians from conflictswith traffic traveling around orthrough the construction area

• Provide a safe, convenient, andaccessible route that maintains thedirection and character of the originalroute

• Minimize work vehicle traffic crossingpedestrian routes by minimizing thenumber of construction access points

• Communicate construction activityand pedestrian impacts through localmedia and pedestrian interest groups

• Avoid using delineating materials thatare difficult to recognize by peoplewith impaired sight

Source: Based on ITE Design and Safety of PedestrianFacilities; adapted and expanded for this Guidebook

required to protect pedestrians from fallingdebris. Covered walkways should be designedto provide:

• sturdiness

• adequate light for nighttime use and safety

• proper sight distance at intersections andcrosswalks

• adequate and impact resistant longitudinalseparation from vehicles on higher speedstreets; for work zones adjacent to highspeed traffic, wooden railings, chain linkfencing, and other similar systems are notacceptable

Sidewalk ClosureDuring Construction

It is undesirable to close sidewalks orpathways during construction. Ifunavoidable, consider:

• using barricades and cones to create atemporary route

• clearly defining any detoured routes

• maintaining a minimum width and smoothsurface for wheelchair access

• protecting pedestrians from vehicle traffic

• protecting pedestrians from hazards, suchas holes, debris, dust, and mud

If a temporary route is created in the roadwayadjacent to the closed sidewalk, the parkinglane or one travel lane may be used forpedestrian travel, with appropriatebarricades, cones, and signing, as illustratedin Figure 114 . When a parking lane or travel


Safety in Work Zonesuuuuu11

lane is not available for closure, pedestriansmust be detoured with advance signing inaccordance with the Manual on UniformTraffic Control Devices. Signs should beplaced to avoid blocking the path ofpedestrians.

Intersections andCrossings Near WorkZones

• At intersections, avoid closing crosswalks.

• At signalized intersections, mark temporarycrosswalks if they are relocated from theirprevious location. Maintain access topedestrian push buttons.

• Include pedestrian phases in temporarysignals.

• Place advanced signing at intersections toalert pedestrians of mid-block work sitesand direct them to alternate routes.

Temporary Pedestrian Routes Around Work Zones

Figure 114

Note: If travel or parking lane is not available/detour pedestrians with advanced signing.

Note: Parking lane used for pedestrian travel.



uuuuu11 Safety in Work Zones

Maintenance

Pedestrian facilities in and adjacent to workzones should be maintained to provide safetyand functionality. Proper maintenance willmaximize the effectiveness and life of workzone pedestrian facilities. Poor maintenancecan result in increased work zone accidents.Table 61 summarizes recommendedmaintenance activity for pedestrian facilitiesin and adjacent to work zones.


Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities Planningand Design Guidelines, North Central TexasCouncil of Governments

Florida Pedestrian Planning and DesignGuidelines

Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan

ITE Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities

Table 61

Issue

Temporary pathways constructedof inexpensive, short-life materials

Detour pedestrian paths increasevolumes on detour roadway

Construction material debris onpathway

Changing pedestrian route duringconstruction

Damaged traffic barriers

Recommended Maintenance

Pathway surfaces should be inspected regularly;surface materials should be treated with nonslipmaterials; surface materials with holes, cracks, orvertical separation should be replaced

Detour pathway should be inspected regularly foradequacy of signal timing, signing, and pedestriantraffic hazards

Require contractor to maintain clear pathways

Inspect pedestrian signing regularly to ensure a clearlyunderstood pathway

Replace and reevaluate adequacy for pedestrian safety

Work Zone Maintenance

Source: Adapted from Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities Planning and Design Guidelines, North Central Texas Council ofGovernments


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Resource Guide

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Americans With Disabilities Act Solutions,Eric Dibner, City of Berkeley, Berkeley,California.

An Analysis of Pedestrian Conflicts with Left-Turning Traffic, Dominique Lord, TransportSafety Group, University of Toronto,Transportation Research Board 75th AnnualMeeting, Washington, DC, January 1996.

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Bellevue Transit Neighborhood Links Project,Otak, Inc., City of Bellevue TransportationDepartment, Bellevue, Washington,September 1996.

Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities Planningand Design Guidelines, Department ofEnvironmental Resources, Department ofTransportation, North Central Texas Councilof Governments, Arlington, Texas, December1995.

Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation inJapan and Australia: Lessons for America,M.A. Replogle, September 1993.

Bicycle and Pedestrian Level of ServicePerformance Measures and Standards forCongestion Management Systems, Linda B.Dixon, Delaware Department ofTransportation, Dover, Delaware, August1995.

Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation,Redmond Comprehensive Plan, City ofRedmond, Redmond, Washington, 1994.

“Boulder Brings Back the NeighborhoodStreet,” John Fernandez, Planning, AmericanPlanning Association, June 1994.

Bus Stop Placement and Design, Tri-Met,June 1995.

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City Comforts, How to Build An UrbanVillage, David Sucher, City Comforts Press,Seattle, Washington, 1995.

City of Issaquah Urban Trails Plan (Non-Motorized Transportation), City of Issaquah,Issaquah, Washington, April 1995.


Resource Guide

City of Pullman Pedestrian/BicycleCirculation Plan, City of Pullman, Pullman,Washington, May 1996.

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Creating Bicycle-Friendly and WalkableCommunities, Pro Bike Pro Walk 96 ResourceBook, Bicycle Federation of America,Pedestrian Federation of America, Portland,Maine, 1996.

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Curb Ramps for Accessible Pathways, Bureauof Transportation Engineering andDevelopment, Office of Transportation, City ofPortland, Portland, Oregon, 1993.

Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities, AProposed Recommended Practice of theInstitute of Transportation Engineers, ITETechnical Council Committee 5A-5, ChapelHill, North Carolina, December 1994.

Design Guidelines, Building/SidewalkRelationships, Central Business District, Cityof Bellevue, Bellevue, Washington, November1983.

Design Manual, Washington StateDepartment of Transportation, EngineeringPublications, Olympia, Washington, June1989.

Design of Pedestrian Facilities, ITECommittee 5A-5, Draft Report Chapters,January 1992.

Designing Urban Corridors, Kirk R. Bishop,American Planning Association, PlanningAdvisory Services, Report Number 418,Washington, DC, September 1989.

Developing Your Center: A Step-by-StepApproach, Puget Sound Regional Council,Seattle, Washington, May 1996.

Development Manual, TransportationDepartment, Parks & Community ServicesDepartment, City of Bellevue, Bellevue,Washington, 1996.

Easy Walking Workplace, Washington StateEnergy Office and the Energy OutreachCenter, Olympia, Washington, 1994..

Effects of Site Design on Pedestrian Travel inMixed-Use Medium Density Environments,Anne Vernez-Moudon, PhD, University ofWashington College of Urban Planning,Seattle, Washington, December 1996.

Elementary School Catalog, AAA Foundationfor Traffic Safety, Washington, DC, 1995.

Engineering Design and DevelopmentStandards, Snohomish County Public Works,Lynnwood, Washington, June 1992.

Evaluating Pedestrian Environments:Proposals for Urban Form Measures ofNetwork Connectivity, With Case Studies ofWallingford in Seattle and Crossroads inBellevue, Washington, Paul Mitchell Hess,University of Washington, Seattle,Washington, 1994.

Field Studies of Pedestrian Walking Speedand Start-Up Time, Richard L. Knoblauch,Martin T. Pietrucha, and Marsha Nitzburg,Transportation Research Record 1538, USDepartment of Transportation Committee onPedestrians, Washington, DC.


Resource Guide

Flashing Beacons, Association of WashingtonCities and the County Road AdministrationBoard.

Florida Pedestrian Planning and DesignGuidelines, University of North Carolina,Highway Safety Research Center, FloridaDepartment of Transportation, May 1996.

Great Streets, Allan B. Jacobs, MIT Press,Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993.

Guide for the Development of BicycleFacilities, American Association of StateHighway and Transportation Officials,August, 1991.

Guide to Barrier-Free Recreation at SelectedSites, Washington State Department ofNatural Resources Engineering Division,Resource Mapping Section, Olympia,Washington, 1995.

Guidelines for the Installation of CrosswalkMarkings, Steven A. Smith and Richard L.Knoblauch, American Automobile Association,Transportation Research Board, NationalResearch Council, Washington, DC, 1988.

Handbook of Landscape ArchitecturalConstruction, Volume Two, Site Works,Maurice Nelischer, Landscape ArchitectureFoundation, Washington, DC, 1988.

Handbook for Walkable Communities,Washington State Pedestrian FacilitiesPlanning and Design Courses, Dan Burdenand Michael Wallwork, PE.

Identifying High-Hazard Locations forPedestrian and Bicycle Crashes, Richard A.Raub, Northwestern University TrafficInstitute, Transportation Research Board 75thAnnual Meeting, Washington, DC, January1996.

Implementing Effective Travel DemandManagement Measures: Bicycle/PedestrianFacilities and Site Improvements Section,United States Department of Transportation,Washington, DC, June 1993.

Kids and Cars Don’t Mix, Seattle EngineeringDepartment, Seattle, Washington.

King County Neighborhood Traffic ControlDemonstration Program, The KJSA Team,King County Department of Public WorksDivision of Roads and Engineering, Seattle,Washington, March 1989.

King County Nonmotorized TransportationPlan, King County Department of PublicWorks Roads Division TransportationPlanning Section, King County, Washington,May 1993.

King County Regional Trails Plan, Parks,King County, Parks, Planning and ResourcesDepartment, Parks Division, King County,Washington, October 1992.

Land Use Strategies for More Livable Places,Steve Weissman and Judy Corbett, The LocalGovernment Commission, Sacramento,California, May 1992.

Linking Bicycle/Pedestrian Facilities WithTransit, M. Replogle and H. Parcells, October1992.

Livable Neighborhoods: RethinkingResidential Streets, American Public WorksAssociation and the University of Wisconsin-Madison, A Satellite Course Held June 19,1996.

Livable Streets, Donald Appleyard, Universityof California Press, Los Angeles, Californian,1981.


Resource Guide

“Make Their First Steps Safe Ones,” Robert B.Overend, Traffic Safety, November/December1988.

Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devicesfor Streets and Highways, 1988 Edition, USDepartment of Transportation, FederalHighway Administration, US GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, DC, 1988.

Metro Transportation Facility DesignGuidelines, Municipality of MetropolitanSeattle, Seattle, Washington, March 1991.

Metrorail Orange Line Bicycle PedestrianAccess Study, Northern Virginia, ChristopherNeumann, April 1989.

Mukilteo Multimodal Terminal & AccessStudy, Urban Design Concepts, Hewitt Isley,City of Mukilteo, Mukilteo, Washington,March 1995.

Municipal Strategies to Increase PedestrianTravel: Final Report, Washington StateEnergy Office, Olympia, Washington, August1994.

National Bicycling and Walking Study, CaseStudy No. 2, The Training Needs ofTransportation Professionals Regarding thePedestrian and Bicyclist, US Department ofTransportation, Federal HighwayAdministration, Washington, DC, 1992.

National Bicycling and Walking Study, CaseStudy No. 4, Measures to OvercomeImpediments to Bicycling and Walking, USDepartment of Transportation, FederalHighway Administration, Washington, DC,August 1993.

National Bicycling and Walking Study, CaseStudy No. 5, An Analysis of Current FundingMechanisms for Bicycle and Pedestrian

Programs at the Federal, State, and LocalLevels, US Department of Transportation,Federal Highway Administration,Washington, DC, April 1993.

National Bicycling and Walking Study, CaseStudy No. 18 Final Report, Analyses ofSuccessful Provincial, State, and Local Bicycleand Pedestrian Programs in Canada and theUnited States, US Department ofTransportation, Federal HighwayAdministration, Washington, DC, March 1993.

National Bicycling and Walking Study:Transportation Choices for a ChangingAmerica, Report to Congress, C. Zegeer and D.Feske, March 1994.

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NE 124th Street Sidewalk, 100th Avenue NEand 108th Avenue NE Median Islands,Specifications and Contract Documents, KPG,Inc., City of Kirkland, Kirkland, Washington,January 1996.

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Non-Motorized Access to Transit, Final Report,Wilbur Smith Associates, RegionalTransportation Authority, July 1996.

Non-Motorized Access to Transit, TechnicalAppendices, Wilbur Smith Associates,Regional Transportation Authority, July 1996.

Nonmotorized Transportation Around theWorld, Safety and Human Performance,


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Transportation Research Record Number1441, Planning, Administration, andEnvironment, Transportation Research BoardNational Research Council, National AcademyPress, Washington, DC, October 1994.

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“Pedestrian Actuated Crosswalk FlashingBeacons,” John W. VanWinkle, City ofChattanooga Traffic Engineering Division,ITE Journal, January 1997.

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“Pedestrian Signs at Crosswalks SparkControversy in New Jersey,” The UrbanTransportation Monitor, Volume 10, Number19, Lawley Publications, Burke, Virginia,October 11, 1996.

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Planning and Implementing PedestrianFacilities in Suburban and Developing RuralAreas State-of-the-Art Report, S.A. Smith, K.S.Opiela, and L.L. Impett, JHK & Associates,National Cooperative Highway ResearchProgram Report 294B, TransportationResearch Board, National Research Council,Washington, DC, June 1987.

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Recommendations for Pedestrian, Bicycle andTransit Friendly Development Ordinances,Draft, Transportation Rule Working Group,Oregon Chapter American PlanningAssociation, Department of LandConservation and Development, OregonDepartment of Transportation, February1993.

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Urban Spaces, David Kenneth Specter, NewYork Graphic Society Ltd., Greenwich,Connecticut, 1974.


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Walking: Facts and Figures, Tom Whitney,Environmental Council of Sacramento,California, 1991.

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Washington State Pedestrian Collision Data,1990 to 1995, Washington State Departmentof Transportation Transportation Data Office,Olympia, Washington, March 1997.

Washington’s Transportation Plan, StateBicycle Transportation and PedestrianWalkways Plan, Washington StateDepartment of Transportation, Olympia,Washington, September 1995.

Wisconsin Pedestrian Planning Guidance,Guidelines for Metropolitan PlanningOrganizations and Communities in Planningand Developing Pedestrian Facilities,Wisconsin Department of Transportation,Wisconsin, September, 1993.

215Glossary


Glossary402Highway Safety Grant Program (Section 402funds); for state and community highwaysafety projects

AASHTOAmerican Association of State Highway andTransportation Officials

access managementthe principles, laws and techniques used tocontrol access to a highway

ADAAmericans with Disabilities Act; civil rightslegislation passed in 1990, effective July 1992;mandated sweeping changes in building codes,transportation, and hiring practices to preventdiscrimination against persons withdisabilities

ADTaverage daily traffic; the measurement of theaverage number of vehicles passing a certainpoint each day on a highway, road or street

alleya road primarily used to access the rear ofresidences and businesses, not designed forgeneral travel

arteriala street designated to carry traffic, mostlyuninterrupted, through an urban area, or todifferent neighborhoods within an urban area

asphalt concretea concrete composition in which asphalt isused as a binder; a material often used forroadway pavement

asphalt shima thin strip of asphalt used to fill uneven roadsurfaces as a temporary measure

at-grade crossingthe general area where two or more roadways,railways, and/or pathways join or cross, as inan “at-grade railroad crossing”

BIABusiness Improvement Association

bicyclea vehicle having two tandem wheels, aminimum of 14" (35 cm) in diameter, propelledsolely by human power, upon which anyperson or persons may ride. A three-wheeledadult tricycle is considered a bicycle

bicycle facilityany facility provided for the benefit of bicycletravel, including bikeways and parkingfacilities as well as all other roadways notspecifically designated for bicycle use

bicycle lanea portion of the roadway which has beendesignated by traffic-control devises forpreferential or exclusive use by bicycles

bicycle pathan access route, usually scenic, for theexclusive use of bicycles and pedestrians

216 Glossary


bicycle routea vehicular route, identified by a sign, thatprovides continuity to the bicycletransportation network

bike lanea portion of a roadway which has beendesignated by striping and pavementmarkings for the preferential or exclusive useof bicyclists

bikewaya bikeway is created when a road has theappropriate design treatment for bicyclists,based on motor vehicle traffic volumes andspeeds: shared roadway, shoulder bikeway,bike lane or bicycle boulevard; another type offacility is separated from the roadway; multi-use path

bollarda post or similar obstruction that prevents thepassage of vehicles; the spacing of bollardsusually allows the passage of bicycles andpedestrians; bollards may incorporate lighting

boulevardstreet classification encouraging physicaldesign features that provide a parklikeatmosphere and/or enhance appreciation oruse of adjacent parkland, on a street otherwiseintended to move traffic

buffera strip of land that physically and/or visuallyseparates two land uses, especially if the usesare incompatible

bus pullout/turnouta section of pavement at a bus stop that allowsbuses to leave the flow of traffic while stoppedto lad and unload passengers

bus shelterany covered area within a bus stop zone thatprovides riders protection from the weather

bus zonea portion of the roadway along the curb whichis reserved for loading and unloading of eitherlocal transit or school buses

catch basina receptor, typically of masonry with cast irontop grate, that receives surface water runoff ordrainage

CBDCentral Business District; a traditionaldowntown area usually characterized byestablished business fronting the street,sidewalks, slow traffic speeds, on-streetparking and a compact grid street system

center linethe line separating traffic traveling in oppositedirections

chip seala thin asphalt surface treatment used towaterproof and improve the texture of thewearing surface of a pavement

clearance, lateralthe width required for safe passage asmeasured in a horizontal plane

clearance, verticalthe height required for safe passage asmeasured in a vertical plane

CMAQThe Congestion Mitigation and Air QualityImprovement Program, a funding category inTitle I of ISTEA that provides funds forprojects and activities to reduce congestionand improve air quality

217Glossary


COGCouncil of Governments; one of severalpossible names for a Metropolitan PlanningOrganization

collector (street)a street designated to carry traffic betweenlocal streets and arterials, or from local streetto local street

combined sewera wholly or partially piped system which isowned, operated, and maintained by a localmunicipality or sanitary district, and that isdesigned to carry sewage or drainage water

commercial load zonea portion of a street designated by a sign andyellow paint markings, reserved for theexclusive use of vehicles with a validcommercial load zone permit

concretea hard, strong construction material made bymixing a binder such as portland cement orasphalt with a mineral aggregate (sand andgravel) so that the entire mass is boundtogether and hardened

CRABCounty Road Administration Board; anoversight agency for county roadorganizations; as part of that function, itadministers the Rural Arterial and CountyArterial preservation programs for the State

cross sectiondiagrammatic presentation of a highwayprofile at right angles to the centerline at agiven location

crosswalkportion of a roadway designated for pedestriancrossing, marked or unmarked; unmarkedcrosswalks are the natural extension of theshoulder, curb line or sidewalk

crosswalkthe marked or unmarked portion of theroadway designated for pedestrians to crossthe street

crosswalk beaconamber flashing lights, usually accompanied bya sign, used to notify motorists of a pedestriancrosswalk

CTRcommute trip reduction; legislation requiresmajor employers in the eight most populouscounties in the state to take measures toreduce the number of single-occupant vehicletrips and the number of vehicle miles traveledby their employees

cul de saca street closed at one end that is enlarged toprovide turn around space for motor vehicles

culverta transverse drain under a roadway, canal, orembankment other than a bridge; mostculverts are fabricated with materials such ascorrugated metal and precast concrete pipe

curba rim along a street or roadway, an edge for asidewalk; a curb is usually constructed fromcement concrete, asphalt concrete, or granite;curbs create a physical barrier between theroadway and the planting strip, whichprovides a safer environment for pedestrians,and facilitates street drainage

218 Glossary


curb bulban extension of the curb line into the roadway

curb cutused to describe a depression in the curb toaccommodate a driveway; where there is nocurb, the point at which the driveway meetsthe roadway pavement is considered the curbcut

curb linethe edge of a roadway; it may or may not bemarked by a curb

curb radiusrefers to the degree of curvature of the curb ata corner; other conditions being equal, a largecurb radius allows right-turning vehicles toturn more quickly than a small curb radius

curb rampthe area of the sidewalk, usually at theintersection, that allows easy access/transitionfor wheelchairs, strollers, and other wheeledequipment, between the sidewalk and thestreet

DCDDepartment of Community Development;state agency responsible for undertaking stateduties arising from the Growth ManagementAct

DCLUDepartment of Construction and Land Use

dead-end streetstreet-end formed when an existing right-of-way is not platted through from street tostreet, or when topography or other conditionspreclude a street from being improved to itsfull length

DLCDDepartment of Land Conservation andDevelopment

DONDepartment of Neighborhoods

DOTDepartment of Transportation can refer to USDOT or a state DOT

drainage swalea shallow, grassy drainage channel thataccommodates surface water runoff; used onstreet without curbs and gutters

drivewaythe portion of the street or alley area whichprovides vehicle access to an off-street areathrough a depression in the curb

EACEnhancement Advisory Committee; setscriteria for projects to receive funding fromthe Enhancements Program and recommendsprojects to WSDOT

effective sidewalk widththe width of the sidewalk area available forwalking or wheelchair travel, unobstructed bystreet furniture or other impediments

EPAEnvironmental Protection Agency; federalagency responsible for monitoring andensuring compliance with air qualitystandards at the state level

ETCemployee transportation coordinator;businesses affected by CTR designate a staffperson as an employee transportationcoordinator to implement and coordinate thecompany’s compliance with that law

219Glossary


FHWAFederal Highway Administration; agency ofthe USDOT with jurisdiction over highways

fire lanean area on public or private property reservedfor providing fire department access tostructures, fire-sighting fixtures or equipment

fog linethe white line at the outside edge of the motorvehicle travel lane, used to designate theboundary of the vehicle travel lane

frontage roada road designated and designed to serve localtraffic parallel and adjacent to a highway orarterial street

FTAThe Federal Transit Administration is theUSDOT agency with jurisdiction over transit

GMAGrowth Management Act; requires all citiesand counties in the state to do planning thataddresses the negative consequences ofpopulation growth and suburban sprawl

gradea measure of the steepness of a roadway,bikeway or walkway, expressed in a ratio ofvertical rise per horizontal distance, usually inpercent; e.g. a 5 percent grade equals 5 m ofrise over a 100 m horizontal distance

grade separationthe vertical separation of conflictingtravelways with a structure

grade-separated crossingan interchange between roadways, railways,or pathways that provides for the movementof traffic on different levels

green timethe length of time a traffic signal indicates agreen light

highwaya general term denoting a public way forpurposes of travel, including the entire areawithin the right-of-way

HOVhigh-occupancy vehicle; a car carrying enoughpeople to be able to travel in the HOV/diamond lane, or a vanpool or bus

inletan opening at the surface of the groundthrough which runoff water enters thedrainage system

intersectiona place or area where two or more roads cross

ISTEAIntermodal Surface Transportation EfficiencyAct; 1991; implemented broad changes in theway transportation decisions are made byemphasizing diversity and balance of modesand preservation of existing systems overconstruction of new facilities

jaywalkingcrossing a street illegally; includes walkingagainst a traffic control device, or stepping outin front of a moving vehicle so as to present animmediate danger, whether in a crosswalk ornot, or crossing at an intersection outside of acrosswalk

kioska small freestanding structure either open orpartially closed, where merchandise isdisplayed, advertised, or sold, or where noticesare displayed

220 Glossary


landmarka building, structure or site that has historicalor architectural significance, especially astructure designated as a landmark pursuantto the Landmarks Preservation Ordinance

landscape lightinglighting that is designed to accompany andilluminate landscaping features

lane linea solid or broken paint line or other markerseparating lanes of traffic moving in the samedirection

LCDCLand Conservation and DevelopmentCommission

legendworks, phases or numbers appearing on all orpart of a traffic control device; also thesymbols that appear on maps

LIDLocal Improvement District

load and unload zonea portion of the street or alley, designated by asign and white paint markings, reserved forpicking up and dropping off people or property

local streeta street designated to provide access to andfrom residences or businesses

loop detectora wire buried in the street and connected to atraffic signal allowing the signal to sense thepresence of vehicle traffic

major truck streeta street designated to provide access to truckswith local and non-local destinations

marked crosswalkany portion of the roadway distinctly indicatedfor pedestrian or bicycle crossing by lines,marking, or other traffic control devices

mediana physical barrier, or a solid yellow or crosshatched pavement marking at least 18" inwidth, which divides any street into two ormore roadways

motor vehiclea vehicle that is self-propelled or designed forself-propulsion

MPOMetropolitan Planning Organization; theagency designated by the governor toadminister the federally requiredtransportation planning process in urbanareas with a population over 50,000; the MPOis responsible for the 20-year long range planand the Transportation ImprovementProgram

multi-use patha path physically separated from motorvehicle traffic by an open space or barrier andeither within a highway right-of-way or withinan independent right-of-way, used bybicyclists, pedestrians, joggers, skaters andother non-motorized travelers

MUTCDManual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices;approved by the Federal HighwayAdministration as a national standard forplacement and selection of all traffic controldevices on or adjacent to all highways open topublic travel

NHSNational Highway System; designated byCongress; contains all interstate routes, a

221Glossary


large percentage of urban and rural principalarterials, and strategic highways andconnectors

NMF(P)Neighborhood Matching Fund (Program);administered by the Department ofNeighborhoods

off-street parkingpublicly or privately owned parking locatedoutside the street right-of-way

open spaceland and/or water area with its surface open tothe sky or predominantly undeveloped, whichis set aside to serve the purposes of providingpark and recreation opportunities, conservingvaluable resources, and structuring urbandevelopment and form

pavement markingspainted or applied lines or legends placed on aroadway surface for regulating, guiding orwarning traffic

pedestriana person on foot, in a wheelchair or walking abicycle

pedestrian detectorsdevices, usually push-button activated, thatallow pedestrians or bicycles to change thesignal light at a crosswalk

pedestrian facilitya facility proved for the benefit of pedestriantravel, including walkways, crosswalks, signs,signals, illumination and benches

pedestrian half signala traffic control signal often located at thejunction of an arterial and a residential street,which provides pedestrian signals for crossing

the arterial but not for crossing the residentialstreet

pedestrian overpassa pedestrian walkway above the grade of theroadway, which allows pedestrians to cross theroadway without interacting with motorvehicles

pedestrian refuge islanda defined area between traffic lanes thatprovides a safe place for pedestrians to wait asthey cross the street

pedestrian scale lightingoverhead street lighting which is typicallyover the sidewalk instead of the roadway, andat a lower height than typical street lightfixtures; providing illumination forpedestrians instead of motorists

pedestrian signalselectronic devices used for controlling themovement of pedestrians at signalized mid-blocks or intersections, which may include the“walk/don’t walk” messages or the symbolicwalking person/hand message

pedestrian walkwaya surfaced walkway, separated from theroadway, usually of crushed walk or asphaltconcrete, and following the existing groundsurface (not at permanent grade)

pedestrian-friendlydescribing an environment that is pleasantand inviting for people to experience on foot;specifically, offering sensory appeal, safety,street amenities such as plantings andfurniture, good lighting, easy visual andphysical access to buildings, and diverseactivities

222 Glossary


planting stripthe street right-of-way area lying between theconstructed curb and the sidewalk

principal arteriala main traffic route which connects majoractivity centers, usually characterized by triplengths of two miles or more

priority networka comprehensive plan designation indicatingthe primary function(s) of a street; transitpriority networks, major truck streets, andprincipal arterials

residential parking zonea designated zone in which on-street parkingfor the general public is restricted. Residentsof the area are exempted from the parkingrestrictions by permit

residential streeta non-arterial street that provides access toresidential land uses, and connects to higherlevel traffic streets; also called residentialaccess street

resurfacingthe placing of a new surface on an existingpavement to improve its conformation or toincrease its strength

retaining wall a structure used to sustain the pressure of theearth behind it

right-of-waya strip of land platted, dedicated, condemned,established by prescription, or otherwiselegally established for the use of pedestrians,vehicles or utilities; the legal right of onevehicle, bicycle, pedestrian or device toproceed in a lawful manner in preference toanother vehicle, bicycle, pedestrian or device

roadwaythe paved portion of the highway

RTARegional Transportation Authority; one of theagencies established by legislation which hasthe ability to provide high capacity transit

RTPORegional Transportation PlanningOrganizations; created by local governmentsto coordinate transportation planning amongjurisdictions and to develop regionaltransportation plans

rules of the roadthe portion of a motor vehicle law thatcontains regulations governing the operationof vehicular and pedestrian traffic

sandwich boardsstand-up A-shaped signs often placed on thesidewalk or street right-of-way to advertise abusiness or an attraction

sanitary sewera piped system which is owned, operated, andmaintained by a local municipality or sanitarydistrict, and that is designed to carry onlysewage

school crossinga crossing adjacent to a school or onestablished school pedestrian routes,designated as a preferred crossing for schoolusers

school zonean established reduced speed area; installedaround established school crossing; speedlimits are posted at 20 mph

SEDSeattle Engineering Department

223Glossary


SEPAState Environmental Policy Act; requires theevaluation of environmental impactsassociated with a project or agency actionprior to approval

service lanethe curb lane that provides access tobusinesses for service vehicles

setbackthe required or actual placement of a buildinga specified distance away from a road,property line, or other structures

shared roadwaya type of bikeway where bicyclists and motorvehicles share a travel lane

shoulderthe paved or unpaved area between theroadway edge and the property line;contiguous to the travel lanes; provided forpedestrians, bicyclists, emergency use byvehicles and for lateral support of base andsurface courses

shoulder bikewaya type of bikeway where bicyclists travel on apaved shoulder

shy distancethe distance between the edge of a travelwayand a fixed object

side sewera privately owned system for transporting anddisposing of drainage water and sewage

sidewalka walkway separated from the roadway with acurb, constructed of a durable, hard andsmooth surface, designed for preferential orexclusive use by pedestrians

sidewalk, concretethe improved portion of a street or roadwaybetween the curb lines and the adjacentproperty lines, intended for use by pedestrians

sight distancethe length of roadway visible to a driver; thedistance a person can see along anunobstructed line of sight

signal timingthe green time allotted each direction oftravel;the time between start of green for adjacent/sequential traffic signals

signsprovide information to motorists, pedestriansand bicyclists; black and white regulatorysigns provide information on legalrequirements; black and yellow warning signsadvise about potentially hazardous roadwayconditions; green or white guide/destinationsigns provide navigational information alongstreets, and inform about intersecting routesand important destination

skew anglethe angle formed between a roadway, bikewayor walkway and an intersecting roadway,bikeway, walkway or railway, measured awayfrom the perpendicular

slopeground that forms a natural or artificialincline

slope linethe line where the graded portion of theroadway from the center line toward the edgechanges to the transition slope required tomeet the surface of the abutting privateproperty

224 Glossary


SOVsingle-occupancy vehicle

staired streetstreet rights-of-way on hillsides which havebeen developed as stairs for pedestrians, notroadways for motor vehicle use

STIPStatewide Transportation ImprovementProgram; a three-year transportationinvestment strategy which addresses the goalsof the state long-range plan and lists priorityprojects and activities throughout the state

stop bara painted stripe across a traffic lane toindicate where vehicles should stop at a stopsign or a traffic signal

storm draina system of gutters, pipes or ditches used tocarry storm water from surrounding lands tostreams and lakes, and larger bodies of water

STPSurface Transportation Program; one of thekey capital programs in Title I of ISTEA; itprovides flexibility in expenditure of roadfunds for nonmotorized and transit modes andfor a category of activities known astransportation enhancements

street furnitureaccessories and amenities placed on sidewalksfor the convenience and accommodation ofpedestrians; these may include such things asbenches or other seating, trash receptacles,drinking fountains, planter, kiosks, clocks,newspaper dispensers, or telephones

street improvementan improvement in the public right-of-way,whether above or below ground, such as

pavement, sidewalks, or a storm waterdrainage system

street treea tree planted within public right-of-way

street tree gratesgrates, usually metal and often decorative,that cover street tree pits and allow air andwater to reach the soil

street tree pitscutouts from a sidewalk or paved plantingstrip, to allow air and water to reach the treesplanted in the cutout

street-endformed where an existing right-of-way ends oris not platted through from street to street,often due to topographical conditions (such asbluffs or shorelines)

streetscapethe visual character of a street as determinedby elements such as structures, greenery,driveways, open space, view, and othernatural and man-made components

structurea bridge, retaining wall or tunnel

SymmsNational Recreational Trail Funds; Symmsafter the Senator; for recreational trails orrelated projects

T-intersectionthe meeting of two streets, usuallyperpendicular, where one of the streets doesnot continue through; approximatelyresembling the letter “t”

225Glossary


TDMTransportation Demand Management;measures attempt to reduce the proportion oftrips made by SOV

TEATransportation Enhancement Activities; thepercent of the STP funds for TransportationEnhancement Activities (bike facilities,landscaping, etc)

TIPTransportation Improvement Program; athree-year investment strategy requiredunder ISTEA which addresses the goals of thelong-range plans and lists priority projects forthe region

TMATransportation Management Association;voluntary groups set up to manage and reducethe number of trips taken in an area; theseassociations are frequently created andmanaged by employees; subject to specialrequirements under ISTEA and in some casesbenefit form preferential treatment withregard to air quality needs and local authorityto select transportation projects; any urbanarea over 200,000 population is automaticallya TMA

traffic actuated signala signal that responds to the presence of avehicle or pedestrian (for motor vehicles, loopdetectors; for pedestrians, usually pushbuttons)

traffic calmingof or relating to transportation techniques,programs, or facilities intended to slow themovement of motor vehicles

traffic control deviceany sign, signal, marking, or device placed orerected for the purpose of regulating, warning,

or guiding vehicle traffic and/or nonmotorizedtraffic

traffic signalany traffic device, whether manually,electrically or mechanically operate, whichassigns right-of-way to vehicles andpedestrians at intersections

traffic volumethe given number of vehicles that pass a givenpoint for a given amount of time (hour, day,year); see “ADT”

transit priority networkconsisting of those streets and highways thatcarry local and regional transit trips, asdesignated in Seattle’s comprehensive plan

transit stop or transit stationa regular stopping place on a transit routethat may include transit shelter and parking

travel laneroadway lanes on which traffic moves

TSPTransportation System Plan; the overall planfor all transportation modes for a given area(usually city, county or MPO)

two-way left turn lane a lane near the center of the roadway setaside for use by vehicles making left turns inboth directions from or into the roadway

UGBUrban Growth Boundary; the areasurrounding an incorporated city in which thecity may legally expand its city limits

226 Glossary


uncontrolled intersectionan intersection where the right-of-way is notcontrolled by a stop sign, yield sign, or trafficsignal

urban areathe area immediately surrounding anincorporated city or rural community that isurban in character, regardless of size

urban trailsoff-road trails, special bike lanes, and signedroutes in the street right-of-way

utility polespoles used to carry utility wires, such aselectric, cable television, telephone, orelectrified trolley wire; may belong to Metro,telephone companies, power companies, or anycombination of these

vehicleany device in, upon or by which any person orproperty is or may be transported or drawnupon a highway, including vehicles that areself-propelled or powered by any means

VMTvehicle miles traveled; describes the numberof miles traveled during a typical trip, i.e., acommute trip; it can serve as an indicator forTDM activities

walkwaya transportation facility built for use bypedestrians, including persons in wheelchairs;walkways include sidewalks, paths and pavedshoulders

wide outside lanea wider than normal curbside travel lane thatis provided for ease of bicycle operation wherethere is insufficient room for a bike lane orshoulder bikeway

WSDOTWashington State Department ofTransportation

227

Index


Indexaccess to transit 107, 176-183access management (and traffic regulation) 106-108, 131accessible building entrances 189, 193accessible routes of travel 35, 187-188

as connecting routes through sites 46accessibility 33-47

clear travel area at intersections 119clearances 37eliminating barriers and obstacles 35-37levels of accessibility on recreational trails 69-70requirements, summarized 47sidewalks and walkways 87-89signing and other communication aids 46surfacing treatments 45textural and visual cues 45trails and pathways 68-70walkways and accessible routes of travel 187-188widths of accessible travel ways 37

ADA (see Americans with Disabilities Act)advance warning signs:

in school zones; prior to school bus stops 62, 63prior to intersections and mid-block crossings 123, 149

advisory group/reviewers 3, 4aids to pedestrians 15-16

older pedestrians 15people with disabilities 15,16

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 33-34 (also see accessibility, above)artwork (in pedestrian environments) 183barriers and obstacles (eliminating them) 35-37barriers (concrete/New Jersey) 97bicycles/bikes on sidewalks 104-105bike lanes (as separation between pedestrians and vehicles) 97boardwalks and trestles 157-158bollards - design and placement of on trails and pathways 79bridges (see overpasses and bridges)building frontage zone (of urban sidewalk) 101building location and design 193bus shelters, covered walkways 178, 188, 202bus stops/zones:

228

Index


access to, as part of site design 186, 191schools 56-57transit 177-181

chicanes 164, 168children 10-11, 14, 49-65clearances:

clear travel areas at intersections 119lateral clearances along multi-use trails and pathways; sidewalks/

walkways 75, 97-99related to accessible travel 37related to utilities/furnishings 97-98vertical clearances along sidewalks/walkways and trails/pathways 75,

collisions (involving pedestrians and vehicles):common characteristics of 10common types of collisions involving children (aged K-6) 49fatalities (based on speed of vehicle) 10statistics for children and older adults 11

colored paving (colored/textured) at intersections 139concrete (New Jersey) barriers 97covered walkways 178

in work zones 202cross slopes 38, 77, 90crossing distance (reducing/minimizing):

at intersections 123-129, 133 (crossing distance related to speed andtime)

curb bulb-outs/extensions 128-129medians and center refuge islands 127-128right-turn channelization lane with refuge island (slip lane) 125-127skewed and multiple intersections (avoiding and reconfiguring) 129through curb return radius reduction/shortening 123-125

crossing guards and student patrols at crossings 61-62crossings 141-159

boardwalks and trestles 157-158fencing, barriers, signs, landscaping, etc. to channelize

pedestrians 150-151flashing beacons at mid-block 148-149grade separated crossings 152-156marked crosswalks at mid-block 143-145medians and center refuge islands at 127-128, 145-148markings (see crosswalks)mid-block crossings 141-151multi-use trails and pathways - street crossings 156-157overpasses and bridges 153-155portable pedestrian flags at 150-151railroad crossings 151-152

229

Index


raised mid-block crossings 148signing at intersections 123signing at mid-block crossings 149street lighting at mid-block 150underpasses and tunnels 156

crosswalks:at signalized locations (school areas) 60determining the need for marked crosswalks/crossing treatments at

intersections 116dimensions of 119-120effectiveness of marked crosswalks/crossing treatments at

intersections 115guidelines for installation of crosswalk markings 117-119marked crosswalks at mid-block crossings 143-145marked crosswalks in school zones/along school walk routes 59marked crosswalks vs. unmarked 59, 116-119markings/striping, types of 120-122

dashed crosswalk markings 121horizontal bar crosswalk markings 120-121ladder bar crosswalk markings 120-121piano crosswalk markings 120-121solid crosswalk markings 121zebra crosswalk markings 120-121

raised pavement markers/rumble strips in advance of 122stop bars 120, 122stop-controlled crosswalks (school areas) 60use of crosswalks at intersections 115

cul-de-sac/street closures 165, 169curb (vertical) 94-95

extruded curbing 95rolled curbing (strongly discouraged) 95timber curbing 95

curb and gutter 94-95curb extensions/bulb-outs (chokers, neck-downs):

as traffic calming tools 164, 169at intersections 128-129

curb radius reduction/shortening at intersections to minimize crossingdistance 123-125

benefits and disadvantages of curb radius shortening 125curb ramp (sidewalk curb ramp) 39-43

curb ramps for accessibility at intersections 41-43curb ramps at intersections 122

dashed (European) crosswalk markings 121design:

definition of 2

230

Index


importance of good design 24-25design for people with disabilities 34design for older adults 34design for children 49, 50

design toolkit 22-204diagonal diverters (traffic calming device) 165, 169dimensions of:

accessible facilities 37-38, 40, 47building frontage zone (of sidewalk) 101crosswalks 119-120curb ramps (sidewalk) 40curbing placement 96handrails 43medians and refuge islands 126, 147on-street parking setbacks (recommended) 130overhead crossings 155parking overhangs 106passing, waiting and resting areas 89pavement cross sections for trails 76pedestrian travel zone (of sidewalk) 101planting buffers/planting zones 88, 92-93, 101-102, 190railings 78school bus stops 56-57separation between road and multi-use pathway 73sidewalks and walkways 88-89 (see table page 89)shoulders (walking shoulders) 103-104spatial dimensions of pedestrians 13-16speed humps 170-171stairway/steps treads and risers 195traffic circles 167trails and pathways 70-75 (see table page 75)transit stops 177-180underpasses 157

ditches/swales (as separation treatments) 94drainage/drainage inlets and grates 77, 90, 122driveways/driveway design 43-45, 106-108, 188-191

access management and driveways 106-108considerations related to accessibility 43-45wide planting areas at driveways (benefits for pedestrians) 190

driveway design comparisons (best conditions for pedestrians) 189dual turning movements at intersections 135edge/separation treatments 92-97

bike lanes as separation 97concrete (New Jersey) barriers 97curb and gutter/vertical curb 94-95

231

Index


ditches/swales as separation 94extruded and timber curbing 95-96planting buffers 92-94raised pavement markers 96-97rolled curb (strongly discouraged) 95

extruded curb/curbing 95fatalities (for pedestrians, based on vehicle speeds) 10fixtures/planting zone (of urban sidewalks) 102fencing, barriers, signs, landscaping, etc. to channelize pedestrians

at mid-block crossings 150-151flashing beacons:

at mid-block locations 148-149at school crossings 60-61

forecasting pedestrian use/travel 19assessing the need for pedestrian facilities 20

forced turns and partial diverters (traffic calming device) 165full street closure (as a traffic calming technique) 165, 169glossary 215-226grades (longitudinal) 38, 77, 90grade separation/grade separated crossings 61, 136, 152-156

at intersections (minimizing conflicts with motor vehicles) 136determining the need for 152-153in school areas 61overpasses and bridges 153-155underpasses and tunnels 156

guidebook users, anticipated 2guidelines, others to reference 5, 6handrails 43horizontal bar crosswalk markings 120-121increasing pedestrian travel:

through installation of pedestrian facilities 17-20through mixed use development 198through transit/bus stop improvements 177-179

innovative techniques:alternative color school signs 63portable pedestrian flags 150-151PUFFIN and PELICON devices 150soft sandwich signs 150

interchanges (freeway) and expressway ramps 135-136intersections 113-140

basic principles of intersection design to accommodate pedestrians 114clear travel area for pedestrians at 119common design practices for pedestrian crossings at 114-123crossing treatments, design of 115-122crosswalk dimensions 119-120

232

Index


crosswalk markings at intersections 115-122(see page references for specific types of markings under“crosswalks”)

curb ramps at 122determining the need for crossing treatments at intersections 116drainage inlets and grates at intersections 122effects of pedestrian improvements on vehicle capacity at 114grade separation (minimizing conflicts with motor vehicles) 136interchanges (freeway) and expressway ramps 135-136lighting at 122marked vs. unmarked crosswalks at intersections 116-119medians and refuge islands at intersections 125-128minimizing crossing distances at intersections 123-129

(see page references for specific techniques under “crossing distance”)minimizing pedestrian/motor vehicle conflicts at 129-139multi-use trails and pathways intersections and street crossings 156-157raised pavement markers/rumble strips in advance of 122signs related to pedestrian crossings at intersections 123stop bars at 120, 122turning movements/conflicts 134-135traffic circles vs. roundabouts at intersections 136-138uncontrolled, guidelines for installation of marked crosswalks at 118

ladder bar crosswalk markings 120-121landings 38, 42landscaping, vegetation, and furnishings:

along trails and pathways 79as part of site design 194landscaping and street trees along sidewalks 99root barriers (adjacent to sidewalks/walkways; trails/pathways) 80

land use/mixed use site development 198lighting (see also street lighting):

accessibility requirements 46along streets sidewalks 100at intersections 122at mid-block crossings (under design considerations) 150along trails and pathways 80

maintenance:in school zones 64in work zones 204of trails and pathways 80of sidewalks and walkways 109-110

marked crosswalks:at mid-block 143-145guidelines for the installation of 117-119dimensions 119-120

233

Index


effectiveness and use of 115in school areas 59versus unmarked at intersections 116-119stop bars 120, 122types of markings 120-122

dashed crosswalk markings 121horizontal bar crosswalk markings 120-121ladder bar crosswalk markings 120-121piano crosswalk markings 120-121solid crosswalk markings 121zebra crosswalk markings 120-121

meandering walkways 94medians and refuge islands:

at intersections 127-128at mid-block crossings 145-148design guidelines for 147traffic calming benefits of 168

mid-block crossings 141-151advanced warning signs and pedestrian crossing signs at 149design of 143-151determining the need for 142-143fencing, barriers, signs, landscaping, sidewalk ramps to channelize

pedestrians at mid-block 150-151flashing beacons at 148-149marked crosswalks at 143-145medians and refuge islands at 145-148pedestrian actuated signals at 145PUFFIN and PELICON devices at 150raised crossings at 148soft sandwich at 150street lighting at mid-block (under design considerations) 150

mixed use development 198checklist for successful mixed use 198

motor vehicles, minimizing conflicts with at intersections 129-139interchanges (freeways) and expressway ramps 135-136crossing distances, speeds and times 133grade separation 61, 136, 152-156on-street parking restrictions near intersections 130-131sight distance at intersection corners 129signalization at intersections 131-135traffic regulation and access management 131turning movements/conflicts 134-135visibility and sight distance 129-131

multiple intersections (avoiding and reconfiguring) 129multi-use trails and pathways (see also trails and pathways):

234

Index


delineation/separation treatments on 71,72intersections and crossings 156minimizing conflicts between users 70-72next to roadways 72separation from roadways 72-75

narrowed streets (traffic calming approach) 165, 167-168needs of pedestrians 11-16neighborhood gateways (traffic calming approach) 166, 172neighborhood traffic calming/management 27, 162-173New Jersey concrete barriers 97on-site circulation and parking 191-192one-way streets (considerations for pedestrians) 107-109one-way entry/exit (traffic calming device) 165overhead crossings (see overpasses and bridges)overhead signs at crossings 149overpasses and bridges 153-155

aesthetics 153design load 153-154geometry 154safety 154skywalks and skyways 154-155structure selection 153

parabolic speed hump 171parking along streets (as buffer for pedestrians) 105-106parking setbacks (recommended on-street parking setbacks) for sightdistance 130-131park and ride facilities (access to) 181partial street closures/diverters 165, 169passing, waiting, and resting areas 37, 89pathways (see trails and pathways)pavement cross sections for trails 76pavement markings (school zones) 63-64pavement texture patterns 192-193paving and surfacing (trails and pathways) 76, 79 (thickened-edges)pedestrians:

about pedestrians/characteristics of 9-20collision statistics (see collisions)needs of 11-16spatial considerations/needs 13

pedestrian access to transit 176-183pedestrian actuated signals/actuators:

at intersections 132-133at mid-block 145crossing distances, speeds and times 133measures to improve the effectiveness of push buttons 132

235

Index


signal timing 133WALK signal timing 134

pedestrian characteristics by age group 14pedestrian comforts and support facilities 182-183, 197pedestrian detectors (see pedestrian actuated signals/actuators)pedestrian facility/facilities:

defined 2, 24assessing the need for 20, 84-85 (sidewalks)

pedestrian flags (portable) 150-151pedestrian friendly:

communities 26-27schools and school zones 53-54site design/development 185-199shopping centers 187streets 30-31, 97-100

pedestrian friendly site design checklist 186pedestrian half signal (see signals/signalized crossings)pedestrian needs 11-16

needs of children and older adults 14spatial needs 13

pedestrian overpass (see overpasses and bridges; grade separation)pedestrian plazas 195, 197pedestrian refuge island (see refuge islands and medians)pedestrian safety 9-11

ITE criteria for determining pedestrian safety deficiencies 85pedestrian scale 193pedestrian signals (see signals/signalized crossings)pedestrian systems:

community 28effective 28-29

pedestrian travel/trips:common reasons for low levels of pedestrian travel 19increasing through installation of pedestrian facilities and improvements

17-20increasing through mixed use development 198increasing through transit/bus stop improvements 177-179studies on 18-19travel characteristics 16-19types of trips 17, 18walking speeds/travel speeds 133

pedestrian travel zone (of urban sidewalks) 101-102pedestrian underpass (see underpasses and tunnels; grade separation)piano crosswalk markings 120-121planting buffers (as separation) 92-94

advantages and disadvantages of 92

236

Index


planting/fixtures zone (of urban sidewalks) 102plazas 195, 197policy for encouraging pedestrian travel (Washington State) 25portable pedestrian flags 150-151protective barriers 202PUFFIN and PELICON devices at crossings 150railings:

accessibility requirements 38-43adjacent to trails and pathways 77-78adjacent to sidewalks and walkways 90-91handrails 43

railroad crossings 151-152angle of crossing 152crossing design options 151signing and marking at 152surface smoothness at 152

raised crossings/crosswalks 172at mid-block 148

raised intersections 138-139,169-170raised pavement markers:

as separation 96-97prior to intersection crossings 122

ramps (longitudinal) 38, 39ramps, stairways, and steps 194-196reduced curb return radius (to minimize crossing distances at

intersections) 123-125reduced speed zones 58refuge islands:

as traffic calming tools 168at intersections 127-128at mid-block crossings 145-148at right-turn channelization lanes (slip lanes) 125-127design guidelines for 147

residential traffic management 162-163resource guide 205-214resting areas (along sidewalks and walkways) 89retaining walls (along sidewalks and walkways) 90-91right-turn channelization lanes (slip lanes) with refuge islands 125-127rolled curb/curbing (strongly discouraged) 95root barriers (adjacent to sidewalks/walkways; trails/pathways) 80roundabouts (comparisons with traffic calming circles) 136-138safety in work zones 201-204

considerations for pedestrian safety 202covered walkways 202fencing around work zones 201

237

Index


intersections and crossings near work zones 203maintenance in work zones 204protective barriers 202sidewalk closure during construction 202temporary pedestrian routes around work zones 203

sandwich board signs (see soft sandwich)schools/schools zones; school crossings and crosswalks 50-65

access routes to school 54crossing guard and student patrolled crosswalks 61-62elements of good school site design 53maintenance in school zones 64-65marked crosswalks in 59roadside improvements along school walk routes 55-56school as a community focal point 52school bus stop design 56-57school sign test program 63signing and marking in 62-64traffic control and crossings near schools 57-64visibility at crossings and along school walk routes 57

school site design example 54school walk routes 54-64

procedures for developing 64safety programs 64visibility at crossings and along school walk routes 57

seasonal and nighttime use of trails and pathways 80separation/edge treatments (adjacent to pedestrian travel ways) 92-97

bike lanes as separation 97concrete (New Jersey) barriers 97curb and gutter/vertical curb 94-95ditches/swales as separation 94extruded and timber curbing 95-96planting buffers 92-94raised pavement markers 96-97rolled curb (strongly discouraged) 95

shared parking lots 192shoulders as walkways (walkway shoulders/shoulder walkways) 55, 102-104

as walkways in rural areas 102-104operational considerations 104recommended shoulder dimensions 103shoulder surfacing and delineation 103

side slopes 77-78, 90-91,sidewalks (and walkways) 83-111

accessible/nonaccessible 54, 55clearances 98-99closure during construction 202

238

Index


curb ramps 39-43defined 86dimensions (recommended) 86, 88-89grades, cross slope and drainage 90in central business districts (CBDs) and downtowns 100-102in various settings (design treatments for) 85location - both sides vs. one side 87maintenance of 109-110passing, waiting and resting areas along sidewalks 89priorities for pedestrians traveling along streets 83side slopes, railings and walls along sidewalks 90-91signing along sidewalks and walkways 100surfacing treatments 91-92when and where needed 84-85width/dimensions 86

sight distance (see visibility/visual clearance/sight distance)signals/signalized crossings 60

crossing distances, speeds and times 133mid-block pedestrian actuated signals 145pedestrian actuated signals 132pedestrian indications 131-132push-buttons (actuators/detectors) 132-134

signal timing 133-134signs/signage 46, 166, 172

advanced warning signs and pedestrian crossing signs at mid-block 149along streets and sidewalks 100soft sandwich signs 150

site design for pedestrians 185-199thinking about pedestrians as part of site design 186to facilitate access to transit 191

sites used exclusively by pedestrians 195, 197skewed intersections (avoiding and reconfiguring) 129skywalks and skyways 154-155slopes (see cross slopes, grades, and side slopes)soft sandwich signs at crossings 150solid crosswalk markings 121spatial needs 13special paving:

at intersections 139traffic calming tool 166

speed humps/speed tables (traffic calming devices) 165, 170-172city of Bellevue speed hump design 171parabolic speed hump 171raised crosswalk/speed table 172

speed watch programs (traffic calming approach) 166

239

Index


stairs and steps 194-195height between landings 195landing dimensionsstairway width 195step dimensions 195tread design 195tread to riser ratio 195

standards, others to reference 5, 6state highways (pedestrian access along) 108-109

as main streets 108as connectors between towns and cities 109

stopping distances related to speed/pedestrian collisions 10-11street design (with the pedestrian in mind) 105-109

access management and driveway placement/design 106-108access to transit 107bike lanes as separation/buffer between pedestrians and vehicles 97on-street parking as buffer for pedestrians 105-106on-street parking setback requirements 130-131one-way streets - benefits and disadvantages for pedestrians 107-109parking along streets 105-106priorities for pedestrians travelling along streets 83separation treatments (between pedestrian travel way and street) 92-97street furnishings 97-98street trees 99(see also: pedestrian friendly - streets)

street furniture 97-98, 194street lighting:

along streets/sidewalks 100at intersections 122at mid-block (under design considerations) 150

street trees and landscaping along sidewalks 99student patrols and crossing guards at crossings 61-62student pedestrians 50-65

improving student pedestrian safety - a cooperative process 50-51school related pedestrian facilities 51-64

studies on pedestrian travel 18-19Harris Poll (1990) 19National Biking and Walking Study (1993) 18-19University of Washington (Vernez-Moudon 1997) 18,Youth Link Transportation Survey (City of Bellevue 1992) 19

surfacing treatments:accessible travel ways 45trails and pathways 76sidewalks and walkways 91-92

textural/visual cues 45

240

Index


textured or colored paving at intersections 139thickened-edge pavement design (along trails and pathways) 79traffic calming 58-59, 161-173in school areas 58-59purpose of 162traffic calming and management methods 163-173

common residential traffic management program actions 164common types of traffic calming methods 164-166

traffic calming circles 58-59, 136-138, 164, 166-167traffic control devices 131-136traffic regulation (access management) 131trails and pathways 67-81

accessibility of 68-69across multiple jurisdictions 67bollard design and placement along 79connections and crossings 78crossings/intersections with streets 156-157dimensions (recommended) 74-75grades, cross slopes and drainage 77levels of accessibility on recreational trails 69-70maintenance 80managing motor vehicle access 78-79multi-use, considerations for 70-75paving and surfacing 76recreational trails, design guidelines for 70regional connectivity 68seasonal and nighttime use of trails and pathways 80shoulders, side slopes, railings along 77-78split-pathway entrance 80thickened-edge pavement design 79

transit (access to) 176-183as part of street design 107coordination between agencies 183

transit centers 181transit compatible design 176transit facilities for pedestrians:

how to improve transit facilities 177-179increasing pedestrian access 177-179low cost improvements 179

transit malls 182transit/bus shelters and covered walkways 178, 202

artwork at 183lighting at 182pedestrian comfort at 182-183security at 182

241

Index


transit stops and bus pullouts 177-181ADA requirements at bus stops 178same corner bus stop locations 180typical bus stop cross section 177widened sidewalk in bus loading area 177

travel characteristics (of pedestrians) 16-19types of trips 17, 18common reasons for low levels of pedestrian travel 19studies on pedestrian travel 18-19

trips (types of pedestrian trips) 17, 18tunnels (see underpasses and tunnels)turning conflicts (reducing) 135turning-movements at intersections:

dual turning movements/two-way left-turns 135reduced turning conflicts 135regulating at intersections 134-135

uncontrolled intersection:guidelines for installation of marked crosswalks at 118

underpasses and tunnels 156geometry 156safety 156

urban areas (pedestrian facilities in) 16-17urban streetside zones (sidewalks in urban areas) 101-102

building frontage zone 101fixtures planting zone 102pedestrian travel zone 101-102

urban trails (see trails and pathways)utilities (where to locate)

related clearances 97located in planting buffers 93

vegetation/landscaping (see landscaping)vehicle speed (as a factor in pedestrian collisions) 10-11visibility/visual clearance/sight distance:

at crossings and along school walk routes 57at intersections 129-134on-street parking restrictions 130-131recommended parking setback for sight distance 130

waiting areas (along sidewalks/walkways) 89walking distances (acceptable) 12walking speeds 12

related to crossing distance/time of crossing 133walkways (see also sidewalks):

defined 86-87dimensions (recommended) 87maintenance of 109-110

242

Index


meandering walkways 94shoulders as walkways in rural areas/shoulder design

treatments 102-104sidewalks and walkways (design toolkit) 83-111

walls (along sidewalks and walkways) 90-91Washington State Transportation Policy Plan (1994) 1Washington State Bicycle Transportation and Pedestrian Walkways

Plan (1995) 3widths/dimensions (also see dimensions)

of accessible pedestrian travel ways 37work zones:

considerations for pedestrian safety in 202covered walkways 202fencing around 201intersections and crossings near 203maintenances in 204protective barriers in 202safety in 201-204sidewalk closure during construction 202temporary pedestrian routes around 203

zebra crosswalk markings 120-121

243

Index


Pedestrian Facilities GuidebookMetric to English Conversion Chart

During the service life of this guidebook, use of the metric system in the United States is expected toexpand. The following common factors represent the appropriate magnitude of conversion. Thequantities given in U.S. customary units in the text, tables, or figures, represent a precision level that,in practice, typically does not exceed two significant figures. In making conversions, it is important notto falsely imply a greater accuracy in the product than existed in the original dimensions or quantity.However, certain applications such as surveying, structures, curve offset calculations, etc. may requiregreat precision. Conversions for such purposes are given in parentheses

Length

25.40 mm (millimeters - 25.40) = 1 inch 2.54 cm (centimeters - 2.54) = 1 inch 0.30 m (meters - 0.3048) = 1 foot 0.61 m (meters - 0.6096 = 2 feet 0.91 m (meters - 0.9144) = 3 feet 1.22 m (meters - 1.2192) = 4 feet 1.52 m (meters - 1.524 = 5 feet 1.83 m (meters - 1.8288) = 6 feet 2.13 m (meters - 2.1336) = 7 feet 2.44 m (meters - 2.4384) = 8 feet 2.74 m (meters - 2.7432) = 9 feet 3.05 m (meters - 3.048) = 10 feet 6.10 m (meters - 6.096) = 20 feet15.24 m (meters - 15.24) = 50 feet30.48 m (meters - 30.48) = 100 feet 0.91 m (meters - 0.9144) = 1 yard 1.60 km (kilometers - 1.61) = 1 mile

Volume

16.39 cm3 (16.87) = 0.03 m3 (0.02832) = 0.77 m3 (0.7646) = 0.95 L (liter - 0.9464) = 3.79 L (liter - 3.785) =

1 cubic yard

Speed 0.31 ms (0.3048) = 1.61 km/h (1.609) = miles/hour

foot/sec.

0.09 m2 (0.0929) = 0.84 m2 (0.836) =

Area

1 square foot1 square yard

11.0 lux (lumens per m2 - 10.8) =Light

1 footcandle

For other units refer to the American Society of Testing Materials (1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA19103) Standard for Metric Practice E 380.

Source: ITE Pedestrian Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities, adapted for use in this guidebook

1 quart

1 cubic foot1 cubic inch

1 gallon

Pedestrian Facilities GuidebookComment Request Form

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Toolkit 1 General Design GuidelinesToolkit 2 AccessibilityToolkit 3 Children and School ZonesToolkit 4 Trails and PathwaysToolkit 5 Sidewalks and WalkwaysToolkit 6 Intersections

Toolkit 7 CrossingsToolkit 8 Traffic CalmingToolkit 9 Pedestrian Access to TransitToolkit 10 Site Design for PedestriansToolkit 11 Safety in Work Zones

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Bicycle and Pedestrian ProgramWashington State Department ofTransportationP.O. Box 47393Olympia, WA 98504-7393

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Pedestrian Facilities Guidebook

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