ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB)

7/30/2019 ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB)

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Session 9-11


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Conflict


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12-3

Categories of Stressors Affecting Occupational Stress

JOB

STRESS

Extraorganizational

Stressors

Organizational Stressors

Group Stressors

Individual

Stressors


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12-4

Macrolevel Organizational Stressors

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

AND DESIGN

Centralization and formalizationLine-staff conflicts

Specialization

Role ambiguity and conflict

No opportunity for promotion

Restrictive, untrusting culture

WORKING CONDITIONS

Crowded work area

Noise, heat, or coldPolluted air

Strong odor

Unsafe, dangerous conditions

Poor lighting

Physical or mental strain

Toxic chemicals or radiation

ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES

Tight controls

Only downward communication

Little performance feedback

Centralized decision making

Lack of participation in decisions

Punitive appraisal systems

JOBSTRESS

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES

AND STRATEGIES

Downsizing

Competitive pressuresMerit pay plans

Rotating work shifts

Bureaucratic rules

Advanced technology


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12-5

Profiles Of Type A And Type B Personalities

Type A Profile Type B Profile

Is always movingWalks rapidly

Eats rapidly

Talks rapidly

Is impatient

Does two things at onceCant cope with leisure time

Is obsessed with numbers

Measures success by quantity

Is aggressiveIs competitive

Constantly feels under time

pressure

Is not concerned about time

Is patient

Doesnt brag

Plays for fun, not to win

Relaxes without guilt

Has not pressing deadlinesIs mild-mannered

Is never in a hurry


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12-6

Level Of Conflict In Organizational Behavior

Macro

MicroCONFLICT

Organizational

Intergroup

Interpersonal

Intra-

individual


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12-7

A Model Of Frustration

Need

(deficiency)

Frustration

Drive

(deficiency

with direction)

Barrier

(1) Overt(2) Covert

Defense mechanisms

(1) Aggression(2) Withdrawal

(3) Fixation

(4) Compromise

Goal/

incentive

(reduction of

the drives and

fulfillment of

deficiencies)


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12-8

Sources Of Interpersonal Conflict

Interpersonal

Conflict

Environmental

stress

Information

deficiency

Role

incompatibility

Personal

differences


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12-9

Intergroup

Conflict

Status

struggles

Task

interdependence

Jurisdictional

ambiguity

Competition

for resources

Antecedent Conditions For Intergroup Conflict


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12-10

Ways To Manage Prolonged Stress

Individual

Coping

Strategies Behavioral

self-control

RelaxationExercise

Networking

Cognitive

therapy


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12-11

Contemporary Negotiation Techniques

Low-Risk Techniques High-Risk Techniques

FlatteryAddressing the easy point first

Silence

Inflated opening position

Oh, poor me

Unexpected temper losses

High-bailing

Boulewarism (take it or leave

it)

Waiting until the last moment


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What is conflictnormally?

`A disagreement between people thatmay be the result of different:

Ideas

Perspective

Priorities

Preferences

Beliefs Values

Goals

Organizational structures


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Conflict Involves Emotions: What you feel is

important

Perceptions: What you see at

stake

Behaviors: How you act with

others


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Sources of Conflict.. warning:1. Ambiguous jurisdictions:

`I dont know who has the authority onthat issue.

2. Conflict of interest:`He deserved that position rather thatperson

3. Communication barriers:

`They never returned the phone calls.announced.


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4. Unresolved prior conflicts:

`We always have a problem with SGS lab about

the final report.

5. Over dependency of one party:

`We will have to wait till the budget is


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Conflict defined: Is a process that begins when one

party perceives that another party

has negatively affected, or is about

to negatively affect, something thatthe first party cares about.

Is that point in an ongoing activity

when an interaction crosses overto become an inter party conflict.


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Conflict defined:

Encompasses a wide range of

conflicts that people experience in

organizations Incompatibility of goals

Differences over interpretations of facts

Disagreements based on behavioral expectations.


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Misconceptions about Conflict

Harmony is normal.

Conflict is `abnormal.

Conflict & disagreements are same.

Conflict is the result of `personality

problem.

Conflict & anger are the same.


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Transitions in Conflict Thought:

Seen as caused by :

Poor communication

Lack of openness

Failure to respond to employee needs

Traditional View of Conflict:The belief that all conflict is harmful and must beavoided. Used synonymously as violence,destruction and irrationality.


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Transitions in Conflict Thought (contd)

Human Relations View of Conflict:The belief that conflict is a natural

and inevitable outcome in any group.

Interactionist View of Conflict:

The belief that conflict is not only a positive forcein a group but that it is absolutely necessary

for a group to perform effectively.


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Organizational Conflict:

Conflict is inevitable given the wide

range of goals for the different

stakeholder in the organization.

Lack of conflict signals that management

emphasizes conformity and stiflesinnovation.


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Conflict is good for organizational

performance although excessive conflict

causes managers to spend too much time

achieving their own ends.

C fli t d U it P f


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Conflict and Unit Performance


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Types of Conflict


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Functional Conflict

Functional (or constructive) conflictResults in positive benefits to individuals,

the group, or the organization.

Likely effects Important problems surface so they can beaddressed.

Causes careful consideration of decisions.

Causes reconsideration of decisions. Increases information available for decision

making.

Provides opportunities for creativity.


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Dysfunctional Conflict

Dysfunctional (or destructive) conflict

Works to the disadvantage of individuals, the group, or

the organization.

Likely effects

Diverts energies.

Harms group cohesion. Promotes interpersonal hostilities.

Encourages stereotyping

Creates overall negative environment for workers.
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Type of Conflict

Task Conflict

Conflicts over contentand goals of the work.

Relationship Conflict

Conflict based on interpersonal relationshipsisdysfunctional

Process Conflict

Conflict over how work gets done- low levels of

this conflict are functional


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Levels of Conflict

Organisational

Inter-group

Interpersonal

Intra-individ

ual

Micro

Macro


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Intraperson Conflict


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Conflict due to Frustration

Occurs when a motivated drive is blocked

before a person reaches a desired goal.

Defense mechanismsAggression: Theft, violence

Withdrawalapathetic

FixationRules become ends and the frustratedemployee adapts to the barrier

CompromiseMid career changes ,seek

fulfillment outside the job


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G l C fli t


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Goal Conflict

Arises when a Goal has both positive

and negative features or two or morecompeting goals

Approach-approach conflict- Two or more

positive but mutually exclusive goals Approach-avoidance conflictMotivated to

approach a goal and the same time avoid it

Avoidance-avoidance conflictAvoid two or

more negative but mutually exclusive goals


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Role Conflict and Ambiguity

Role is defined as a position that hasexpectations evolving from establishednorms

A study of international JVs showedthat this conflict is lower when theforeign partner was dominant -

inversely related to cultural distance
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Types of Role conflict

Person and the rolebetween thepersons personality and theexpectations of the role

IntraroleContradictory expectationsabout how a given role should beplayed

Interrole - Differing requirements oftwo or more roles that must be played atthe same time
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Interpersonal

Conflict

Occurs between two ormore individuals who are in

opposition to one another.

Personal differences -

Everyone has a unique

background because of

different values, socialization

etc.
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Information deficiencytwo people in

conflict are using different informationor that one or both have misinformation.

Role incompatibilityManagers have

highly interdependent functions & tasks

but their individual roles may be

incompatible

Environmental stress


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Intra Group conflict

Substantive conflict

Conflict that is based on intellectual

disagreement among group members Affective conflict

Based on emotional responses to a

situation or when interacting individuals

have incompatible styles or personalities.


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Inter Group conflict

Occurs among members of different teams

or groups.

Competition for resources Task interdependencemore in a sequential

technological process

Jurisdictional ambiguityturf problems

Status strugglesHR departments feel they

are inequitably treated


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Marketing ManufacturingAreas of Potential Goal Conflict

MARKETING VS. MANUFACTURING

Operative goal is Operative goal is

Goal Conflict customer satisfaction production efficiency

Conflict Area Typical Comment Typical Comment

Breadth of product line: Our customers The product line is too

demand variety. broad, all we get areshort, uneconomical runs.

New product introduction: New products are our Unnecessary design changes

lifeblood. are prohibitively expensive.

Production scheduling: We need faster response. We need realistic customer

Lead times are too long. commitments that dont

change like the wind directio

Physical distribution: Why dont we ever have We cant afford to keep huge

the right merchandise inventories.

in inventory?

Quality: Why cant we have Why must we always offer

reasonable quality options that are too

at low cost? expensive and offer littlecustomer utility?

I t i ti l C fli t


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Intra organizational Conflict

Vertical conflict - conflict that existsbetween supervisors and subordinates,who may disagree about the best way toaccomplish a task.

Horizontal conflict- between employees ordepartments at the same level

Line staff conflict Occurs over the

involvement of staff people in linedecisions say teachers and curriculumspecialists

Sources of Conflict


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Sources of Conflict

Figure 16.3

Inter organizational conflict


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Inter organizational conflict

Conflict that exists between organizations that

are interdependent with the same suppliers,customers, competitors, and governmental

agencies

Occurs during the competition and rivalry thatcharacterize firms operating in the same

markets.

Occurs between unions and organizationsemploying their members.


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Occurs between government regulatory agencies

and organizations subject to their surveillance.

Occurs between organizations and suppliers ofraw materials.


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The conflict Process


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The Conflict Process:

Stage I: Potential Opposition or


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Stage I:Potential Opposition orIncompatibility

1. Communication:

Semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and

noise

2. Structure:

Size and specialization of jobs

Jurisdictional clarity/ambiguity

Member/goal incompatibility

Leadership styles (close or participative)

Reward systems (win-lose)

Dependence/interdependence of groups


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3. Personal Variables:Differing individual value systems

Personality types


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Stage II: Cognition and Personalization

Positive FeelingsNegative Emotions

Conflict Definition

Perceived Conflict

Awareness by one ormore parties of theexistence of conditionsthat createopportunities forconflict to arise.

Felt ConflictEmotional involvement ina conflict creatinganxiety, tenseness,frustration, or hostility.


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Stage III: Intentions

Cooperativeness:

Attempting to satisfy the other partys concerns.

Assertiveness:

Attempting to satisfy ones own concerns.

1. Intentions:Decisions to act in a givenway.

Dimensions of Conflict Handling


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Dimensions of Conflict-Handling

Intentions:Thomas .K


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Stage III:Intentions (contd)

1. Competing

A desire to satisfy ones interests, regardlessof the impact on the other party to theconflict.

2. CollaboratingA situation in which the parties to a conflicteach desire to satisfy fully the concerns of allparties.

3. Avoiding

The desire to withdraw from or suppress a

conflict.


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Stage III:Intentions (contd)4. Accommodating:

The willingness of one party in a conflict to placethe opponents interests above his or her own.

5. Compromising:

A situation in which each party to aconflict is willing to give up something.


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This is where conflict becomes visible

1. Actionreaction

2. Continuum from subtle to Highly

destructive

Stage IV: Behavior

St V O


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Functional Outcomes from Conflict:

Increased group performance

Improved quality of decisions

Stimulation of creativity and innovation Encouragement of interest and curiosity

Provision of a medium for problem-solving

Creation of an environment for self-evaluation andchange

Creating Functional Conflict:

Reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders.

Stage V: Outcomes


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Stage V: Outcomes

Dysfunctional Outcomes from

Conflict:

Development of discontent

Reduced group effectiveness

Retarded communication

Reduced group cohesiveness

Infighting among group members overcomes

rou oals


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Conflict Management:The use of resolution and stimulationtechniques to achieve the desired level

of conflict.


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Managing Conflict


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Conflict resolution techniques

Problem solving: resolve by open discussion

Superordinate goals: creating shared goals

Expansion of resources: Avoidence: withdrawal supression

Smoothing: playing down with emphasis on common interests

Compromise:

Authoritative command

Altering human variable: training to alter attitude

Altering structural variable:job redesign, transfer etc


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Managing conflicts:

Reduced interdependence:

Used for adjusting level of interdependency

when work-flow conflicts exists.

Options:

Decoupling.

Buffering.

Linking pins.


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Managing conflicts:

Appeals to common goals:

Focusing the attention of potentially conflicting

parties on one mutually desirable goal. Helping parties to recognize their mutual

interdependence:

Can be difficult to achieve if:

Prior performance is poor.

Parties disagree over how to improve

performance.


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Managing conflicts:

Hierarchical referral:

Makes use of the chain of command for conflictresolution.

Problems with hierarchical referral:

May not result in true conflict resolution.

Possibility of inaccurate diagnosis of causes

of conflict, resulting in only superficialresolution.

Superiors may attribute conflict to poorinterpersonal relationships.


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Alterations in the use of mythology and scripts.

Scripts are behavioral routines that become part

of the organizations culture.

Scripts prescribe ways of dealing with conflict.


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Conflict stimulating techniques

Bringing outsiders: adding diversity in workgroup

Communicating: ambiguous threatening messages

Restructuring organisation: realligningworkgroups, rules and regulations, increasing

interdependencies etc

Devils advocate: designating a critic purposely toargue against majority positions.

Reward dissent punish avoiders


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How can conflict be managed successfully?

Conflict resolution:

A situation in which the underlying reasons

for a given destructive conflict are

eliminated.

Effective resolution begins with a diagnosis of

the stage to which conflict has developed and

recognition of the cause(s) of the conflict.


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Conflict Management Strategies:

Functional Conflict Resolution

Handling conflict by compromise or collaborationbetween parties.

Compromise: each party is concerned about their

goal accomplishment and is willing to engage in give-and-take exchange to reach a reasonable solution.

Collaboration: parties try to handle the conflictwithout making concessions by coming up with anew way to resolve their differences that leaves them

both better off. Managers also must address individual sources of

conflict.


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The Strategy-Structure Relationship:

Strategy Structural Option

Innovation Organic: A loose structure; low

specialization, low formalization,

decentralized

Cost minimization Mechanistic: Tight control; extensive

work specialization, high formalization,

high centralization

Imitation Mechanistic and organic: Mix of loose

with tight properties; tight controls over

current activities and looser controls for

new undertakings

Organization Structure: Its


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Organization Structure: Its

Determinants and Outcomes

Implicit Models of Organizational Structure:

Perceptions that people hold regarding structuralvariables formed by observing things around themin an unscientific fashion.


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Conflict Out come

Win-Lose

Lose-Lose

Compromise

Win-Win


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Win-Lose

In WinLose, one party gets what heor she wants, whereas the other comes

up short.

Power is the distinguishing

characteristic in win-lose problemsolving, for it necessary to defeat anopponent to get what one wants.


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Lose-Lose

Neither party is satisfied with the

outcome.

Most of us have seen battles of pride in

which both parties strike out and bothsuffer.


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Compromise

Compromise give both parties some of

what they wanted, though both sacrifice part

of their goals.

Although compromises may be the best

obtainable result in some conflicts, itsimportant to realize that both people in a

dispute can often work together to find

much better solutions.


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WinWin

The goal is to find a solution that satisfies

the needs of everyone involved.

Not only do the parties avoid trying to winat the others expense, but they also believe

that by working together it is possible to

find a solution that goes beyond merecompromise and allows all parties to reach

their goal in the conflict.


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Negotiation

A process where two or more parties

exchange goods or services and attempt to

agree on exchange rate for them.


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Bargain

Distributive

Integrative


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Bargaininig

characteristic Distributive Integrative

Available resources Fixed Variable

Primary motivations I win you lose I win you win

Primary interests Opposed to eachother convergent orcongruent

Focus of relationships Short term long term


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Steps to follow

1. Preparation and planning

1. The nature of conflict

2. The history and background3. Who is involved

4. Our goals

5. What the other party is likely to ask for

6. How entrenched they are7. To what level they may settle

Steps to follow


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2. Ground rules:

1. Who is negotiating2. Where

3. Urgency to negotiate

4. Time frame

3. Clarification and justification1. Amplify clarify justify explain your position

2. Carry necessary documents

4. Bargaining and problem solving

5. Closure and implementation

Steps to follow


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Stress


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WHAT IS STRESS?

l Stress is your mind and bodys response orreaction to a real or imagined threat, event or

change.

l The threat, event or change are commonlycalled stressors. Stressors can be internal

(thoughts, beliefs, attitudes or external (loss,

tragedy, change).


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What is Stress?

In the Good Old Days on the Serengeti. Flight or Fight Mechanisms (Adrenaline)

Problems with Modern Life Survival Still Threatened


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Manifestations of Stress

Sources

Personal Pressure to Succeed

Financial ProblemsRelationship Problems

Holidays

ManifestationsIncreased Heart Rate, Sleeplessness, Anxiety,

Variable Appetite


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Long Term Stress

Being in Panic Mode all the time

Learned Helplessness

Can lead to numerous health problems

Can lead to Burnout


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LEVELS OF STRESS

Slide 7.10


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Slide 7.10

Typical Relationship Between

Performance and Stress

Too Little StressOptimum StressExcessive Stress

Low Amount of Stress High

Levelof

Performa

nc

e

Low

(poor)

High

(excellent)


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EUSTRESS

Eustress or positive stress occurs when your

level of stress is high enough to motivate you

to move into action to get things accomplished.


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DISTRESSDistress or negative stress occurs when your

level of stress is either too high or too low and

your body and/or mind begin to respond

negatively to the stressors.


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STAGES OF STRESS

Slide 7 2


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Slide 7.2

The Relationship Between Stressors

and Experienced StressInfluenced by

the Persons:

Perceptions

Past

Experiences

Social

Support

Individual

Differences

StressExperienced by

the Person

Stressorsfrom the

Environment

Slide 7.5


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Sources of Work Stressors and Experienced

Stress

Workload

Job Conditions

Role Conflict andAmbiguity

Career Development

Interpersonal Relations

Aggressive Behavior

Conflict Between Workand Other Roles

Perceptions

Past Experiences

Social Support

Individual Differences

Stress Experienced bythe Employee

Influenced by the Employees:Work Stressors


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Slide 7.6

Stressors and WorkFamily Conflict

Stressors

Dissatisfaction

Frustration

Depression

WorkFamily

Conflicts

Work and

Family Stress

on Employee

Work Versus

Family

Creates Leads toTriggers Possible

Outcomes

ALARM STAGE


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ALARM STAGE

As you begin to experience a stressful event or

perceive something to be stressful

psychological changes occur in your body.

This experience or perception disrupts your

bodys normal balance and immediately yourbody begins to respond to the stressor(s) as

effectively as possible.


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EXAMPLES

l Cardiac - increased heart rate

l Respiratory - increased respiration

l Skin - decreased temperature

l Hormonal - increased stimulation of adrenal

genes which produce an adrenal rush.


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RESISTANCE STAGE

During this stage your body tries to cope oradapt to the stressors by beginning a process of

repairing any damage the stressor has caused.

Your friends, family or co-workers may notice

changes in you before you do so it is important

to examine their feedback to make sure you do

not reach overload.


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EXAMPLES

l Behavior indicators include: lack of

enthusiasm for family, school, work or life in

general, withdrawal, change in eating habits,

insomnia, hypersomnia, anger, fatigue.

l Cognitive Indicators include: poor problem

solving, confusion, nightmares, hyper-vigilance.

RESISTANCE STAGE


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RESISTANCE STAGE

MORE EXAMPLESEmotional indicators include:

l tearfulness

l fearl anxiety

l panic

l guiltl agitation

l depression

l overwhelmed.


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EXHAUSTION STAGE

During this stage the stressor is not being

managed effectively and the body and mind

are not able to repair the damage.


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EXAMPLES

Digestive disorders, withdrawal, headaches,

tension, insomnia, loss of temper.

P l f t


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Personal factorsAttitude toward stress

Prone to negative effects of stress Do not separate what is important

from what is unimportant

Pessimistic style

Easily angered / no tolerance forfrustration

Negative attitude toward others

See life as meaningless

Blame self for events beyondtheir own control

Have no sense of humor

Handle stressors well Discriminate important from

unimportant

Optimistic

Slow to anger / tolerant offrustration

Positive attitude toward others

See life as meaningful

Understand that some events arebeyond our control

Have a sense of humor

IM IN CONTROL - DISTRESS RELIEF STRATEGIES

F li d b l b ff i b ff i


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PHYSICAL EXERCISE

1. Relax neck and shoulders

2. Take a stretch

3. Get a massage

4. Exercise

GET MENTAL

5. Count to 10

6. Control your thoughts

7. Fantasize

8. Congratulate yourself9. Ignore the problem if appropriate, after

evaluation

10. Perform self maintenance

11. Talk to a counselor

GET SPIRITUAL

12. Meditate

13. Pray

14. Remember your purpose

USE YOUR BODY AND MIND TOGETHER

15. Take a break

16. Get hug therapy

17. Try progressive relaxation

18. Try yoga

19. Try aroma therapy

20. Laugh

DEVELOP NEW SKILLS

21. Prioritize daily tasks

22. Learn something

23. Practice a hobby

Feeling good about yourselves can be an effective buffer against

stress. Eliminate unnecessary worries.

Most worries are either passed on to us by another or conjured up inour imagination.


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Leadership

Some Characteristics Of Managers Versus LeadersIn The Twenty-First Century


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17-101

Manager Characteristics Leader Characteristics

AdministersA copy

Maintains

Focuses on systems and structures

Relies on control

Short-range viewAsks how and when

Eye on the bottom line

Imitates

Accepts the status quo

Classic good soldierDoes things right

InnovatesAn original

Develops

Focuses on people

Inspires trust

Long-range perspectiveAsks what and why

Eye on the horizon

Originates

Challenges the status quo

Own personDoes the right thing

Summary Of The Three Domains Of Leadership


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17-102

What is

leadership?

Appropriate behavior

of the person in

leader role

Ability and motivation

to manage ones own

performance

Trust, respect, and mutual

obligation that generates

influence between parties

What

behaviors

constitute

leadership?

Establishing and

communicating

vision; inspiring,

instilling pride

Empowering, coaching,

facilitating, giving up

control

Building strong relation-

ships with followers;

mutual learning and

accommodation

Advantages Leader as rallying point

for organization; com-

mon understanding of

mission and values; caninitiate wholesale

change

Makes the most of

follower capabilities;

frees up leaders for

other responsibilities

Accommodates differing

needs of subordinates;

can elicit superior work

from different types ofpeople

Leader-Based Relationship-BasedFollower-Based

Summary Of The Three Domains Of Leadership (cont.)


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17-103

Disadvantages Highly dependent on

leader; problems if

leader changes or is

pursuing inappropriate

vision

Highly dependent on

follower initiative

and ability

Time-consuming; relies

on long-term relation-

ship between specific

leaders and members

When

appropriate?

Fundamental change;

charismatic leader in

place; limited diversity

among followers

Highly capable and

task-committed

followers

Continuous improvement

of teamwork; substan-

tial diversity and sta-

bility among followers;

network building

Where most

effective?

Structured tasks; strong

leader position power;member acceptance of

leader

Unstructured tasks;

weak position power;member nonaccept-

ance of leader

Situation favorability

for leader betweentwo extremes

Leader-Based Relationship-BasedFollower-Based

Fiedlers Contingency Model Of Leadership


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17-104

Style of

leadership

Unfavorable Favorable

Very

Unfavorable

Very

Favorable

+-

Favorableness of the Situation

Task-

directed

Human-

oriented,

democratic

A Summary Of Path-Goal Relationships


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17-105

LEADER BEHAVIOR/STYLES

DirectiveSupportive

Participative

Achievement-oriented

SUBORDINATEPerceptions

Motivation

OUTCOMES

SatisfactionRole clarity

Goal clarity

Performance

SUBORDINATE CHARACTERISTICSLocus of control and/or ability

ENVIRONMENTAL FORCESTask characteristics

Formal authority system

Primary work group

Ethical And Unethical Characteristics OfCharismatic Leaders


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17-106

Ethical Charismatic Leader Unethical Charismatic Leader

Uses power to serve others

Aligns vision with followers needs

and aspirations

Considers and learns from criticism Stimulates followers to think

independently and to question the

leaders view

Open, two-way communication

Coaches, develops, and supports

followers; shares recognition with

others

Relies on internal moral standards

to satisfy organizational and

Uses power only for personal gor impact

Promotes own personal vision

Censures critical or opposing v Demands own decisions be acc

without question

One-way communication

Insensitive to followers needs

Relies on convenient, external

standards to satisfy self-interes

A Social Cognitive Approach To Leadership


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17-107

LEADER(includes cognition)

LEADER BEHAVIOR ENVIRONMENT

(includes subordinates

and organizational variables)

Summary Continuum Of Leadership Styles DrawnFrom The Classic Studies And Theories Of Leadership


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18-108

Boss-Centered Employee-Centered

Theory X Theory Y

Autocratic Democratic

Production-centered Employee-centered

Close General

Initiating structure Consideration

Task-directed Human relations

Directive Supportive

Directive Participative

The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum OfLeadership Behavior


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18-109

Area of freedom for subordinates

Use of authority by the manager

Manager

makes

decisions

and

announces

it

Manager

sells

decision

Manager

presents

problem,

gets

suggestions,

makes

decision

Manager

presents

ideas and

invites

questions

Manager

defines

limits; asks

group to

make

decision

Manager

permits

subordinates

to function

within

defined

limits

Manager

presents

tentative

decision

subject to

change

Boss-centered

leadership

Employee-centered

leadership

The Blake And Mouton Managerial Grid


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18-110

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Concern for Task

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

ConcernforPeople

1,9 Management

Thoughtful attention to

needs of people

9,1 Management

Efficiency in operationsby minimizing human

elements contributions

9,9 Management

Work accomplishment

is from committed

people

1,1 Management

Minimum effort to

get work done willsustain organiza-

tional membership

5,5 Management

Adequate organization

performance is possibleby balancing morale of

people with work

Hersey And Blanchards SituationalLeadership Model


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18-111

TASK ORIENTED

RELATIONSHIPO

RIENTED

Maturity Level of Followers

Very

high

Very

low

High Low

Factors Contributing To Effective Leadership Style


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18-112

Frame

alignment

Role

modeling

EffectiveLeadership

VisionPassion and

self-sacrifice

Confidence,

determination,

persistence

Inspirational

communication

Selective

motive

arousal

Image

building

Expectation of

and confidence

in followers

External

representation

Mintzbergs Managerial Roles


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18-113

FORMAL AUTHORITY

AND STATUS

INTERPERSONAL ROLES

Figurehead

Leader

Liaison

INFORMATIONAL ROLES

Monitor

Disseminator

Spokesperson

DECISIONAL ROLES

Entrepreneur

Disturbance handler

Resource allocator

Negotiator

Luthans Conceptual Categories Of RealManagers Activities


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18-114

TYPE OF ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION OF CATEGORIES

Routine communicationExchanging information

Handling paperwork

NetworkingInteracting with outsiders

Socializing/Politicking

Traditional management

Planning

Decision making

Controlling

Human resource

management

Motivating/Reinforcing

Disciplining/Punishing

Managing conflict

Staffing

Training/Developing

Relative Distribution Of Managers Activities


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18-115

Networking Traditional Management

Human Resources Routine Communication

29% 19%

32%20%


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What Is Leadership?

Leadership

The ability to influence agroup toward the

achievement of goals.

Management

Use of authority inherent

in designated formal rankto obtain compliance fromorganizational members.


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Trait Theories

Leadership Traits:

Extraversion

Conscientiousness

Openness

Emotional Intelligence

(qualified)

Traits Theories of Leadership

Theories that considerpersonality, social, physical, orintellectual traits todifferentiate leaders fromnonleaders.

T i Th i


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Trait Theories

Limitations:

No universal traits found that predict

leadership in all situations. Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of

relationship of leadership and traits.

Better predictor of the appearance of leadership

than distinguishing effective and ineffectiveleaders.

Trait Approach


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pp

Traits (examples)Extraversion

Conscientiousness

Openness

Assumption: Leaders are born

Goal: Select leaders

ProblemsTraits do not generalize across situations

Better at predicting leader emergence than leader

effectiveness

B h i l Th i


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Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theory:Leadership behaviors can be taught.

Vs.

Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.

Behavioral Theories of Leadership

Theories proposing that specific behaviorsdifferentiate leaders from nonleaders.

Behavioral Approach


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pp

Ohio State Studies/U. of Michigan

Initiating Structure/Production Orientation

Consideration/Employee Orientation

Assumption: Leaders can be trained

Goal: Develop leaders

Problem: Effective behaviors do not generalizeacross situations

Ohi S S di


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Ohio State StudiesInitiating Structure

The extent to which a leader islikely to define and structure hisor her role and those of sub-

ordinates in the search for goalattainment.

Consideration

The extent to which a leader is likely to have jobrelationships characterized by mutual trust, respectfor subordinates ideas, and regard for their feelings.

U i i f Mi hi S di


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University of Michigan Studies

Employee-Oriented Leader

Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking apersonal interest in the needs of employees andaccepting individual differences among members.

Production-Oriented Leader

One who emphasizes technicalor task aspects of the job.

The


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The

Managerial

Grid(Blake and Mouton)

E X H I B I T 121

CONTINGENCY THEORIES


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CONTINGENCY THEORIES

All Consider the Situation

Fiedlers Contingency Model

Cognitive Resource Theory

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Model

Path Goal Theory

Assumptions underlying the different models:Fiedler: Leaders style is fixed

Others: Leaders style can and should be changed

Fiedler Model


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Leader: Style is Fixed (Task oriented vs. Relationship

oriented) Considers Situational Favorableness for Leader

Leader-member relations

Task structure

Position power

Key Assumption

Leader must fit situation; options to accomplish

this:

Select leader to fit situation

Change situation to fit leader

Fiedlers Model: The Leader


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Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC)Questionnaire

The way in which a leader willevaluate a co-worker that is not

liked will indicate whether theleader is task- or relationship-oriented.

Assumption: Leaders Style is Fixed & Can beMeasured by the Least Preferred Co-Worker

(LPC) Questionnaire

Fiedlers Model: Defining theSituation


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Situation

Leader-Member Relations

The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates havein their leader.

Position Power

Influence derived from ones formal structural position in theorganization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote,and give salary increases.

Task Structure

The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized.

Findings of the Fiedler Model


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Category Leader-Member

Relations

Task Structure

Position Power

IGood

High

Stron

IIGood

High

Weak

IIIGood

Low

Stron

IVGood

Low

Weak

VPoor

High

Stron

VIPoor

High

Weak

VIIPoor

Low

Stron

VIIIPoor

Low

Weak

Good

Poor

Pe

rformance

Relationship

-Oriented

Task-Oriented

Favorable Moderate Unfavorable

Findings from Fiedler Model


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C iti R Th


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Research Support:

Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles

under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.

Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles

under low stress than do more experienced people.


A theory of leadership that states that the level ofstress in a situation is what impacts whether aleaders intelligence or experience will be more

effective.

Contingency Approach: Hersey & Blanchard

Situational Model


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Situational Model

Considers Leader Behaviors (Task & Relationship) Assumes Leaders CAN change their behaviors

Considers Followers as the Situation

Follower Task maturity (ability & experience)

Follower Psychological maturity (willingness to take

responsibility)

Assumptions

Leaders can and should change their style to fit their followersdegree of readiness (willingness and ability)

Therefore, it is possible to TRAIN leaders to better fit their style

to their followers.

Hersey and Blanchards Situational

Leadership Theory


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Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

A contingency theory that focuses on followersreadiness; the moreready the followers (the morewilling and able) the less the need for leadersupport and supervision.

LOW Amount of Follower Readiness HIGH

Amount of Leader Support

&

Supervision Required

HIGH

LOW

Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness

(Hersey and Blanchard)


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(Hersey and Blanchard)

WillingUnwilling

Able

Unabl

e

Directive

High Taskand

Relationship

Orientations

Supportive

ParticipativeMonitoring

Follower

Readiness

Leadership

Styles

LeaderMember Exchange


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g

Theory

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Leaders select certain followers to be in(favorites)

Based on competence and/or compatibility &similarity to leader

Exchanges with these In followers will be higher

quality than with those who are Out

RESULT: In subordinates will have higherperformance ratings, less turnover, and greater jobsatisfaction

Leader-Member Exchange


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g

Theory

E X H I B I T 123

Path Goal Theory


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Path-Goal TheoryPremise

Leader must help followersattaining goals and reduceroadblocks to success

Leaders must change behaviors tofit the situation (environmentalcontingencies & subordinatecontingencies)

The Path Goal Theory


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The Path-Goal Theory

E X H I B I T 124

Leader Participation Model


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Leader-Participation Model

Premise:

Rule based decision tree to guide leaders about when

and when not to include subordinate participation in

decision making

Considers 12 contingency variables to consider

whether or not to include subordinates in decision

making

Which leadership theory (ies) say(s) that a

Chapter Check-Up: Leadership


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Which leadership theory (ies) say(s) that a

leader cannot be trained?

Fielders Contingency Theory is the only one

which says a leaders style is fixed and cannot be

trained. But, what do all of the theories above

have in common?

Ohio State Model

Fiedlers Contingency Theory

U. Of Michigan Studies

Path Goal Theory

All of the above

Chapter Check-Up: Leadership


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What one theory discussed in this chapter could

readily explain how leaders often act towards their

followers in Boot Camp and why it may be very

effective?

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory explains that

when followers are unwilling and unable, as many newly enlisted

Boot Camp attendees are, the leader should be highly focused on

providing task-based behaviors and not relationship-based

behaviors.

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB)

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