Path of Purification 2011

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The Path of Purification

Visuddhimagga

Cira tihatu saddhammosabbe satt bhavantu sukhitatt

To my Upajjhya,the late venerable Pln Siri Vajiraa

Mahnyakathera of Vajirrma,Colombo, Sri Lanka.

The Path of Purification(Visuddhimagga)

byBhadantcariya Buddhaghosa

Translated from the Pali byBhikkhu amoli

1975, 1991, 2010 Buddhist Publication Society. All rights reserved.

First edition: 1956 by Mr. Ananda Semage, Colombo.Second edition: 1964Reprinted: 1979 by BPSThird edition: 1991Reprinted: 1999Fourth edition: 2010

National Library and Documentation CentreCataloguing-in-Publication Data

Buddhaghosa HimiThe Path of Purification: Visuddhimaga/Buddhaghosa Himi; tr. byNyanamoli Himi.- Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2010, 794p.; 23cm.-(BP No 207)

ISBN 978-955-24-0023-6

i. 294.391 DDC 22 ii. Titleiii. Nyanamoli Himi tr.

1. Buddhism 2. Theravada Buddhism

ISBN 978-955-24-0023-6

vCONTENTS(GENERAL)

Bibliography ........................................................................................ xixList of Abbreviations for Texts Used ................................................. xxiMessage from his Holiness the Dalai Lama .................................... xxiiiPublishers Foreword to Third Edition ........................................... xxivPublishers Foreword to Fourth Edition .......................................... xxivTranslators Preface ............................................................................ xxv

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... xxviii

THE PATH OF PURIFICATION

Part IVirtue (Sla)

CH. I DESCRIPTION OF VIRTUE ................................................................................... 5I. Introductory .......................................................................................... 5II. Virtue .................................................................................................... 10

CH. II THE ASCETIC PRACTICES ................................................................................ 55

Part IIConcentration (Samdhi)

CH. III TAKING A MEDITATION SUBJECT .................................................................... 81A. Development in Brief ......................................................................... 86B. Development in Detail ...................................................................... 87

The Ten Impediments ....................................................................... 87CH. IV THE EARTH KASIA ..................................................................................... 113

The Eighteen Faults of a Monastery .................................................... 113The Five Factors of the Resting Place .................................................. 116The Lesser Impediments ........................................................................ 116Detailed Instructions for Development ............................................... 117The Earth Kasia ..................................................................................... 117Making an Earth Kasia ....................................................................... 118Starting Contemplation ......................................................................... 119The Counterpart Sign ............................................................................. 120The Two Kinds of Concentration .......................................................... 121Guarding the Sign .................................................................................. 122The Ten Kinds of Skill in Absorption ................................................. 124The Five Similes ....................................................................................... 130Absorption in the Cognitive Series ...................................................... 131The First Jhna ......................................................................................... 133Extension of the Sign.............................................................................. 145The Second Jhna .................................................................................... 148The Third Jhna ....................................................................................... 151

vi

PATH OF PURIFICATION

The Fourth Jhna ..................................................................................... 156The Fivefold Reckoning of Jhna ......................................................... 160

CH. V THE REMAINING KASIAS ............................................................................ 162The Water Kasia ..................................................................................... 162The Fire and Air Kasias ....................................................................... 163The Blue and Yellow Kasia ................................................................. 164The Red, White, and Light Kasias ..................................................... 165The Limited-Space Kasia ..................................................................... 166General ...................................................................................................... 166

CH. VI FOULNESS AS A MEDITATION SUBJECT .......................................................... 169General Definitions ................................................................................. 169The Bloated, Livid, Festering, and Cut Up ......................................... 179The Gnawed, Scattered, Hacked and Scattered, Bleeding,

Worm-infested, and a Skeleton ................................................... 180General ...................................................................................................... 182

CH. VII SIX RECOLLECTIONS ..................................................................................... 186(1) Recollection of the Enlightened One ........................................... 188

Accomplished ................................................................................... 188Fully Enlightened ............................................................................ 192Endowed With Clear Vision and Virtuous Conduct ................ 194Sublime ............................................................................................... 196Knower of Worlds ............................................................................. 197Incomparable Leader of Men to be Tamed ................................. 201Teacher of Gods and Men .............................................................. 203Enlightened, Blessed ....................................................................... 204

(2) Recollection of the Dhamma.......................................................... 209Well Proclaimed ............................................................................... 209Visible Here and Now ..................................................................... 211Not Delayed ...................................................................................... 212Inviting of Inspection, Onward-Leading .................................... 213Is Directly Experienceable by the Wise ........................................ 214

(3) Recollection of the Sagha ............................................................. 215Entered on the Good, Straight, True, Proper Way ..................... 215Fit for Gifts, Fit for Hospitality ...................................................... 216Fit for Offering, Fit for Salutation, As an Incomparable

Field of Merit for the World ......................................................... 217(4) Recollection of Virtue ...................................................................... 218(5) Recollection of Generosity ............................................................. 219(6) Recollection of Deities .................................................................... 221General ...................................................................................................... 222

CH. VIII OTHER RECOLLECTIONS AS MEDITATION SUBJECTS ...................................... 225[(7) Mindfulness of Death] .................................................................... 225[(8) Mindfulness Occupied with the Body] ....................................... 236[(9) Mindfulness of Breathing] ............................................................. 259[(10) Recollection of Peace] .................................................................... 286

vii

CH. IX THE DIVINE ABIDINGS .................................................................................. 291[(1) Loving-Kindness] ............................................................................. 291[(2) Compassion] ..................................................................................... 308[(3) Gladness] ........................................................................................... 309[(4) Equanimity] ....................................................................................... 310

CH. X THE IMMATERIAL STATES ............................................................................ 321[(1) The Base Consisting of Boundless Space] .................................. 321[(2) The Base Consisting of Boundless Consciousness] .................. 326[(3) The Base Consisting of Nothingness] ......................................... 328[(4) The Base Consisting of Neither Perception nor

Non-Perception] ............................................................................. 330[General] ................................................................................................... 333

CH. XI CONCENTRATIONCONCLUSION:NUTRIMENT AND THE ELEMENTS ................................................................. 337[Perception of Repulsiveness in Nutriment] ...................................... 337[Defining of The Elements: Word Definitions] .................................. 344[Texts and Commentary in Brief] ......................................................... 345[In Detail] .................................................................................................. 346[Method of Development in Brief] ........................................................ 348[Method of Development in Detail] ..................................................... 349[(1) With Constituents in Brief] ............................................................. 349[(2) With Constituents by Analysis] .................................................... 349[(3) With Characteristics in Brief] ........................................................ 357[(4) With Characteristics by Analysis] ................................................ 358[Additional Ways of Giving Attention] ............................................... 358[Development of ConcentrationConclusion] ................................. 367[The Benefits of Developing Concentration] ...................................... 367

CH. XII THE SUPERNORMAL POWERS ........................................................................ 369[The Benefits of Concentration (Continued)] ..................................... 369[(1) The Kinds of Supernormal Power] ................................................ 369

CH. XIII OTHER DIRECT-KNOWLEDGES ....................................................................... 400[(2) The Divine Ear Element] ................................................................. 400[(3) Penetration of Minds] ...................................................................... 402[(4) Recollection of Past Lives] ............................................................... 404[(5) The Divine EyeKnowledge of Passing Away and

Reappearance of Beings] ............................................................. 415[General] ................................................................................................... 421

Part III Understanding (Pa)

CH. XIV THE AGGREGATES ........................................................................................ 431[A. Understanding] ................................................................................. 431[B. Description of the Five Aggregates] ............................................... 439

[The Materiality Aggregate] .......................................................... 439[The Consciousness Aggregate] ................................................... 455

CONTENTS (GENERAL)

viii


[The 89 Kinds of Consciousnesssee Table III] ................................ 456[The 14 Modes of Occurrence of Consciousness] ............................. 462

[The Feeling Aggregate] ................................................................. 466[The Perception Aggregate] ........................................................... 468

[The Formations Aggregatesee Tables II & IV] .............................. 468[According to Association with Consciousness] .............................. 469[C. Classification of the Aggregates] ................................................... 481

[Materiality] ...................................................................................... 481[Feeling] .................................................................................................... 484

[Perception, Formations and Consciousness] ............................ 486[D. Classes of Knowledge of the Aggregates] .................................... 486

CH. XV THE BASES AND ELEMENTS .......................................................................... 492[A. Description of the Bases] ................................................................. 492[B. Description of the Elements] ............................................................ 496

CH. XVI THE FACULTIES AND TRUTHS ........................................................................ 503[A. Description of the Faculties] ........................................................... 503[B. Description of the Truths] ................................................................ 506[The Truth of Suffering] ......................................................................... 510

[(i) Birth] ............................................................................................. 510[(ii) Ageing] ....................................................................................... 514[(iii) Death] ........................................................................................ 514[(iv) Sorrow] ....................................................................................... 515[(v) Lamentation] .............................................................................. 515[(vi) Pain] ........................................................................................... 516[(vii) Grief] ......................................................................................... 516[(viii) Despair] ................................................................................... 516[(ix) Association with the Unloved] .............................................. 517[(x) Separation from the Loved] ..................................................... 517[(xi) Not to Get What One Wants] ................................................. 517[(xii) The Five Aggregates] ............................................................. 518

[The Truth of the Origin of Suffering] ................................................. 518[The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering] ........................................... 519[Discussion on Nibbna] ....................................................................... 520[The Truth of the Way] ............................................................................ 524[General] ................................................................................................... 526

CH. XVII THE SOIL OF UNDERSTANDINGCONCLUSION:DEPENDENT ORIGINATION ............................................................................ 533[Section A. Definition of Dependent Origination] ............................ 533[Section B. Exposition] ............................................................................ 539[I. Preamble] .............................................................................................. 539[II. Brief Exposition] ................................................................................ 540[III. Detailed Exposition] ........................................................................ 547[(i) Ignorance] ........................................................................................... 547[(ii) Formations] ........................................................................................ 548[(iii) Consciousness] ............................................................................... 563[(iv) Mentality-Materiality] .................................................................... 579

ix

[(v) The Sixfold Base] .............................................................................. 583[(vi) Contact] ............................................................................................. 586[(vii) Feeling] ............................................................................................ 588[(viii) Craving] .......................................................................................... 589[(ix) Clinging] .......................................................................................... 590[(x) Becoming] .......................................................................................... 593[(xi)(xii) Birth, Etc.] ................................................................................ 597[Section C. The Wheel of Becoming] .................................................... 598[(i) The Wheel] .......................................................................................... 598[(ii) The Three Times] .............................................................................. 600[(iii) Cause and Fruit] ............................................................................. 600[(iv) Various] ............................................................................................. 603

CH. XVIII PURIFICATION OF VIEW ................................................................................. 609[Defining of Mentality-Materiality] ..................................................... 609[(1) Definition Based on the Four Primaries] ..................................... 609[(2) Definition Based on the Eighteen Elements] .............................. 612[(3) Definition Based on the Twelve Bases] ........................................ 612[(4) Definition Based on the Five Aggregates] ................................... 613[(5) Brief Definition Based on the Four Primaries] ............................ 613[If the Immaterial Fails to Become Evident] ........................................ 614[How the Immaterial States Become Evident] ..................................... 614[No Being Apart from Mentality-Materiality] ................................... 616[Interdependence of Mentality and Materiality] .............................. 618

CH. XIX PURIFICATION BY OVERCOMING DOUBT ........................................................ 621[Ways of Discerning Cause and Condition] ...................................... 621[Neither Created by a Creator nor Causeless] .................................... 621[Its Occurance is Always Due to Conditions] .................................... 622[General and Particular Conditions] ................................................... 622[Dependent Origination in Reverse Order] ........................................ 623[Dependent Origination in Direct Order] ........................................... 623[Kamma and Kamma-Result] ............................................................... 623[No Doer Apart from Kamma and Result] ......................................... 627[Full-Understanding of the Known] .................................................... 628

CH. XX PURIFICATION BY KNOWLEDGE & VISION OF WHAT IS/IS NOT THE PATH ..... 631[The Three Kinds of Full-Understanding] ......................................... 631[Insight: Comprehension by Groups] ................................................. 633[Comprehension by GroupsApplication of Text] ......................... 635[Strengthening of Comprehension in Forty Ways] ........................... 637[Nine Ways of Sharpening the Faculties, Etc. .................................... 639[Comprehension of the Material] ......................................................... 639

[(a) Kamma-Born Materiality] ....................................................... 640[(b) Consciousness-Born Materiality] .......................................... 641[(c) Nutriment-Born Materiality] ................................................... 642[(d) Temperature-Born Materiality] .............................................. 643

[Comprehension of the Immaterial] ..................................................... 644[The Material Septad] ............................................................................. 645

CONTENTS (GENERAL)

xPATH OF PURIFICATION

[The Immaterial Septad] ......................................................................... 652[The Eighteen Principal Insights] ........................................................ 654[Knowledge of Rise and FallI] ........................................................... 657[The Ten Imperfections of Insight] ...................................................... 660

CH. XXI PURIFICATION BY KNOWLEDGE AND VISION OF THE WAY ............................. 666[Insight: The Eight Knowledges] ......................................................... 667[1. Knowledge of Rise and FallII] ..................................................... 667[2. Knowledge of Dissolution] .............................................................. 668[3. Knowledge of Appearance as Terror] ............................................ 673[4. Knowledge of Danger] ...................................................................... 675[5. Knowledge of Dispassion] ............................................................... 678[6. Knowledge of Desire for Deliverance] ........................................... 679[7. Knowledge of Reflection] ................................................................. 679[Discerning Formations as Void] .......................................................... 681[8. Knowledge of Equanimity about Formations] ............................. 684[The Triple Gateway to Liberation] ...................................................... 685[The Seven Kinds of Noble Persons] .................................................... 688[The Last Three Knowledges are One] ................................................ 689[Insight Leading to Emergence] ........................................................... 690[The Twelve Similes] ............................................................................... 692[The Difference in the Noble Paths Factors, Etc.] .............................. 695[9. Conformity Knowledge] ................................................................... 698[Sutta References] .................................................................................... 699

CH. XXII PURIFICATION BY KNOWLEDGE AND VISION .................................................. 701[I. Change-of-Lineage, Paths, and Fruits] ........................................... 701[The First PathFirst Noble Person] .................................................... 701[The First FruitionSecond Noble Person] ........................................ 704[The Second PathThird Noble Person] ............................................ 705[The Second FruitionFourth Noble Person] .................................... 706[The Third PathFifth Noble Person] ................................................. 706[The Third FruitionSixth Noble Person] ......................................... 706[The Fourth PathSeventh Noble Person] .......................................... 706[The Fourth FruitionEighth Noble Person] .................................... 707[II. The States Associated with the Path, Etc.] ..................................... 707[The Four Functions] .............................................................................. 721[The Four Functions in a Single Moment] ......................................... 721[The Four Functions Described Separately] ....................................... 723[Conclusion] ............................................................................................. 728

CH. XXIII THE BENEFITS IN DEVELOPING UNDERSTANDING ......................................... 730[A. Removal of the Defilements] ............................................................ 730[B. The Taste of the Noble Fruit] ............................................................ 730[C. The Attainment of Cessation] .......................................................... 734[D. Worthiness to Receive Gifts] ............................................................ 742

xi

CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 745

Index of Subjects & Proper Names ................................................... 751Pali-English Glossary of Some Subjects and Technical Terms ........ 774

TABLE I THE MATERIALITY AGGREGATE ................................................................. 788TABLE II THE FORMATIONS AGGREGATE .................................................................. 789TABLE III THE CONSCIOUSNESS AGGREGATE ............................................................. 790TABLE IV THE COMBINATION OF THE FORMATIONS AGGREGATE AND

CONSCIOUSNESS AGGREGATE ....................................................................... 792TABLE V THE COGNITIVE SERIES IN THE OCCURRENCE OF CONSCIOUSNESS AS

PRESENTED IN THE VISUDDHIMAGGA AND COMMENTARIES ....................... 793TABLE VI DEPENDENT ORIGINATION .......................................................................... 794

CONTENTS (GENERAL)

xii


CONTENTS(DETAILED, BY TOPIC AND PARAGRAPH NO.)

PART I VIRTUE

1. Purification of Virtue

Para. Page

CHAPTER I DESCRIPTION OF VIRTUE ...................................................... 5I. Introductory ............................................................................................... 1II. Virtue ......................................................................................................... 16

(i) What is virtue? ................................................................................ 16(ii) In what sense is it virtue? ............................................................. 19(iii) What are its characteristic, etc.? ................................................. 20(iv) What are the benefits of virtue? .................................................. 23(v) How many kinds of virtue are there? ........................................ 251. Monad .................................................................................................. 262.8. Dyads .............................................................................................. 269.13. Triads ............................................................................................ 3314.17. Tetrads ........................................................................................ 39Virtue of the fourfold purification ..................................................... 4218.19. Pentads .................................................................................... 131(vi), (vii) What are the defiling and the cleansing of it? .......... 143

CHAPTER II THE ASCETIC PRACTICES ..................................................... 55

PART II CONCENTRATION

2. Purification of Consciousness

Para. Page

CHAPTER III TAKING A MEDITATION SUBJECT ...................................... 81Concentration ................................................................................................... 1

(i) What is concentration? .................................................................... 2(ii) In what sense is it concentration? ................................................ 3(iii) What are its characteristic, etc.? ................................................... 4(iv) How many kinds of concentration are there? ........................... 5(v), (vi) What are the defiling and the cleansing of it? ................ 26(vii) How is it developed?

(Note: this heading applies as far as Ch. XI, 110) ............... 27A. Development in brief ............................................................................. 27B. Development in detail (see note above) ............................................ 29

The ten impediments ............................................................................. 29The good friend ...................................................................................... 57

xiii

Meditation subjects, etc ........................................................................ 57Temperaments ........................................................................................ 74Definition of meditation subjects .................................................... 103Self-dedication ..................................................................................... 123Ways of expounding .......................................................................... 130

CHAPTER IV THE EARTH KASIA ......................................................... 113THE EIGHTEEN FAULTS OF A MONASTERY ....................................................2The five factors of the resting-place .......................................................... 19The lesser impediments ............................................................................... 20Detailed instructions for development .................................................... 21The earth kasia ............................................................................................. 21The two kinds of concentration ................................................................. 32Guarding the sign ......................................................................................... 34The ten kinds of skill in absorption ......................................................... 42Balancing the effort ....................................................................................... 66Absorption in the cognitive series ............................................................ 74The first jhna ................................................................................................ 79Extending the sign..................................................................................... 126Mastery in five ways .................................................................................. 131The second jhna ........................................................................................ 139The third jhna ........................................................................................... 153The fourth jhna ......................................................................................... 183The fivefold reckoning of jhna .............................................................. 198

CHAPTER V THE REMAINING KASIAS .................................................. 162The Water Kasia ............................................................................................. 1The Fire Kasia ................................................................................................ 5The Air Kasia .................................................................................................. 9The Blue Kasia ............................................................................................. 12The Yellow Kasia ......................................................................................... 15The Red Kasia .............................................................................................. 17The White Kasia .......................................................................................... 19The Light Kasia ........................................................................................... 21The Limited-Space Kasia .......................................................................... 24General ............................................................................................................. 27

CHAPTER VI FOULNESS AS A MEDITATION SUBJECT ............................... 169General definitions ......................................................................................... 1The bloated....................................................................................................... 12The Livid .......................................................................................................... 70The Festering .................................................................................................. 71The Cut Up ...................................................................................................... 72The Gnawed .................................................................................................... 73The Scattered ................................................................................................... 74

CONTENTS (DETAILED)

xiv


The Hacked and Scattered .......................................................................... 75The Bleeding ................................................................................................... 76Worm-infested ................................................................................................. 77A Skeleton ........................................................................................................ 78General ............................................................................................................. 82

CHAPTER VII SIX RECOLLECTIONS ......................................................... 186(1) Recollection of the Buddha ................................................................... 2(2) Recollection of the Dhamma ............................................................... 68(3) Recollection of the Sangha .................................................................. 89(4) Recollection of virtue ......................................................................... 101(5) Recollection of generosity ................................................................. 107(6) Recollection of deities ........................................................................ 115General .......................................................................................................... 119

CHAPTER VIII OTHER RECOLLECTIONS AS MEDITATION SUBJECTS ......... 225(7) Mindfulness of death .............................................................................. 1(8) Mindfulness occupied with the body .............................................. 42(9) Mindfulness of breathing ................................................................. 145(10) The recollection of peace .................................................................. 245

CHAPTER IX THE DIVINE ABIDINGS ...................................................... 291Loving kindness .............................................................................................. 1Compassion .................................................................................................... 77Gladness .......................................................................................................... 84Equanimity ...................................................................................................... 88General ............................................................................................................. 91

CHAPTER X THE IMMATERIAL STATES .................................................... 321The base consisting of boundless space ................................................... 1The base consisting of boundless consciousness ................................ 25The base consisting of nothingness ......................................................... 32The base consisting of neither perception nor non-perception........ 40General ............................................................................................................. 56

CHAPTER XI CONCENTRATION (CONCLUSION):NUTRIMENT AND THE ELEMENTS ................................................. 337

Perception of repulsiveness in nutriment ................................................. 1Definition of the four elements .................................................................. 27Development of concentrationconclusion ....................................... 118

(viii) What are the benefits of concentration? (see Ch. III, 1) . 120

CHAPTER XII THE SUPERNORMAL POWERS ............................................ 369The benefits of concentration ....................................................................... 1The five kinds of direct-knowledge ............................................................ 2

xv

(1) The kinds of supernormal power ......................................................... 2(i) Supernormal power as resolve ....................................................... 46(ii) Supernormal power as transformation ................................... 137(iii) Supernormal power as the mind-made body ....................... 139

CHAPTER XIII OTHER DIRECT-KNOWLEDGES ......................................... 400(2) The divine ear element ........................................................................... 1(3) Penetration of minds................................................................................ 8(4) Recollection of past life ........................................................................ 13(5) The divine eye ......................................................................................... 72General .......................................................................................................... 102

Part III Understanding (Pa)

The Soil in which Understanding Grows(Chs. XIV through XVII)

Para. Page

CHAPTER XIV THE AGGREGATES .......................................................... 431A. Understanding ......................................................................................... 1

(i) What is understanding? ................................................................. 2(ii) In what sense is it understanding? ............................................. 3(iii) What are its characteristic, etc.? ................................................... 7(iv) How many kinds of understanding are there? ........................ 8(v) How is it developed? (ends with end of Ch. XXII) ................. 32

B. Description of the five aggregates ..................................................... 33The materiality aggregate .................................................................... 34The consciousness aggregate ............................................................. 81The feeling aggregate ........................................................................ 125The perception aggregate ................................................................. 129The formations aggregate ................................................................. 131

C. Classification of the aggregates ...................................................... 185D. Classes of knowledge of the aggregates ....................................... 210

CHAPTER XV THE BASES AND ELEMENTS ............................................. 492A. Description of the bases ......................................................................... 1B. Description of the elements ................................................................. 17

CHAPTER XVI THE FACULTIES AND TRUTHS ......................................... 503A. Description of the faculties ................................................................... 1B. Description of the truths ...................................................................... 13

1. The truth of suffering .................................................................... 322. The truth of the origin of suffering ........................................... 613. The truth of the cessation of suffering ...................................... 62

Discussion of nibbana .................................................................. 67

CONTENTS (DETAILED)

xvi


4. The truth of the way ....................................................................... 75General .............................................................................................. 84

CHAPTER XVII THE SOIL OF UNDERSTANDING (CONCLUSION):DEPENDENT ORIGINATION ........................................................... 533

A. Definition of dependent origination ................................................... 1B. Exposition ................................................................................................ 25

I. Preamble ............................................................................................ 25II. Brief exposition ............................................................................... 27III. Detailed exposition ....................................................................... 58

(1) Ignorance .................................................................................. 58(2) Formations ................................................................................ 60

The 24 conditions ................................................................. 66How ignorance is a condition for formations .............. 101

(3) Consciousnes ........................................................................ 120(4) Mentality-materiality .......................................................... 186(5) The sixfold base .................................................................... 203(6) Contact .................................................................................... 220(7) Feeling ..................................................................................... 228(8) Craving ................................................................................... 233(9) Clinging ................................................................................. 239(10)Becoming (being) ................................................................. 249(1112) Birth, etc. ......................................................................... 270

C. The Wheel of Becoming ..................................................................... 273i. The Wheel ...................................................................................... 273ii. The three times ............................................................................. 284iii. Cause and fruit ............................................................................ 288iv. Various ............................................................................................ 299

3. Purification of View

CHAPTER XVIII PURIFICATION OF VIEW ................................................ 609I. Introductory ............................................................................................... 1II. Defining of mentality-materiality ........................................................ 3

1. Definitions of mentality-materiality ............................................ 3(1) Based on the four primaries ................................................... 3

(a) Starting with mentality ..................................................... 3(b) Starting with materiality .................................................. 5

(2) Based on the eighteen elements ............................................ 9(3) Based on the twelve bases .................................................... 12(4) Based on the five aggregates ............................................... 13(5) Brief definition ......................................................................... 14

2. If the immaterial fails to become evident ................................. 153. How the immaterial states become evident .............................. 184. No being apart from mentality-materiality ............................. 245. Interdependence of mentality and materiality ....................... 32Conclusion ............................................................................................... 37

xvii

4. Purification by Overcoming Doubt

CHAPTER XIX PURIFICATION BY OVERCOMING DOUBT ......................... 621I. Introductory ............................................................................................... 1II. Ways of discerning cause and condition .......................................... 2

1. Neither created by a creator nor causeless ................................ 32. Its occurrence is always due to conditions ............................... 53. General and particular conditions .............................................. 74. Dependent origination in reverse order ................................... 115. Dependent origination in direct order ...................................... 126. Kamma and kamma-result ........................................................... 137. No doer apart from kamma and result ..................................... 19

III. Full-understanding of the known ..................................................... 21

5. Purification by Knowledge and Vision of What Is and WhatIs Not the Path

CHAPTER XX PURIFICATION BY KNOWLEDGE & VISION OF WHAT ISAND WHAT IS NOT THE PATH .................................................... 631

I. Introductory ............................................................................................... 1The Fifth Purificdation ........................................................................... 2The three kinds of full-understanding .............................................. 3

II. Insight ......................................................................................................... 61. Comprehension by groups ............................................................ 62. Strengthening of comprehension in forty ways .................... 183. Nine ways of sharpening the faculties ..................................... 214. Comprehension of the material ................................................... 22

(a) Kamma-bommateriality ......................................................... 27(b) Consciousness-born materiality ......................................... 30(c) Nutriment-born materiality .................................................. 35(d) Temperature-born materiality ............................................. 39

5. Comprehension of the immaterial .............................................. 436. The material septad ........................................................................ 457. The immaterial septad ................................................................... 768. The eighteen principal insights ................................................. 899. Knowledge of rise and fall(I) ................................................... 93

The ten imperfections of insight ............................................. 105Conclusion ............................................................................................ 130

6. Purification by Knowledge and Vision of the Way

CHAPTER XXI PURIFICATION BY KNOWLEDGE AND VISIONOF THE WAY ............................................................................... 666

Introductory ............................................................................................... 1Insight: the eight knowledges .............................................................. 3

1. Knowledge of rise and fallII .............................................................. 32. Knowledge of dissolution.................................................................... 10

CONTENTS (DETAILED)

xviii


3. Knowledge of appearance as terror .................................................. 294. Knowledge of danger ............................................................................ 355. Knowledge of dispassion .................................................................... 436. Knowledge of desire for deliverance ................................................. 457. Knowledge of reflexion......................................................................... 47

Discerning formations as void .................................................... 538. Knowledge of equanimity about formations .................................. 61

The triple gateway to liberation .................................................. 66The seven kinds of noble persons ............................................... 74Tha last three knowledges are one ............................................ 79Insight leading to emergence ..................................................... 83The twelve similes .......................................................................... 90The difference in the noble paths factors, etc. ..................... 111

9. Conformity knowledge ...................................................................... 128Sutta references ............................................................................ 135

7. Purification by Knowledge and Vision

CHAPTER XXII PURIFICATION BY KNOWLEDGE AND VISION .................. 701I. Change-of-lineage, paths and fruits ................................................... 1II. The states associated with the path, etc. .......................................... 32

1. The 37 states partaking of enlightenment ............................... 332. Emergence and coupling of the powers ................................... 443. States to be abandoned .................................................................. 474. Four functions in a single moment ........................................... 925. Four functions separately .......................................................... 104Conclusion ............................................................................................ 129

The Benefits of Understanding

CHAPTER XXIII THE BENEFITS IN DEVELOPING UNDERSTANDING ......... 730(vi) What are the benefits in developing understanding? ............ 1

A. Removal of the defilements .................................................... 2B. The taste of the noble fruit ...................................................... 3C. The attainment of cessation ................................................. 16D. Worthiness to receive gifts... ................................................ 53

CONCLUSION (EPILOGUE) ........................................................................... 745

xix

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRINTED EDITIONS OF THE VISUDDHIMAGGA

Sinhalese script: Hewavitarne Bequest edition, Colombo.Burmese script: Hanthawaddy Press edition, Rangoon, 1900.Siamese script: Royal Siamese edition, Bangkok.Latin script: Pali Text Societys edition, London. Harvard University Press edition,

Harvard Oriental Series, Vol. 41, Cambridge, Mass., 1950.

TRANSLATIONS OF THE VISUDDHIMAGGA

English: The Path of Purity by Pe Maung Tin, PTS, London. 3 vols., 192231.German: Visuddhimagga (der Weg zur Reinheit) by Nyanatiloka, Verlag Christiani,

Konstanz, 1952. Reprinted by Jhana-Verlag, Uttenbhl, 1997.Sinhala: Visuddhimrga-mahsann, ed. Ratanapala Medhakara et al, 2 vols.,

Kalutara, 1949. (Also called Parkramabhu-sannaya. A Pali-Sinhalaparaphrase composed by King Paita Parkramabhu II in the 13th cent.CE.) Visuddhimrgaya, Sinhala translation by Paita Mtara Sri DharmavasaSthavira, Mtara, 1953. Etc.

French: Le Chemin de la puret, transl. by Christian Mas, Editions Fayard, Paris2002.

Italian: Visuddhimagga: Il sentiero della purificazione, transl. of samdhi-bheda byAntonella Serena Comba, Lulu.com, Raleigh, 2008.

OTHER WORKS

Buddhaghosuppatti, edited and translated into English, by J. Gray, Luzac and Co.,London, 1892.

Critical Pali Dictionary (Pali-English), Vol. I (letter a), Copenhagen, 192448.Cavasa or Minor Chronicle of Ceylon (or Mahvasa Part II), English translation

by W. Geiger, PTS London.Dpavasa (Chronicle of Ceylon), English translation by H. Oldenberg, London,

1879.The Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon, by E. W. Adikaram, Sri Lanka, 1946.Guide through Visuddhimagga, U. Dhammaratana, Sarnath, 1964History of Indian Literature, by M. Winternitz, English translation by Mrs. S. Ketkar

and Miss H. Kohn, Calcutta University, 1933.History of Pali Literature, by B.C. Law, London, 1933 (2 Vols.).

xx


The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa, by B.C. Law, Thacker, and Spink, Calcutta andSimla, 1923.

Mahvasa or Great Chronicle of Ceylon, English translation by W. Geiger, PTS,London.

Pali-English Dictionary, Pali Text Society, London.The Pali Literature of Ceylon, by G.P. Malalasekera, Royal Asiatic Society, London,

1928. Reprinted by BPS, Kandy, 1994.Pali Literature and Language, by W. Geiger, English translation by Batakrishna

Ghosh, Calcutta University, 1943.Paramatthamajs, cariya Dhammapla, commentary to the Visuddhimagga

(Visuddhimaggamah-k). Vidyodaya ed. in Sinhalese script, Colombo(Chapters I to XVII only). P.C. Mundyne Pitaka Press ed. in Burmese script,Rangoon, 1909 (Chapters I to XI), 1910 (Chapters XII to XXIII). Siamese ed. inSiamese script, Bangkok. Latin script edition on Chaha Sagyana CDROMof Vipassana Research Institute, Igatpuri. No English translation.

Theravada Buddhism in Burma, by Niharranjan Ray, Calcutta University, 1946(pp. 24 ff.).

Vimuttimagga, Chinese translation: Ji-tu-do-ln by Tipiaka Saghapla ofFunan (6th cent. CE). Taish edition at T 32, no. 1648, p. 399c461c (Nanjiono. 1293).

The Path of Freedom (Vimuttimagga), privately circulated English translation fromthe Chinese by N.R.M. Ehara, V.E.P. Pulle and G.S. Prelis. Printed edition,Colombo 1961; reprinted by BPS, Kandy 1995. (Revised, BPS editionforthcoming in 2010.)

Vimuttimagga and VisuddhimaggaComparative Study, by P.V. Bapat, Poona, 1937.((Reprinted by BPS, 2010))

xxi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS FOR TEXTS USED

All editions Pali Text Society unless otherwise stated.A Aguttara NikyaA-a Aguttara Nikya Ahakath = ManorathapurCp CariypiakaCp-a Cariypiaka AhakathDhp DhammapadaDhp-a Dhammapada AhakathDhs DhammasagaDhs-a Dhammasagai Ahakath = AtthaslinDhs- Dhammasaga k = Mla k IIDhtuk DhtukathD Dgha NikyaD-a Dgha Nikya Ahakath = Sumagala-vilsinIt ItivuttakaJ-a Jtaka-ahakathKv KathvatthuMhv MahvasaM Majjhima NikyaM-a Majjhima Nikya Ahakath = Papaca-sdanMil MilindapahNetti NettipakaraaNidd I Mah NiddesaNidd II Ca Niddesa (Siamese ed.)Nikya-s NikyasagrahayaPais PaisambhidmaggaPais-a Paisambhidmagga Ahakath = Saddhammappaksin (Sinhalese

Hewavitarne ed.).Pah I Pahna, Tika PahnaPah II Pahna, Duka Pahna (Se and Be.)Pe PeakopadesaPv PetavatthuS Sayutta NikyaS-a Sayutta Nikya Ahakath = SratthappaksinSn Sutta-niptaSn-a Sutta-nipta Ahakath = ParamatthajotikTh Thera-gthUd UdnaVibh VibhagaVibh-a Vibhaga Ahakath = SammohavinodanVibh- Vibhaga k = Mla k IIVv VimnavatthuVin I Vinaya Piaka (3)MahvaggaVin II Vinaya Piaka (4)CavaggaVin III Vinaya Piaka (1)Suttavibhaga 1Vin IV Vinaya Piaka (2)Suttavibhaga 2Vin V Vinaya Piaka (5)ParivraVism Visuddhimagga (PTS ed. [= Ee] and Harvard Oriental Series ed. [= Ae])

xxii


Vism-mh Paramatthamajs, Visuddhimagga Ahakath = Mah k (Chs. I toXVII Sinhalese Vidyodaya ed.; Chs. XVIII to XXIII Be ed.)

OTHER ABBREVIATIONS

Ae American Edition (= Harvard Oriental Series)Be Burmese EditionCe Ceylonese EditionCPD Critical Pali Dictionary; TrecknerEe European Edition (= PTS)EHBC The Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon, E. W. Adikaram.PED Pali-English DictionaryPLC Pali Literature of Ceylon, Malalasekera.PTS Pali Text SocietySe Siamese Edition

Numbers in square brackets in the text thus [25] refer to the page numbers of thePali Text Society's edition of the Pali.

Paragraph numbers on the left correspond to the paragraph numbers of theHarvard edition of the Pali.

Chapter and section headings and other numberings have been inserted forclarity.

xxiii

MESSAGE FROM HIS HOLINESS THE DALAI LAMA

The history of the development of Buddhist literature seems to be marked by periodsin which the received teachings and established scriptures are assimilated andconsolidated and periods of mature creativity when the essence of that transmissionis expressed afresh. Bhadantcariya Buddhaghosas Visuddhimagga is a classictext of the latter type. It represents the epitome of Pali Buddhist literature, weavingtogether its many strands to create this wonderful meditation manual, which eventoday retains the clarity it revealed when it was written.

There are occasions when people like to make much of the supposed differencesin the various traditions of Buddhism that have evolved in different times and places.What I find especially encouraging about a book such as this is that it shows soclearly how much all schools of Buddhism have fundamentally in common. Withina structure based on the traditional three trainings of ethical discipline, concentrationand wisdom are detailed instructions on how to take an ethical approach to life,how to meditate and calm the mind, and on the basis of those how to develop acorrect understanding of reality. We find practical advice about creating anappropriate environment for meditation, the importance of developing love andcompassion, and discussion of dependent origination that underlies the Buddhistview of reality. The very title of the work, the Path of Purification, refers to the essentialBuddhist understanding of the basic nature of the mind as clear and aware,unobstructed by disturbing emotions. This quality is possessed by all sentient beingswhich all may realize if we pursue such a path.

Sometimes I am asked whether Buddhism is suitable for Westerners or not. Ibelieve that the essence of all religions deals with basic human problems andBuddhism is no exception. As long as we continue to experience the basic humansufferings of birth, disease, old age, and death, there is no question of whether itis suitable or not as a remedy. Inner peace is the key. In that state of mind you canface difficulties with calm and reason. The teachings of love, kindness andtolerance, the conduct of non-violence, and especially the Buddhist theory thatall things are relative can be a source of that inner peace.

While the essence of Buddhism does not change, superficial cultural aspectswill change. But how they will change in a particular place, we cannot say. Thisevolves over time. When Buddhism first came from India to countries like Sri Lankaor Tibet, it gradually evolved, and in time a unique tradition arose. This is alsohappening in the West, and gradually Buddhism may evolve with Western culture.

Of course, what distinguishes the contemporary situation from pasttransmissions of Buddhism is that almost the entire array of traditions thatevolved elsewhere is now accessible to anyone who is interested. And it is insuch a context that I welcome this new edition of Bhikkhu amolis celebratedEnglish translation of the Path of Purification. I offer my prayers that readers,wherever they are, may find in it advice and inspiration to develop that innerpeace that will contribute to creating a happier and more peaceful world.

May 2000

xxiv


PUBLISHERS FOREWORD TO THIRD EDITION

Bhikkhu amolis translation of the Visuddhimagga not only makes availablein fluent English this difficult and intricate classical work of TheravdaBuddhism, the high point of the commentarial era, but itself ranks as anoutstanding cultural achievement perhaps unmatched by Pali Buddhistscholarship in the twentieth century. This achievement is even more remarkablein that the translator had completed the first draft within his first four years as abhikkhu, which is also the amount of time he had been a student of Pali.

The Buddhist Publication Society first issued this work beginning in 1975,with the kind consent of the original publisher, Mr. nanda Semage of Colombo.This was a reprint produced by photolithographic process from the 1964 edition.The 1979 reprint was also a photolithographic reprint, with some minorcorrections..

For this edition the text has been entirely recomposed, this time with the aidof the astonishing electronic typesetting equipment that has proliferated duringthe past few years. The text itself has not been altered except in a few placeswhere the original translator had evidently made an oversight. However,numerous minor stylistic changes have been introduced, particularly in thelower casing of many technical terms that Ven. amoli had set in initial capitalsand, occasionally, in the paragraphing.

Buddhist Publication Society,1991

PUBLISHERS FOREWORD TO FOURTH EDITION

This fourth edition had to be retypeset again because the digital files of theprevious edition, prepared with the aid of the astonishing electronic typesettingequipment (as mentioned in the Foreword to the Third Edition) were lost.

Like in the previous edition, the text itself has not been altered except in a fewplaces where Ven. amoli had evidently made an oversight. A few minorstylistic changes have been introduced again, such as the utilisation of theCritical Pali Dictionary system of abbreviation instead of the PTS system

The BPS would like to thank John Bullitt, Ester Barias-Wolf, Michael Zoll,Manfred Wierich and all others who helped with this project.

Buddhist Publication Society, 2010

xxv

TRANSLATORS PREFACE

Originally I made this translation for my own instruction because the onlypublished version was then no longer obtainable. So it was not done with anyintention at all of publication; but rather it grew together out of notes made onsome of the books passages. By the end of 1953 it had been completed, more orless, and put aside. Early in the following year a suggestion to publish it was putto me, and I eventually agreed, though not without a good deal of hesitation.Reasons for agreeing, however, seemed not entirely lacking. The only previousEnglish version of this remarkable work had long been out of print. Justificationtoo could in some degree be founded on the rather different angle from whichthis version is made.

Over a year was then spent in typing out the manuscript during which time,and since, a good deal of revision has taken place, the intention of the revisionbeing always to propitiate the demon of inaccuracy and at the same time to makethe translation perspicuous and the translator inconspicuous. Had publicationbeen delayed, it might well have been more polished. Nevertheless the work ofpolishing is probably endless. Somewhere a halt must be made.

A guiding principlethe foremost, in facthas throughout been avoidanceof misrepresentation or distortion; for the ideal translation (which has yet to bemade) should, like a looking glass, not discolour or blur or warp the originalwhich it reflects. Literalness, however, on the one hand and considerations ofclarity and style on the other make irreconcilable claims on a translator, who hasto choose and to compromise. Vindication of his choice is sometimes difficult.

I have dealt at the end of the Introduction with some particular problems. Not,however, with all of them or completely; for the space allotted to an introductionis limited.

Much that is circumstantial has now changed since the Buddha discoveredand made known his liberating doctrine 2,500 years ago, and likewise since thiswork was composed some nine centuries later. On the other hand, the Truth hediscovered has remained untouched by all that circumstantial change. Oldcosmologies give place to new; but the questions of consciousness, of pain anddeath, of responsibility for acts, and of what should be looked to in the scale itvalues as the highest of all, remain. Reasons for the perennial freshness of theBuddhas teachingof his handling of these questionsare several, but notleast among them is its independence of any particular cosmology. Establishedas it is for its foundation on the self-evident insecurity of the human situation(the truth of suffering), the structure of the Four Noble Truths provides anunfailing standard of value, unique in its simplicity, its completeness and itsethical purity, by means of which any situation can be assessed and a profitablechoice made.

Now I should like to make acknowledgements, as follows, to all those withoutwhose help this translation would never have been begun, persisted with orcompleted.

xxvi


To the venerable atiloka Mahthera (from whom I first learned Pali) forhis most kind consent to check the draft manuscript. However, although he hadactually read through the first two chapters, a long spell of illness unfortunatelyprevented him from continuing with this himself.

To the venerable Soma Thera for his unfailing assistance both in helping meto gain familiarity with the often difficult Pali idiom of the Commentaries and toget something of the feelas it were, from insideof Pali literature against itsIndian background. Failing that, no translation would ever have been made: Icannot tell how far I have been able to express any of it in the rendering.

To the venerable Nyanaponika Thera, German pupil of the venerableatiloka Mahthera, for very kindly undertaking to check the wholemanuscript in detail with the venerable atiloka Mahtheras Germantranslation (I knowing no German).

To all those with whom I have had discussions on the Dhamma, which havebeen many and have contributed to the clearing up of not a few unclear points.

Lastly, and what is mentioned last bears its own special emphasis, it has beenan act of singular merit on the part of Mr. A. Semage, of Colombo, to undertaketo publish this translation.

Island Hermitage amoli Bhikkhu,Dodanduwa, Sri Lanka Veskhamse, 2499: May, 1956

xxvii

INTRODUCTION

The Visuddhimaggahere rendered Path of Purificationis perhaps unique inthe literature of the world. It systematically summarizes and interprets theteaching of the Buddha contained in the Pali Tipiaka, which is now recognizedin Europe as the oldest and most authentic record of the Buddhas words. Asthe principal non-canonical authority of the Theravda, it forms the hub of acomplete and coherent method of exegesis of the Tipiaka, using theAbhidhamma method as it is called. And it sets out detailed practicalinstructions for developing purification of mind.

BACKGROUND AND MAIN FACTSThe works of Bhadantcariya Buddhaghosa fill more than thirty volumes in thePali Text Societys Latin-script edition; but what is known of the writer himself ismeager enough for a page or two to contain the bare facts.

Before dealing with those facts, however, and in order that they may appearoriented, it is worth while first to digress a little by noting how Pali literature fallsnaturally into three main historical periods. The early or classical period, whichmay be called the First Period, begins with the Tipiaka itself in the 6th centuryBCE and ends with the Milindapah about five centuries later. These works,composed in India, were brought to Sri Lanka, where they were maintained in Palibut written about in Sinhalese. By the first century CE, Sanskrit (independently ofthe rise of Mahayana) or a vernacular had probably quite displaced Pali as themedium of study in all the Buddhist schools on the Indian mainland. Literaryactivity in Sri Lanka declined and, it seems, fell into virtual abeyance between CE150 and 350, as will appear below. The first Pali renascence was under way in SriLanka and South India by about 400 and was made viable by BhadantcariyaBuddhaghosa. This can be called the Middle Period. Many of its principal figureswere Indian. It developed in several centres in the South Indian mainland andspread to Burma, and it can be said to have lasted till about the 12th century.Meanwhile the renewed literary activity again declined in Sri Lanka till it waseclipsed by the disastrous invasion of Magha in the 11th century. The secondrenascence, or the Third Period as it may be termed, begins in the following centurywith Sri Lankas recovery, coinciding more or less with major political changes inBurma. In Sri Lanka it lasted for several centuries and in Burma for much longer,though India about that time or soon after lost all forms of Buddhism. But thisperiod does not concern the present purpose and is only sketched in for the sakeof perspective.

The recorded facts relating from the standpoint of Sri Lanka to the rise of theMiddle Period are very few, and it is worthwhile tabling them.1

1. Exact dates are not agreed. The Sri Lanka Chronicles give the lengths of reigns ofkings of Sri Lanka back to the time of the Buddha and also of kings of Magadhafrom Asoka back to the same time. Calculated backwards the list gives 543 BCE asthe year of the Buddhas parinibbna (see list of kings in Codringtons Short Historyof Ceylon, Macmillan 1947, p. xvi.). For adjustments to this calculation that bring

xxviii


Why did Bhadantcariya Buddhaghosa come to Sri Lanka? And why did hiswork become famous beyond the islands shores? The bare facts without someinterpretation will hardly answer these questions. Certainly, any interpretation mustbe speculative; but if this is borne in mind, some attempt (without claim fororiginality) may perhaps be made on the following lines.

Up till the reign of King Vaagmai Abhaya in the first century BCE the GreatMonastery, founded by Asokas son, the Arahant Mahinda, and hitherto without arival for the royal favour, had preserved a reputation for the saintliness of its

the date of the parinibbna forward to 483 BCE (the date most generally acceptedin Europe), see e.g. Geiger, Mahvasa translation (introduction) Epigraphia ZeylanicaI, 156; E. J. Thomas, Life of the Buddha, Kegan Paul, p. 26, n.1. It seems certain, however,that Mahnma was reigning in the year 428 because of a letter sent by him to theChinese court (Codrington p.29; E.Z. III, 12). If the adjusted date is accepted then60 extra years have somehow to be squeezed out without displacing Mahnmasreign. Here the older date has been used.

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xxix

INTRODUCTION

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xxx


bhikkhus. The violent upsets in his reign followed by his founding of the AbhayagiriMonastery, its secession and schism, changed the whole situation at home. Sensinginsecurity, the Great Monastery took the precaution to commit the Tipiaka for thefirst time to writing, doing so in the provinces away from the kings presence.Now by about the end of the first century BCE (dates are very vague), with SanskritBuddhist literature just launching out upon its long era of magnificence, Sanskritwas on its way to become a language of international culture. In Sri Lanka theGreat Monastery, already committed by tradition to strict orthodoxy based on Pali,had been confirmed in that attitude by the schism of its rival, which now beganpublicly to study the new ideas from India. In the first century BCE probably theinflux of Sanskrit thought was still quite small, so that the Great Monastery couldwell maintain its name in Anurdhapura as the principal centre of learning bydeveloping its ancient Tipiaka commentaries in Sinhalese. This might account forthe shift of emphasis from practice to scholarship in King Vaagmanis reign.Evidence shows great activity in this latter field throughout the first century BCE,and all this material was doubtless written down too.

In the first century CE, Sanskrit Buddhism (Hnayna, and perhaps by thenMahyna) was growing rapidly and spreading abroad. The Abhayagiri Monasterywould naturally have been busy studying and advocating some of these weighty

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xxxi

INTRODUCTION

developments while the Great Monastery had nothing new to offer: the rival wasthus able, at some risk, to appear go-ahead and up-to-date while the old institutionperhaps began to fall behind for want of new material, new inspiration andinternational connections, because its studies being restricted to the orthodoxpresentation in the Sinhalese language, it had already done what it could indeveloping Tipiaka learning (on the mainland Theravda was doubtless deeperin the same predicament). Anyway we find that from the first century onwards itsconstructive scholarship dries up, and instead, with the reign of King BhtikaAbhaya (BCE 20CE 9), public wrangles begin to break out between the twomonasteries. This scene indeed drags on, gradually worsening through the nextthree centuries, almost bare as they are of illuminating information. King Vasabhasreign (CE 66110) seems to be the last mentioned in the Commentaries as we havethem now, from which it may be assumed that soon afterwards they were closed(or no longer kept up), nothing further being added. Perhaps the Great Monastery,now living only on its past, was itself getting infected with heresies. But withoutspeculating on the immediate reasons that induced it to let its chain of teacherslapse and to cease adding to its body of Sinhalese learning, it is enough to notethat the situation went on deteriorating, further complicated by intrigues, till inMahsenas reign (CE 277304) things came to a head.

With the persecution of the Great Monastery given royal assent and the expulsionof its bhikkhus from the capital, the Abhayagiri Monastery enjoyed nine years oftriumph. But the ancient institution rallied its supporters in the southern provincesand the king repented. The bhikkhus returned and the king restored the buildings,which had been stripped to adorn the rival. Still, the Great Monastery must haveforeseen, after this affair, that unless it could successfully compete with Sanskrit ithad small hope of holding its position. With that the only course open was tolaunch a drive for the rehabilitation of Palia drive to bring the study of thatlanguage up to a standard fit to compete with the modern Sanskrit in the fieldof international Buddhist culture: by cultivating Pali at home and abroad it couldassure its position at home. It was a revolutionary project, involving thedisplacement of Sinhalese by Pali as the language for the study and discussion ofBuddhist teachings, and the founding of a school of Pali literary composition. Earlierit would doubtless have been impracticable; but the atmosphere had changed.Though various Sanskrit non-Mahayana sects are well known to have continued toflourish all over India, there is almost nothing to show the status of the Pali languagethere by now. Only the Mahvasa [XXXVII.215f. quoted below] suggests that theTheravda sect there had not only put aside but lost perhaps all of its old non-Piaka material dating from Asokas time.2 One may guess that the pattern of thingsin Sri Lanka only echoed a process that had gone much further in India. But in the

2. See also A Record of Buddhist Religion by I-tsing, translation by J. Takakusu, Clarendo Press, 1896, p. xxiii, where a geographical distribution of various schools givesMlasarvstivda mainly in the north and Ariyasthavira mainly in the south of India.I-tsing, who did not visit Sri Lanka, was in India at the end of the 7th cent.; but he doesnot mention whether the Ariyasthavira (Theravda) Nikya in India pursued its studiesin the Pali of its Tipiaka or in Sanskrit or in a local vernacular.

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island of Sri Lanka the ancient body of learning, much of it pre-Asokan, had beenkept lying by, as it were maturing in its two and a half centuries of neglect, and ithad now acquired a new and great potential value due to the purity of its pedigreein contrast with the welter of new original thinking. Theravda centres of learningon the mainland were also doubtless much interested and themselves anxious forhelp in a repristinization.3 Without such cooperation there was little hope of success.

It is not known what was the first original Pali composition in this period; butthe Dpavasa (dealing with historical evidence) belongs here (for it ends withMahsenas reign and is quoted in the Samantapsdik), and quite possibly theVimuttimagga (dealing with practicesee below) was another early attempt by theGreat Monastery in this period (4th cent.) to reassert its supremacy through originalPali literary composition: there will have been others too.4 Of course, much of thisis very conjectural. Still it is plain enough that by 400 CE a movement had begun,not confined to Sri Lanka, and that the time was ripe for the crucial work, for a Palirecension of the Sinhalese Commentaries with their unique tradition. Only theright personality, able to handle it competently, was yet lacking. That personalityappeared in the first quarter of the fifth century.

THE VISUDDHIMAGGA AND ITS AUTHORSources of information about that person fall into three groups. There are firstlythe scraps contained in the prologues and epilogues to the works ascribed to him.Then there is the account given in the second part of the Sri Lankan Chronicle, theMahvasa (or Cavasa as the part of it is often called), written in about the 13thcentury, describing occurrences placed by it in the 5th century, and, lastly, the stilllater Buddhaghosuppatti (15th cent.?) and other later works.

It seems still uncertain how to evaluate the old Talaing records of Burma, whichmay not refer to the same person (see below). India herself tells us nothing at all.

It seems worthwhile, therefore, to give a rendering here of the principal passagefrom the prologues and epilogues of the works ascribed to him by name; for theyare few and short, and they have special authentic value as evidence. The Mahvasaaccount will be reproduced in full, too, since it is held to have been composed fromevidence and records before its author, and to have the ring of truth behind thelegends it contains. But the later works (which European scholars hold to belegendary rather than historical in what they add to the accounts alreadymentioned) can only be dealt with very summarily here.

3. In the epilogues and prologues of various works between the 5th and 12th centuriesthere is mention of e.g., Badaratittha (Vism-a prol.: near Chennai), Kacipura (A-a epil.:= Conjevaram near Chennai), and other places where different teachers accepting theGreat Monastery tradition lived and worked. See also Malalasekera, Pali Literature ofCeylon, p. 13; E.Z., IV, 69-71; Journal of Oriental Research, Madras, Vol. XIX, pp. 278f.4. Possibly the Vinaya summaries, Mlasikkh and Khuddasikkh (though Geiger placesthese much later), as well as some works of Buddhadatta Thera. It has not beensatisfactorily explained why the Mahvasa, composed in the late 4th or early 5th cent.,ends abruptly in the middle of Chapter 37 with Mahsenas reign (the Chronicle beingonly resumed eight centuries later).

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INTRODUCTION

The books actually ascribed to Bhadantcariya Buddhaghosa have each apostscript identical in form with that at the end of Chapter XXIII of the presentwork, mentioning the title and author by name. This can be taken to have beenappended, presumably contemporaneously, by the Great Monastery (theMahvasa) at Anurdhapura in Sri Lanka as their official seal of approval. Here isa list of the works (also listed in the modern Gandhavasa and Ssanavasa withone or two discrepancies):5

Commentaries to the Vinaya PiakaTitle Commentary toSamantapsdik VinayaKakhvitara Ptimokkha

Commentaries to the Sutta PiakaTitle Commentary toSumagalavilsin Dgha NikyaPapacasdani Majjhima NikyaSratthappaksin Sayutta NikyaManorathapur Aguttara NikyaParamatthajotik Khuddakapha

Commentary to SuttaniptaTitle Commentary toDhammapadahakath DhammapadaJtakahakath Jtaka

Commentaries to the Abhidhamma PiakaTitle Commentary toAtthaslin DhammasagaSammohavinodan VibhagaPacappakaraahakath Remaining 5 books

Beyond the bare hint that he came to Sri Lanka from India his actual works tellnothing about his origins or background. He mentions The Elder Buddhamittawith whom I formerly lived at Mayra suttapaana (M-a epil.),6 and The wellknown Elder Jotipla, with whom I once lived at Kacipura and elsewhere (A-aepil.).7 Also the postscript attached to the Visuddhimagga says, besides mentioninghis name, that he should be called of Moraacetaka. 8 And that is all.

5. The Gandhavasa also gives the Apadna Commentary as by him.6. Other readings are: Mayrarpaana, Mayradtapaana. Identified withMylapore near Chennai (J.O.R., Madras, Vol. XIX, p. 281).7. Identified with Conjevaram near Chennai: PLC, p. 113. cariya nanda, author ofthe sub-commentary to the Abhidhamma Pitaka (Mla k), also lived there, perhapsany time after the middle of the 5th century. The Elder Dhammapla sometimes refersto the old Sinhalese commentaries as if they were still available to him.8. Other readings are: Moraakheaka, Mudantakhedaka, Muraakheaka, etc.;not yet identified. Refers more probably to his birthplace than to his place of pabbajj.See also J.O.R., Madras, Vol. XIX, p. 282, article BuddhaghosaHis Place of Birth by

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On coming to Sri Lanka, he went to Anurdhapura, the royal capital, and sethimself to study. He see

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