Open Research Onlineoro.open.ac.uk/42445/1/cross_road_facil_blues_ final submission.pdf ·...

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Open Research Online The Open University’s repository of research publications and other research outputs Public leadership development facilitation and the crossroads blues Journal Item How to cite: Smolovic Jones, Owain; Grint, Keith and Cammock, Peter (2015). Public leadership development facilitation and the crossroads blues. Management Learning, 46(4) pp. 391–411. For guidance on citations see FAQs . c 2014 The Authors Version: Accepted Manuscript Link(s) to article on publisher’s website: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1177/1350507614537020 Copyright and Moral Rights for the articles on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. For more information on Open Research Online’s data policy on reuse of materials please consult the policies page. oro.open.ac.uk

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Open Research OnlineThe Open University’s repository of research publicationsand other research outputs

Public leadership development facilitation and thecrossroads bluesJournal ItemHow to cite:

Smolovic Jones, Owain; Grint, Keith and Cammock, Peter (2015). Public leadership development facilitationand the crossroads blues. Management Learning, 46(4) pp. 391–411.

For guidance on citations see FAQs.

c© 2014 The Authors

Version: Accepted Manuscript

Link(s) to article on publisher’s website:http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1177/1350507614537020

Copyright and Moral Rights for the articles on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyrightowners. For more information on Open Research Online’s data policy on reuse of materials please consult the policiespage.

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PublicLeadershipDevelopmentFacilitationandtheCrossroadsBlues

Abstract

Thearticleseekstomakesenseofthechoicesfacingthepublicleadershipdevelopmentfacilitator,indesignandin-the-momentprogrammedecisions.Thechallengeispositedasoneofsituatingknowledgeoffacilitationpracticesinacriticalrelationshipwiththepublicsectorleadershipliteratureandthecriticalleadershipdevelopmentliterature.Thearticlepositionspublicleadershipdevelopmentfacilitationassittingwithinthreepressingdilemmas,orcrossroads,concerning:publicleadershiptheory,criticalleadershipdevelopmentscholarshipandfacilitationscholarship.Anarrativeethnographicmethodologyisadoptedtoexploretheconstructionsofaspecificpublicsectorleadershipdevelopmentfacilitatorasameansofanalysingfacilitatorchoicesinaction.Aninterpretationofhowthefacilitatorframesandconstructspublicleadershipinrelationtotheconstructionsofparticipantsisoffered.Thearticlesituatesfacilitatorchoicesashighlypolitical,sittingcontextuallybetweentheidealismofthepublicsectorliteratureandthesocialidentificationsofparticipants.Theauthorsoffertwodominantformsoffacilitationchoices(framingandadaptive)asaheuristicforfacilitators,practitionersandscholarswhowishtoreflectfurtherontheroleofleadershipdevelopmentinthepublicrealm.

Keywords

Publicleadership;leadershipdevelopment;facilitation;ethnography;narrative

Introduction

TheinfamoustalewhichservesasthebackgroundtoRobertJohnson’s‘CrossRoadBlues’song

seemsanappropriatemetaphorforthisarticle.Encounteringthedevilatacrossroad,lateatnight,

forcedtochoosebetweenthehardwaytoguitarprowessorthetantalisingpossibilityofaseductive

shortcut,Johnsoniscaughtatbothametaphoricalandliteralcrossroad.Wearguethatleadership

developmentfacilitatorsregularlyencountersimilardilemmas,althoughlittlehasbeenwritten

abouthowsuchchoicesbecomemanifest.Evenlesshasbeenwrittenaboutthechoicesleadership

developmentfacilitatorsfacespecificallyinapublicsectorcontext.

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Thisarticleattemptstoaddressaneedintheliteraturetounderstandthepositioninganddecision

workofleadershipdevelopmentfacilitatorsinthecontextofoftendivergentperspectivesoffered

onpublicleadershipbyparticipantsontheonehandandtheacademicliteratureontheother.

Theleadershipdevelopmentfacilitatoroccupiesauniquepositioninthatsheorhefacesthe

complexitiesofparticipantpositioningandcontrarinessoftheorisinginanimmediateway(faceto

facewithpractitioners)andinthemoment.Suchproximitytotheimplementersofleadership,we

believe,surfacesanumberofimportantchoicesconcerningthefacilitationofleadership

development.

Thefocusofthisarticleistoexplorehowpublicleadershipdevelopmentfacilitatorsnavigatechoices

inpractice,makingvisiblesomeofthetensionspresentedintheprocess.Weapproachthisproblem

throughanethnographicstudyoftheexperiencesofaparticularpublicleadershipfacilitator,

analysingthepositioningchoiceshemakesandconsideringthedilemmasraisedbythesechoices.

Ourintentionispractical:toofferpractitionersmoresubstantivereflectivematerialtoinformtheir

choices(Watson,2010).Wealsohopetocontributetotheacademicliteratureonpublicleadership

throughofferingsomeilluminationontheimplementationconsequencesofpublicleadership

theorising.

Webeginbyconsideringtheareaofpublicleadership,andleadershipdevelopment,ascontested

fieldsofstudyandpractice.Bearinginmindthiscontestedcontext,thearticlemovesontoconsider

theroleofsuchacontestedenvironmentforthepracticeoffacilitationwithinpublicleadership

development.

Crossroad#1:Publicleadershipasacontestedfield

Thecurrenttrendwithinpublicleadershipistowardscollaborativeformsofleadership(Huxhamand

Vangen,2005;O’ReillyandReed,2012).Yetcollaborativeleadershipmaybeviewedashistorically

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situatedamongstothertheoriesofmanagingandleadingwhichemphasiseprioritiesotherthan,and

evencounterto,collaboration.

Collectiveformsofleadershiparereferredtointhisarticleundertheumbrellatermof‘collaborative

leadership’,althoughwenotethatanumberofalternativetitlescouldbeadopted(Bolden,2011).

Collaborativeleadershipcanbeviewedasacollectionofideaswhich,atthemostfundamentallevel,

challengethenotionthatleadershipshouldbeviewedasthepropertyofanindividual,beitinthe

formofpersonalitytraitsorbehaviouraldisplays(Grint,2011).Atheart,collaborative

interpretationsofleadershiphypothesisethattheresponsibilitiesofleadingmaybesharedamongst

agroupofpeople,orevenembodiedwithinanagreedprocesswhichtranscendsandcontinues

aboveandbeyondindividualswithinagroup(Grint,2000).

Collaborativeleadershiphasonlyrelativelyrecentlybecomemoreestablishedasadiscoursewithin

publicleadership(O’ReillyandReed,2012).Theriseofcollaborativeleadershipcanbewitnessedin

notonlyscholarlyliterature,butalsoingovernmentpolicy.Despiteideologicaldifferences,both

LabourandConservativegovernmentsintheUKhaveattemptedtoembedcollaborativeleadership

inlocalpolicydelivery,withtheTotalPlaceandBigSocietyinitiatives,respectively(GrintandHolt,

2011).InNewZealand,thegovernment’sflagshipBetterPublicServicesinitiativeisrootedinideals

ofcollaborationacrossgovernmentagencies(JacksonandSmolovićJones,2012).Localcouncils,

governmentdepartmentsandagencies,eventhirdsectororganisationsarebeingencouragedas

neverbeforetocollaborateinordertogaintractiononsocialproblemspreviouslyregardedaseither

intractableoratleastincapableofbeingaddressedthroughtheprocessesofsingleorganisations

(Brookes,2010and2011;Gibneyetal,2009).

ChrislipandLarson’s(1994)seminalworkonpubliccollaborativeleadershipisoftencitedasan

influential,idealisticadvocacyoftheprinciplesofpubliccollaboration.Perhapsasinterestingasthe

book’scontentisitshistoricalcontext.Publishedinthemid1990s,thebookemergedamidstthe

dominantdiscourseofNewPublicManagement(NPM)(McLaughlinetal,2001).Theabilityofpublic

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managerstoaddcompetitivevaluetotheirorganisationsviaenterprisingmanagerialfreedomswas

regardedastheprimarychallengeofpublicsectororganisingunderNPM.Althoughlabelleda

technical‘management’solution,NPMhasbeenassociatedwithneoliberalideology,itsrootsseen

ascontextuallyboundwithabeliefinthepowerofindividualfreedomsandchoice(Newman,2005).

AnevolutionofNPMwaswitnessedintheemergenceoftransformationalleadershiptheory(Bass

andRiggio,2005)intoapublicsectorcontext,seenasameansforthepreviouslydryscienceof

managementtotapintotheemotional,purpose-driven,heartofpublicorganisations(Gunter,

2011).YetevenNPMwasobservedasacontestedidea,withitspartialadoptionexistingalongside

moretraditionalidealsofpublicaccountabilityandprocessetc(Hood,1995).

Itwouldthusbemisplacedtocharacteriseanyeraofpublicorganisingasdefinedbyasingletheory

ofmanagingororganising,evenifcertainideascanbeidentifiedasmoreinfluentialthanothers

withinscholarshipandpolicy.Soitiswithpubliccollaborativeleadership.Oneneedonlylookwithin

theumbrellatermof‘collaborativeleadership’todiscoverthatitcanadoptahostofdifferent

connotationsdependingonwhoonereadsorasks(Edwards,2011;HuxhamandVangen,2005;

SmolovićJonesandGrint,2013;VangenandHuxham2003).Collaborativepublicleadershipisnot

onlyacontestedconstruct,butalsoonewhichexistswithinafieldofalternativepositionsfor

leadingandmanagingthepublicsector.

Viewingpublicleadershipasacontestedfieldbringsintofocusthechallengeforthoseseekingto

developpublicleadership.Whatmayatfirstsightappearasarelativelystraightforwardtranslation

ofleadershiptheorytodevelopmentpedagogyanddesigninfactpresentsitselfasasmorgasbordof

sometimescomplementary,oftentimescontradictory,theory.

Crossroad#2:Leadershipdevelopmentasacontestedfield

Broadlyspeaking,leadershipdevelopmentscholarshiphasstartedtoconsideralternativestothe

developmentofindividualtraitsandcompetencies(Day,2001).Alternativeapproachespreferto

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viewleadershipasaprocesssharedbetweenpeople,withtheword‘leadership’offeringpotential

formoreequaldistributionofpowerwithinorganisations(e.g.Grint,2005a;Kennedyetal,2012).

Nevertheless,leadershipdevelopmentscholarshipremainsafieldlargelydominatedbyindividual-

focusedresearchandpractice(Day,2011).Thefieldcanbecomparedtopublicleadership,wherean

emergingconcernforcollectiveleadershipsitsalongside,andintensionwith,moreestablished

individual-focusedtheoryandpractice.

Thefocusontheindividualwithinleadershipdevelopment,andHRpracticesmoregenerally,has

beencriticizedaspotentiallyoppressive,ameansofcontrollingthebehaviourandactionsof

employees.Forexample,Townley(1993and1994)hastheorizedthatdevelopmenttechnologiescan

serveasdisciplinarymechanismswherebyemployersdefinewhatistoberegardedasvaluable

knowledgeandseektoknowandcontrolemployeeswithevermoresophisticatedmeansofdata

capture.

FollowingRose’s(1999)andRoseandMiller’s(1992)work,thecreepofindividualisticculturehas

beenaparticularconcernfordevelopmentresearchwithinthepublicsphere.Rose’scritiqueisthat

publicpractices,policyandculturehavebecomeincreasinglyconcernedwithidentifyingthe

individualasthesourceofsocialproblems,yetalsoasthesourceofsolutions.Suchamindsethas

becomesonormalised,itisargued,thatitisincreasinglydifficulttoviewpublicproblemsoutside

theframeworkoftheindividual(Fournier,2006).Forexample,whenorganisationsfail,thedefault

positionseemstobetosearchforcharacterflawsofpeopleinpositionsofleadershipresponsibility,

ratherthanformoresystemic,socialsolutions(Cruikshank,1999;IlcanandLacey,2006and2011;

Žižek,2009a).

Applyingthiscriticallenstoleadershipdevelopmentsurfacesitscontestedandproblematic

dimensions,exposinghowits‘neutral’practicesandtechnologiesmayservetoembedoppressive

organisationalnorms(Edwardsetal,2013).Forexample,Gagnon(2008)hasdemonstratedhow

leadershipdevelopmentprogrammesmayactasawayofsolidifyingoppressivepowerrelations

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betweenemployeesandemployers.Programmes,shestates,canexploitinsecurityandembed

ruthlesscompetitivenorms.Morerecently,Tomlinsonetal(2013)havetheorisedthatleadership

developmentcanactasameansof‘symbolicviolence’.Suchviolence,theystate,occursthroughan

appealtothevanityofmanagers.Beinga‘leader’isviewedasmoreglamorousthanbeinga

‘manager’or‘administrator’(seealsoAlvessonandSveningsson,2003).Suchseduction,theystate,

enablestheentrenchmentofcentralisedcontrolandacultureofcompetitionthroughthe

acquisitionofcapital,inthiscaseself-capital.

Althoughthedominantconcernofcriticalscholarshasbeentohighlightthepossibilityfor

oppressioninindividual-focusedleadershipdevelopment,alternativecontributionshavemadethe

casefortheindividualasapotentialsiteofemancipation.Swan(2008,2010)viewsthepersonalasa

potentialsourceofpoliticalengagement.Personaltherapeuticinterventions,accordingtoSwan

(2010),canactasasafetyvalvefortheexpressionofangstbroughtaboutthroughacapitalistover-

preoccupationwithindividualresponsibility(Newman,2005;Shamir,2008).Moreover,asafeminist

scholar,shedoesnotviewafocusonindividualsinmanagementandleadershipdevelopmentas

necessarilyoppressive.Herpositionisthat,iftakenaspartofamoreholisticdevelopmentprocess,a

focusonthepersonalmayoffervaluableinsightsintolargerpoliticalconcerns(seealsoMills,2000;

Watson,2008).Suchistheconcernofreflexivitywithinthedevelopmentofmanagementand

leadership,ameansforparticipantstoviewtheirpositionwithinsocialandorganisationalpower

relationsthroughquestioningtheirindividually-feltandexperiencedresponses(Cunliffe,2002and

2004).

Leadershipdevelopmentprogrammeshavebeentheorisedasonemeansofconnectingthepersonal

andorganisational.Forexample,LordandHall(2005)andDayandHarrison(2007)havepostulated

thatleadershipdevelopmentoughttobeviewedasacontinuumwherebyparticipantswillneedto

firstthinkofthemselvesasindividualsinleadershiptermsbeforetheycanmoveontoconsidertheir

roleincollectiveformsofleadership.

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Assuspiciousasweareofworkwhichclaimsdiscretepersonalandcollectivestagesofdevelopment,

whatisindicatedisthatparticipantsmayholdawidearrayofmeaningsforleadershipwork.Thisisa

viewofleadershipdevelopmentparticipantsconfirmedbyFordetal(2008)andFordandHarding

(2007).Participantsdonotenterleadershipdevelopmentprogrammesasablanksheetbutdoso

bearingtheweightofalifetimeofculturalimagesofwhatitmeanstolead.Moreover,suchimages

aredrawnfrompopularculture,whichtendstoviewleadershipasindividual,heroicand

inspirational.Toexpectparticipantstosimplydropallpreviouspreconceptionsregardingleadership

andadoptanew,collaborativeidentityseemsunrealistic.Henceamorerecentconcerninthe

leadershipdevelopmentliteraturewithexploringhowdevelopmentmayserveasanexperimental

groundforparticipantstoworkwiththeirselfandorganisationalidentities(CarrollandLevy,2010;

CarrollandSimpson,2012).

Insummary,thenatureofwhatconstitutesahelpfulleadershipdevelopmentexperienceis

contested,andthiscontestationhaschieflybeenconcernedwiththefigureoftheindividual

participant.Moreover,recentresearchhasdrawnattentiontothecomplexpositioningof

participantsinrelationtoleadership:theydonotviewleadershipinclear-cut,single-theoryterms.

Crossroad#3:Processandcontentchoicesforfacilitation

Sohowdoestheliteraturedealwiththeconceptoffacilitationwithinanenvironmentofcontested

leadershipandleadershipdevelopmenttheory?Theshortansweristhatitdoesnotaddressthe

issuedirectlybutprovidescluesaboutthekindsofchoicesleadershipdevelopersmayfacein

practice.

Facilitationasaconceptisarelativelyrecentphenomenon,stemmingfrompost-WWIIhumanist

psychology(Perriton,2007).Thepracticeoffacilitatinggroupshasitsoriginsintherapeuticpractice

andmuchoftheliteraturetendstowardsaconcernwithfacilitatorsdevelopingself-awarenessof

theirownbehaviourwithinalearninggroup(Knowles,1990;Rogers,1990).Theliteratureon

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facilitationhaslargelytakentheformofbestpracticeguides,withthelanguageofsuchguidesoften

leavingtheimpressionthatprocessissomethingwhichcanbeperfectedinisolationtocontent

expertise(Perriton,2007).Forexample,readersareurgedtodevelopa‘trainingkit’(Bendaly,2000)

ora‘facilitator’stoolkit’(HavergalandEdmonstone,1999)inordertolearn‘faultlessfacilitation’

(Hart,1991).Theimageofatoolkitormanualencouragestheviewofacraftoffacilitationwhichis

separablefromknowledgeofsubject.

This‘neutralstance’offacilitation(GregoryandRomm,2001)doesnotsitwellwiththeexperiences

ofmanyfacilitatorsworkingwithinleadershipdevelopment(Raelin,2006).Suchfacilitation

professionalsbringarangeofcontentexpertisetotheirroles,fromon-the-jobmanagement

experiencetoscholarlyproficiencyinthefield(Swan,2010).Thatsaid,wedonotwishtobe

dismissiveofgroupprocessexpertise.Ourexperiencessuggestthatfacilitationofpublicleadership

developmentisapracticewherebyprocessworkisinformedbycontentexpertise,andviceversa.

Theconvergenceofcontent-processconcernsisoftenfeltwhenfacilitatorsarefacedwithchoices

aboutwhichdirectionsandpointsraisedbyparticipantstounderlineandexplore(Coorenetal,

2006;Raelin,2006).Thesechoicesaremagnifiedwithinapublicsectorcontextwhereparticipant

constructionsofleadershipmaydifferfrom,supportorcontradictthecurrentemphasisinthe

literatureoncollaborativeleadership.

Toconcludethisreview,itisourcontentionthatleadershipdevelopmentfacilitatorchoicesare

mademoreproblematicinthreeways:

1. Throughthecontestednatureofpublicleadershiptheory–bothintermsoftherelatively

recentriseofcollaborativeleadershipandthecontestednatureofcollaborationitself.

2. Throughthecontestednatureofleadershipdevelopmenttheoryandpractice,manifesting

inconcernswiththeexercisingofpoweroverindividualparticipants.Thepictureisfurther

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complicatedthroughaviewofparticipantsaspossessingvariedandoftencontradictory

viewsconcerningthemeaningandutilityofleadership.

3. Throughadeficitofknowledgeconcerningtheroleoftheleadershipdevelopment

facilitator.Specifically,howconcernswithcontentexpertiseandcareforprocessshouldbe

balancedinpractice.

Theremainderofthearticleisconcernedwithconsideringhowthesethreeissuesmaymanifestin

thechoicesmadebypublicleadershipdevelopmentfacilitatorsandinsurfacinghowthesechoices

mayappearinpractice.

Theresearchsetting

Thedatapresentedisdrawnfromabroaderethnographicstudyofpublicleadershipdevelopment

programmesconductedoverathree-yearperiodinboththeUnitedKingdomandNewZealand.

Thedatapresentedinthisarticleisdrawnfromoneofthefourprogrammesobserved,thePublic

LeadershipProgramme(PLP)inNewZealand.Likemanyotherwesterndemocracies,NewZealand

policymakersarecurrentlyadvocatingamorecollaborativeformofleadershipinthedesignand

deliveryofservices.Similarlytoothernationalcontexts,NewZealandpublicservantsarealso

discoveringthatimplementingcollaborativeformsofleadershipinvolvesunsettlingdominant

paradigmsofpublicorganising,askingquestionsaboutthepurposeandnatureofpublicpolicyand

serviceswhichmaychallengeexistingmeansofconceptualisingpublicproblems,aswellasthe

dominantleadershipidentitiesheldbypublicmanagers(GrintandHolt,2011;JacksonandSmolović

Jones,2012).

ThePLPisfundedbycentralgovernmentbutdeliveredthroughaspecialistgovernmentagencyand

aimedatmiddlemanagerswithincivilservicedepartmentsandgovernmentagencies.Althoughthe

facilitationchoiceshighlightedintheliteraturereviewanddatasectiontofollowwerevisibleinthe

largerstudy,wechosetofocusonasingleprogramme(thePLP)andtheexperiencesofone

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facilitatorinparticularinordertoofferagreaterdepthofinsight.Wechosetofocusspecificallyon

thePLPasthefacilitator,Frank,appearedparticularlyattunedtothechoicesinherentinfacilitating

theleadershipdevelopmentofpublicsectormanagers.Reflectingthemovetocollaborative

leadershiphighlightedintheliteraturereview,thePLPwasaprogrammeaimedatdeveloping

leadershipnotonlyasthepropertyofanindividualbutasacapacitybetweengovernmentagencies

anddepartments,hencethebroadcross-sectionofparticipantsinvolved.

Methodologicalsummary

Weadoptnarrativeethnographyasamethodologyforthisstudy(WatsonandWatson,2012),which

seekstoofferarichaccountoftheresearchsettingthroughimmersioninthefieldofstudy,

providingreaderswithasenseofthelivedexperienceoffacilitatingaleadershipdevelopment

programme(VanMaanen,2010and2011;Watson,2010),ora‘roomwithaview’(Cunliffe,2010:

226)ofthechallengesofdesigningandfacilitatingleadershipdevelopment.Beyondthismore

traditionalviewofethnography,narrativeethnographyisalsointerestedinhowresearch

participantsconstructtheirexperiences,specificallywithattemptsbyactorstodefinemeaning,to

createamorebroadlyacceptedmeta-narrative(GubriumandHolstein,2009).Narrative

ethnographersareparticularlyinterestedintheprocessofobjectification,orhowaparticular

narrativemayundergotheprocessofearningwideracceptance(Watson,2009).Toassistinthistask

ofexploringhowaparticularmeta-narrativeisconstructedandcontested,narrativeethnography

drawsontheanalyticalmethodsofdiscourseanalysis(DeFinaandGeorgakopoulou,2011;

Georgakopoulou,2007;NicholsonandCarroll,2013)becausenarrativeethnographerstendto

believethatnarrativesarenotconstructedbyindividualsinisolatedmomentsbutmaybeseenas

constructedrelationally,overtime.

Inthecontextofthisstudy,theprimaryauthorwasembeddedinthefieldinanobservationalrole.

Hisstrategywastoremainintentionallylow-key,forexampleseatinghimselfatthefringesofthe

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group,onlyspeakinginopensessionswheninvitedtodosobyfacilitatorsorprogramme

participants.Emphasiswasplaceduponnotonlythestrategiesandresponsesadoptedduringthe

formalprogrammebutalsouponsideconversationswithparticipantsduringbreaksandbetween

developmentengagementsviaemailandtelephone.

Regularinformalconversationswereheldwiththeprogramme’smainfacilitator,Frank,throughout

thedurationoftheeight-monthprogramme.Inadditiononeformalinterviewwasconductedwith

Frankduringtheinitialstagesoftheprogrammeinordertogleanfromhimhisdevelopmentand

designpreferences.Asstated,Frankwastheleadfacilitatorfortheprogramme,althoughhewas

supportedbyanotherfacilitatorandguestpresenters.Thegovernmentproviderwasalsoinfluential

intermsofinformingcontentpriorities.Wethereforeacknowledgethatsomedesigndecisionsand

ad-hocdecisionsregardingtheunfoldingoftheprogrammewereoutofFrank’sdirectcontrol:for

example,intermsofpresenterresponsestoparticipantquestions.Nevertheless,primary

responsibilityforthedesignoftheprogrammeandformaintainingtheoverallprogrammenarrative

laywithFrank.

Theprogrammebeganwithfivedaysofintensivedevelopmentataresidentiallocation,whichthe

primaryauthorattendedinfull.Anadditionalfullworkingweek(fivefullobservationdays)was

spentbytheresearcherintheofficesofthegovernmentleadershipdevelopmentprovider

responsiblefordeliveringthePLP.Theresearcherwasgrantedaccesstomeetingsandmembersof

staffforinterview,whichservedasvaluablecontextualbackgroundfortheobservationofthe

programme.Followingthe10daysofobservation(providerofficesandprogramme),sevencoaching

sessionsbetweenprogrammefacilitatorsandparticipantswereobserved.Inaddition,fourhalf-day

actionlearningsessionswereobserved.Intotal,40interviewswereconducted,withprogramme

participants(34),staffmemberswithinthedevelopmentdeliveryorganisationwithinvolvementin

theprogrammemanagement(four)andfacilitators(two).Notesofobservationswererecordedby

theprimaryresearcherusingteelineshorthand.Interviewswereaudiorecorded.

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Discourseanalysisofnarrativeswasadoptedasameansofdataanalysiswhichmightassistinthe

establishingofconnectionsbetweenthetextual,organisationalandsocialdynamicsatplayinthe

field(Georgakopoulou,2007;Krzyzanowski and Wodak, 2008;WagnerandWodak,2006;Wodak

andKryzanowski,2007).Afundamentaltenetofdiscourseanalysisisthatitseekstoexplorehowthe

broaderpoliticalterrainshapeseverydaydiscursivepracticeand,inturn,howeverydaydiscursive

practicemayinfluencethebroaderpoliticallandscape(Fairclough,1992;ZollerandFairhurst,2007).

Wewerethusparticularlyinterestedinlinguisticconstructionswhichseemedtoindicatethatthe

facilitatorandprogrammeparticipantsweredealingwithissuesconcerningthemeaningand

purposeofleadership.Inpracticalterms,suchananalysisfocusedonthediscursivestrategies,

argumentationstructureandgrammaticalcategoriesadoptedbyspeakers(Krzyzanowski and

Wodak, 2008; WagnerandWodak,2006).Inaddition,wewereinterestedinhowspeakers

representedthemselvesandothersintheirspeech,assuchdiscursiverepresentationmaybesaidto

indicateanexercisingofpower(Shuman,2005and2010),asspeakersattempttoconstructbothself

andotheridentityinrelationtotheorganisationalandsocialcontextinhand.Inotherwords,

discourseanalysisofnarrativesinanethnographiccontextisconcernedwithhowtextual

deploymentisinfluencedby,andinturnseekstoinfluence,thebroaderpoliticalandorganisational

environment.

Intermsofepisodeselection,weidentifiedeachnarrativeappearinginthefieldnotesandinterview

transcripts,with‘narrativeepisode’definedasanypassageoftextwhichwasstructuredina‘time-

relatedsequence’(abeginning,middleandend)(Watson,2009:429),involvingcharactersandan

underlyingpurpose(amoralofthetale).Eachepisodewasfirstlyanalysedintermsofwhetherthe

textpresentedthespeakerwithseveralchoices.Couldthefacilitatorhavechosenonecourseof

action,orparticularlinguisticdeployment,overanotherandwhatmighttheconsequencesof

certaindecisionshaveentailed?Wewereparticularlyguidedinourselectionbynarrativeswhich

presentedanintensificationoftextualchoices.Byintensificationwedonotrefertothenumberof

choicespresentedbuttoepisodeswhichwereindicativeofchoiceswhichappearedtosignalthe

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shapingofthebroader,meta-narrative–intermsoflinguisticandcontentthemeswhichwere

returnedtoorre-emphasised.Ourselectionwasfurtherguidedthroughourfrequentconversations

withthefacilitatorandwithprogrammeparticipantsastowhichmomentstheybelievedillustrated

welltheshapingoftheprogrammemeta-narrative.

Facilitationchoicesinpractice

Thefacilitator

LeadingthePLPasfacilitatorwasFrank.Quietlyspoken,warmandinclusive,hewasbotha

convincingspeakerinlargegroupsandhadawayofcapturingindividualparticipantsinone-on-one

conversations.ThesurroundingsofthedevelopmentprogrammeseemedtocomplementFrank’s

earthycharm:apeacefulstatelyhomeinthesemi-ruralsurroundsofatraffic-fuelled,majorcity.Its

rollinglawns,craftedwrought-ironbalconyandthehomelywelcomeofitsownersseemedan

extensionofFrank’sownpersona.

WhatwasparticularlyinterestingtousaboutFrankwashisunwillingnesstoallowhisnarrativeon

leadershiptoberestrictedbythepersonal/collectivedyad.Farfromviewingpersonaldevelopment

asdistracting,letalonedamaging,Franksawthepersonalasapotentiallypowerfulmeansof

connectingwithparticipants.Hislogicwasthatforparticipantstoengagewithorganisationaland

socialsolutions,theyneededtofeelandconnecttotheirownpersonalexperiences,bothinsideand

outsidetheworkplace.

Suchapositionasafacilitatorofferedpotentialforasophisticateddevelopmentnarrative.Yet

throughattemptingtoworkwiththecomplexitiesofpublicleadershipthought,hispositioningalso

surfacedseveralimportanttensionsanddilemmas.Oneofthesetensionswasundoubtedlythe

balancingoftheneedsofthesponsorsoftheprogramme(thegovernmentagencytaskedwith

delivery)withwhatFrankfeltwasanappropriatedesignforthePLP.Wedonotclaimthatsucha

tensionwasproblematicinthesenseofanymajordisagreementexistingbetweenFrankandhis

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sponsor.Theneedsofthegovernmentagencywereguidedbycentralgovernment’spushtowards

morecollaborativeformsofleadership.Franksupportedthisemphasisbutalsorecognisedthatthe

positionofindividualprogrammeparticipantsmaybemorecomplexandproblematic,requiringa

nuancedapproachtotheissueofcollaboration.Whiletheorganisationalcontextofdevelopment

programmesisnottheprimaryfocusofthisstudy,itisworthnotingthatthis(constructive)tension

betweenprogrammesponsorsandfacilitatorexistedasonefurtherfactorinformingfacilitator

choice.

TheremainderofthissectionwillanalysepointsatwhichFrankwaspresentedwithimportant

facilitationdecisionsasheworkedbothwithleadershiptheoryandthepositioningofparticipants.

Threeepisodeswhichseemedparticularlyimportantregardingthedecisionsanddilemmasfacedby

Frankasafacilitatorwereidentified.Wepresenttheseepisodesaseventswhichseemtoreflecttwo

broadcategoriesoffacilitatorchoice:framingchoicesandadaptivechoices.

Framingandadaptivechoices

Whenbuildingtheoryfromourfieldobservationswewerestruckbythepoliticalnatureofmanyof

thechoicesfacingleadershipdevelopmentfacilitators.Temptedasweweretoname‘politics’asone

choiceamongstmany,wefeltthatdoingsowouldoverlookthepervasivenessofthepoliticalinthe

choicesfacingdevelopersofleadershipinthepublicsector.Allthechoiceswepresentarestrongly

politicalones,astheyinvolvenavigatingtheideologicalconstructsofparticipants,theorists,

organisationsandpoliticians.

Thepoliticalandcontestednatureofthesechoices,webelieve,iscapturedwellinourtheorisingof

framingandadaptivechoices.Plainlyput,framingchoicesarethoserepresentingafacilitator’s

presentationoftheproblemof‘publicleadership’,meaningwhat‘leadership’istheretoachieve,

whatkindofactscanbedefinedas‘leadership’andwhoisresponsiblefortheseacts.Adaptive

choicesconcernthedegreetowhichfacilitatorsmaintaindiscomfortamongstparticipants.Drawn

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fromHeifetz’stheoryofadaptiveleadership(Heifetz,1994;HeifetzandLinsky,2002),theyconcern

theextenttowhichfacilitatorsattempttomaintainparticipantsinaproductivestateofdiscomfort.

Theworkoffacilitationpresentsitselfinchoicesregardingwhenparticipantsshouldbepushedinto

discomfortandwhenmomentsofconsolidationmightbeconsidered.Thefollowingepisodesare

presentedinordertodrawoutsomeofthemoredetailedissuesinherentwithinframingand

adaptivechoices.

Framingchoices:Howtocontextualisetheimportanceofleadership?

ThefollowingnarrativerepresentsFrank’sinitialconstructionofthepurposeofthePLP:

Thereisaneedforanewtypeofleadership.It’seasytoestablishourlivesthroughthe

accumulationofconsumerdurablesasawayofclimbingthroughsociety,butit’salsoeasy

toloseyourway.ThepoetandleadershipwriterDavidWhytehasthisheartbreakingbut

incrediblypowerfulquotefromoneofhisparticipants,anordinaryperson,someonewho

hadworkedhardanddonewellinabigcorporateformanyyears,butwasprofoundly

unsatisfied.Shesaid,“10yearsagoIturnedmyfaceforamomentanditbecamemylife.”At

themomentwearedeepeningourvocabularyaroundtherecessionbutitisabout

rationality,structureandcost.Insomewaysmanyorganizationsneedmoreofthat.

Butitisnottheleadershipofacorporateorpoliticalelitethatwillultimatelyrevitalisethe

world.Rather,itisthepersonalleadershipofordinarypeoplethatwillmakethefinal

difference.Whocantellwhatwouldbethepositiveimpactofafewthousandpeoplefinding

moresoulandvitalityintheirlivesasthepeopleI’vespokenwithhavedone?

Weneedpersonalfoundationsforleadership.Amanagerwhohasbeenonthisprogramme

toldus:“Ihadunderestimatedtheimpactmypersonalleadershiphasonmyorganisational

leadership.I’velearntabouttheneedforpersonalspaceandpersonalreading.Ican’t

believehowmuchthataddstomylife.”

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Asafirstanalyticstep,wewillanalysethechoicesmadebyFrankinhisframingworkandpointto

thedilemmasthisnarrativehighlightforadevelopmentpractitioner.Asasecondstep,wewill

analysetheformofthisnarrative,thetechnicalworkofFrank’slanguage.Havingmadehismore

macrofacilitatorchoices,whatarethetextualchoicesavailabletothisfacilitator?

ThefirstdecisionopentoFrankinhisframingishowtocontextuallysituatehisviewofleadership

andtheimperativeforitsdevelopment.Asseen,Frankintroducesapoliticalframeearlyon–

dissatisfactionwithcontemporaryconsumeristsociety.Nottohavetoucheduponthepolitical

wouldperhapshavebeenadevelopmentexperiencerecognisedbyparticipantsasmoreorthodox.

Nevertheless,perhapstotakeapositionfreeoraboveideologyisinitselfaformofideological

positioning,thatofatechnicalexpertknowingbetterthanthoseattunedtopoliticalvaluesand

concerns(Žižek,2009b).

Whetherornottoapplyapoliticalframetodevelopmentnarrativesisanissuewhichhastroubled

usinourexperiencesoffacilitation.Theusualstrategyistoinsertapoliticalframemoregradually,

soastogaugethemoodofthegroup.Yetasalreadyalludedto,perhapssuchastrategyisalready

anideologicalone.Presentingissuesastechnicalmaybeviewedasameansofattemptingtopaper

overthemorecomplex,politicaldimensionsofaproblem(Grint,2005b).Thepresumptionwitha

technicalframingisthatwecansomehowriseaboveideology.Butofcourseweknowthat

leadershiptheoryiswovenwithideology:forexample,thatcollaborativeleadershipmodelssuggest

atleastanaffinityforcommunalvalues.

ThechoicemadebyFrankwastoactboldly,tostakehisnarrativeclaimforleadershipandits

development,drawinguponhisexperiencesandtalentsforconnectingwithanaudience.Through

makingsuchachoiceFrankenteredtheheartofthetensionevidentintheliteraturebetweenthe

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personal,collectiveandthepolitical.Referencingthisdebate,itwouldappearthattwobroad

readingsofFrank’sframingarepossible,afactFrank,asareflectivepractitioner,wasawareof.

Onereadingofthisinitialframingwouldbetocharacteriseitasasubstantialexampleofthe

mobilisationofaculturalfixationwiththepersonalattheexpenseofthesystemicandcommunal.

ThesuspiciouspartofFrank’sthinkingalertedhimtotheaccusationthataddressingpersonal

leadershipsoearlyinaprogrammeriskedover-simplifyingthetensionsandcomplexitiesassociated

withleadership.

Analternativereadingmightinterpretthisnarrativeasanattempttoencouragetheagencyof

participantswithinanenvironmentwhichappearstobeerodingtheabilityofparticipantstoactin

leadership.Throughromanticisingtheexperiencesofparticipants,Frankisinvitingthemtofeeltheir

frustrationwiththestatusquo.Itisaninvitationtoover-identify(Žižek,2009b),tofeeltheexcessof

apublicspherewherelackofcommunalconnection,inFrank’sopinion,hasbecomeproblematic.

EachchoicefacedbyFrankheldimportantconsequencesfortheremainderoftheprogramme.

Perhapsthemostchallengingimplicationforthedevelopmentfacilitatoristhatoptingoutof

confrontingdifficultissuescarriesasmanyconsequencesasoptingin.Wehaveexperienced

situationswhereforthebestofintentions(groupstability,participantconfidence)wehaveallowed

aparticipantcontributionweviewasunhelpfultoslide.Theactofnon-actionholdsconsequences

forfacilitation:itcanmuddythenarrativewaters,sowconfusionorleaveparticipantswiththe

impressionthatleadershipissomehowanideologicallylooseconceptwhereoneinterpretationisas

validasanother.

SittingbeneathFrank’smeta-decisionsregardingthepolitical(orotherwise),individual(or

collective?)positioningoftheprogrammelayaseriesofmoremicro,linguisticchoices.Thedilemma

facedbyFrankisawell-troddenoneconnectedtothedeploymentofrhetoric.Asfarbackas

classicaltimes,Greekphilosophersdebatedtheappropriatenessofdeployingtheartsofrhetoricin

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teaching.WhilePlatowarnedofthedangersofirrational(manipulative)rhetoricovercomingthe

rational,Aristotlewasmorepragmatic,arguingthatamoralleaderoughttobeexposedtothearts

availableto(lesshonest)competitors(Grint,1997).Thechoiceforadevelopmentfacilitatoristo

whatextenttodeployrhetoricaldevicesandtowhatextentshouldanargumentbeallowedto

speakforitself.

Frankcouldhavepresentedhisframingquitedifferently.Opentohimwasthepossibilityofhard

data(numbers,graphsetc)asameansofpersuadinghisaudiencethateithercurrentapproachesto

leadershipwereinadequate,orthathisbeliefinpersonalagencywassupportedbyharddata.

Frank’schosenpathwastoconstructamorequalitative,narrative-basedpitch.

Sittingintheaudienceforthisspeech,itwasundoubtedlyanimpressivelyseductiveliteraryframing.

Thepointedopeningsentenceoffersdrama–acallfornewness.Thedramaticintroductionisquickly

reinforcedthroughthetragicromanticismofart.Frankdoesnotappealtoharddata,buttothe

emotionofpoetry.AfurthertwistoccursasFrankappropriatesthevoiceofthe“ordinaryperson”.

ThisappropriationfitswithShuman’s(2010)notionofanexerciseofpowerinnarrative,asFrankis

nowmorethanFrank,heisFrankplus“ordinaryperson”,havingco-optedthevoiceofthismanager.

Poetrymingleswiththepersonal(ordinarymanager).Furthermore,thismanagerispitchedasbeing

justliketheparticipantslisteningon.Theirassumedexistentialangstiselevatedtoarealmofthe

poetic,thebeautiful.

TheextendedcodaofthenarrativeinvolvesFrankofferingasolutiontothiscapitalism-fuelled

existentialcrisis.Thecodabeginswithadeepeningofthenotionof“ordinarypeople”.Further

understandingofthiscategoryispositedthroughadifferentiationbetweenthe‘ordinary’andan

‘elite’.Apocalypticnotionsofaconsumeristsocietyoutofcontrolareansweredwiththe

unexpectedsolutionofthehopeofferedbyordinary,decentmanagers.

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Frank’sframingchoicehereoffersaninterestingtwistonacommonthemewithincriticalleadership

studies,thatasleadershipseemstorepresentsomethingintangibleandevenmetaphysical,itisalso

inpracticaltermsmoredifficulttoscrutiniseandholdtoaccount(O’ReillyandReed,2012).

‘Leadership’maythusbeadoptedasapotentiallymanipulativeframingrelatedtotheunquestioned

superiorityofseniormanagers(FairhurstandSarr,1996;Grint,2000).YetFrank’sstrategyistodraw

onaromanticised,metaphysicalleadershipinordertolendacertaintragicbeautytothepositionof

themiddlemanager(Sims,2003).Thequestionhereistheextenttowhichsuchframingchoices

assistparticipantsinbetterseeingtheirpositionwithinalarger,politicalcontext.Indeed,ifas

listenerswetendtorespondmoretonarrativesthansimple‘facts’(Gabriel,2000),thenweshould

thinkmorecarefullyaboutwhopopulatesourfacilitationnarratives.Whoareweofferingas

examplesandrolemodels?FramingleadershipintermsoffamedworldleadersorcelebrityCEOs

mightintheshorttermboostparticipantevaluationsatisfactionscoresbutofferlittleintermsof

practicalutility.

Adaptivechoices:Whenparticipantstalkback

Thereisariskofcourse,indiscussingfacilitatorchoices,thatweover-emphasisethediscretionof

facilitatorstobuildanarrativeofleadershipandunder-emphasisethecontestedenvironmentof

leadershipdevelopment.Infact,inthecaseofthePLP,participantswerewaryoftheirposition

withinthenarrativeFrankpresented.Suchwarinesswasnotdirectedatthepoliticalpositioningof

Frankbutmorespecificallywiththeirowncapacitytodiscoverapurposeandvoicewithintheir

leadership.Inparticular,participantswerecautiousoftheirabilitytoleadcollaborationin

organisationswhichhistoricallyheldalternativepriorities.

Atamacrolevel,participantsidentifiedwithFrank’snarrativeconnectingthepersonaland

political/organisational.Forexample,oneparticipant,Jan,ayoungermanager,wrappedupconcerns

withherhomelife(neglectingherchildrenetc)withconcernsaboutnotsteppingconfidentlyinto

hermale-dominatedworkplace.Anotherparticipantconnectedherfeelingsofgriefrelatedto

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membersofherfamilypassingawaywithasenseofgriefatherperceivedincapacitytoactin

leadershipatwork,thatherorganisationseemedparalysedbyastateofsadnessfollowingadifficult

changeprojectandstaffredundancies.Theseparticipantsconnectedtheirpersonalfeelingsof

vulnerabilitywithlargerorganisationalissues.Suchareadingmorecloselyresemblesthe‘personalis

political’streamofthoughtwithinfeminism(e.g.Swan,2008b;Young,2011)thanwiththecritique

ofpersonaldevelopmentasdistractingfromcriticalthought.

Atamicro-discursivelevelparticipantsevokedbothaconnectionbetweenpersonaland

organisational,andatentativenessregardingtheirownleadershippotential.Connectingthe

personaltotheorganisational,albeituncertainlyandtentatively,wasparticularlyhighlighted

throughtheexperiencesofanothermanager,David,whoworkedinpolicy.Heidentifiedwiththe

viewofisolationpaintedbyFrank,butwasuncertainwherethislefthimregardinghisownjob.

Addressingthegroup,DavidmirroredFrank’saffinitytoliterature,quotingHamletinhispositioning

ofhisleadershipthinking:

LetmesharesomelineswithyoufromHamlet:“There’saspecialprovidenceinthefallofa

sparrow.Ifitbenow,’tisnottocome;ifitbenottocome,itwillbenow;ifitbenotnow,

yetitwillcome:thereadinessisall.Sincenomanknowsaughtofwhatheleaves,whatis’t

toleavebetimes?Letbe.”

Ihavebeentremblingonthebrink,staringovertheedgeandthinkingaboutwhetherIcan

gofurther,whetherIhaveitinmetogofurther.Ineedtostepconfidentlyintomyworkand

myleadershiprole.“Ifitbenotnow,yetitwillcome–thereadinessisall.”Iwanttobeina

moreseniorpolicyrole,butinthemeantimetostepmoreauthoritativelyandtoarticulate

myvaluesmoreinmypresentrole.Ineedtodevelopanactivitythatisjustforme.Ineedto

developmorepeerinfluenceacrossmyagency,tobuildalliancesandrelationshipswhich

arepurposeful.

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Thisparticipant’svoiceseemedasalientexampleofthegroup’spositioningbetweenorganisational

andpersonal.Equatinghimselfwithasmallbird,asparrow,isstriking.Sparrowsareacommonbird

inNewZealandandDavidwasawareoftheircharacteristics.Theyareseeminglyvulnerable

creatures,yetareinfactdurable,effectiveforagers.Theotherpowerfulimageevokedinthis

passageisthatof“tremblingonthebrink”.WhilereferencetoHamletseemstoevokegrand

imagery,hisself-positioningstandsincontrast,asthatofasmall,frightenedanimaluncertainabout

hisowncapacityforleadership.ItisworthnotingherethatthestoryofHamletisonefrequently

drawnuponbypsychoanalyticwriterstosignalastrugglewithauthority.WhydidHamletfalter

whenfacedwiththeopportunitytomurderClaudius?Wasitconnectedtohishesitationtoassume

theburdenoftheprimalfatherfigure?Inotherwords,whatmaybesignalledhereisthedilemmaof

whetherornottoacceptthepsychicalburdensandnarcissisticpossibilitiesofferedbyleadership

(Jones,1976).Suchadilemmaishighlightedwithinaframeworkofcollaborativeleadership.Thereis

noauthorityfiguretotellDavidwhattodo.Hisdecisionistoeventuallystep“overtheedge”andto

asserthispresencemoreforcefully.Atthispointhislanguageswitchesfromliterarytopractical

statementsofintent:“Iwantto”,“Ineedto”.

Theimageofaparticipantstandingontheedgeofacliffbringstotheforeakeyseriesofdilemmas

fortheleadershipdevelopmentfacilitator.Atplayhereareanumberofparticipantswhohave,on

theonehand,seentheirownpositionwithinalargersystemmoreclearly.Yetontheotherhand

suchpositioninghasledthemtovulnerability.

Thefacilitationdecisionpresentiswhethertoengageparticipantsfurtherthroughthepersonal,to

seeksomeformofclosure.Asdiscussed,suchanapproachmayleadtoaformofindividual

satisfaction,yetultimatelyitseffectsmightbelimited(atleastwithinthetimeframeofthe

developmentintervention),withdevelopmentreservedforthepersonaldomain(self,family)of

eachindividual.Or,thefacilitatormayseektomakemoreexplicitandpracticalthelinkbetweenthe

personalandorganisational/social.Suchadecisionappearsaspractical(whatwillbethemeasurable

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outcomeoftheprogramme?)andethical(isitfairtopushparticipantsfurtheralongan

uncomfortablelineofreflection?).

PerhapsuncharacteristicallyforFrank,inthisregardheleanedtowardscaution.Atthebackof

Frank’smindofcoursewastheknowledgethattheprogramme’sactionlearningcomponentoffered

extratimefororganisation-focusedleadershipdevelopment.Frank’schoice,whenpresentedwith

participantsunabletomovebeyondthepersonal,wasoneofsupportandreinforcement.An

exampleofhiscautionappearedinaone-to-onecoachingsessionobservedbythefieldresearcher.

Helen,aseniormanager,wasexperiencingdifficultiesatworkandinherpersonallife.

Frank:Sohowareyoudoing?

Helen:I’mexhaustedtobehonest.Myworkisslipping,mychildisill…Mybrotherdied

recently.It’stiring.TheworstthingisthatIknowmyleadershipisnotasgoodasitshould

beatthemomentandIcanfeelitslippingmore…Ifeelsadaboutthestateofmyteamand

aboutthestateofmyorganisation.Wehaveplansforrestructuring.Ithinkitisnecessary.

I’mnotsureitwillreallyhappenbecause…Ican’treallyinfluencemybosstothinkin

differentwaysbecausehehasbeenthereforsolong…[hervoicestartstotrailoff]

Frank:Ok,[pause]...Let’sfocusonyou.You,justyou.

Inthisextract,aseeminglystraightforwardquestionfromFrankopensafloodofpersonalangst,

wrappedwithinorganisationalproblems.Followingthecriticalliterature,Frank’sresponsemight

havebeentobypassthepersonalandtofocusHelenonherwork-basedissues.Herhomelifewould

beseenasadistractionfromtheaimsoftheprogramme,developingorganisationalleadership.A

secondoptionmightbetoattempttoworkthroughthepersonalandorganisationalintandem.

Frank,however,choosesathirdoption–tofocusonthepersonal.Asthesessionproceeded,the

organisationalbecameincreasinglyplacedinthebackground(“You,justyou”).Helen’sbody

languagetransitionedfromtensetoinquisitiveassheconsideredthepossibilitythatshemight

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indulgesomeofherownpersonalwishes,suchasanescapetoawildernessspotandsometimefor

herfavouritemusicandliterature.Whenquestionedaboutthisepisode,Frank’spositionwasthat

someparticipantsneedtoconfrontonlythepersonalbeforetheycanmoveon.Theycanbecome

stuck,hebelieved.Inhisview,tohavepushedthepersonalasideatthisstageinHelen’s

developmentriskedalienatingtheparticipantandbelittlingherposition.Theadaptivechallenge

withHelen,Frankbelieved,couldbemanagedmoregraduallythroughoutthedurationofthe

programme.

ItisnotourintentiontostatewhetherthisstancefromFrankiscorrectornot,buttodemonstrate

howasinglemomentinanotherwiseinnocuousdevelopmentintervention–aone-on-onecoaching

session–canopenpossibilities,perilsanddilemmasforthedevelopmentfacilitator.Facilitators

workwithhumanparticipantsandrelatedethicaldilemmasarerarelyaddressedthroughan

impersonalleadershipliterature.Moreover,thesubtletyofmanaginganadaptiverelationshipover

thecourseofawholedevelopmentinterventionusuallylastingseveralmonths,orevenyears,is

frequentlylostinanunhelpfuldebateexpressedinbinarytermsofwhetherornottoadopta

personalorcollectivefocus.

Framingandadaptivechoicescollide:Whenispersonalagencytooagentic?

Exerciseswithinleadershipandmanagementdevelopmentarecommonlydrawnuponbyfacilitators

fortwoprimaryreasons.Thefirstistoembedlearningintroducedintoaprogramme.Thesecondis

tocreateanexperiencewhichfacilitatesamorefeltsenseoflearningdifficulttocapturewithinthe

confinesofalecture,ordiscussion.

Frankdrewondevelopmentexercisesasameansofencouragingparticipantstoviewthemselvesas

activeagentswithinleadership,ratherthanaspassiverecipientsofthemeaningmakingofothers.It

washisintentiontoencourageparticipantstorelatetheirowneverydayactionstolarger

professionaldecisions.

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Theexercisedrawnonheretookplaceonalawnbelowthemainactivityroom.Thesettingseemed

tocontributetoafeelingofserenityandrelaxation:rollinggreenlawns,clearskyandsoundofthe

localcricketsblendingwithFrank’smelodiousdelivery.

Participantswereaskedtoclosetheireyesandvisualisethespacewhichtheyinhabitedontheday

oftheirbirth.Theywereinvitedtopicturealinealongthelawn,representingtheirlifepathandto

chooseaspotfurtheralongthatwouldrepresentwheretheywereinthepresent.Theywereasked

towalkalongthatline,pausingatparticularpointstotakenotes,onpaper,of“timesofabsolute

peakexperience,greatmomentsof[their]lives”.

Someoftheparticipantssatdownattheir‘peakexperiencemoments’,othersstood.Itwas

conductedinsilence,withonlythesoundofsurroundingnatureasanaccompaniment.As

participantsreachedtheirpresent-moment‘spaces’,somehadprogressedfardowntheir‘lines’,

otherssignificantlyless,demonstratingtheirbeliefthatmostoftheirpeakexperienceswereyetto

occur.Participantswereaskedtoreflectonwhattheirexperiencesmeantandaboutwhatwas

importanttothemintheirworkingandpersonallives.

Participantswereaskedtowalkfurtheralongtheir‘lines’toamomentinwhichtheywouldvisualise

thedayoftheirretirement.Theywereaskedtoremainatthatspotandlookbackdowntheir‘lines’,

overtheircareersandlives.Theywereasked:

Whatkindofworkwereyoudoing?What’shappeningforyounow,inyourownlivesthat

mightgiveyouthatsenseofsatisfaction?Whataresomeofthethingsyouhavehadtodoto

gettothatpointofsatisfaction?Whatarethethingsyouwillhavetodobetweennowand

thentoreallyhavethisfulfillingexperience?

Participantswereinvitedtothinkoftheirdevelopmentinthecontextoftheirfamiliesandloved

ones,aninvitationchargedwithanemotionaltoneofvoice:

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Thinkaboutyourselfasayoungperson,theparents,grandparentsandalltheeffortand

resourcesthathavebeeninvestedinyoutobringyoutowhereyouaretoday.Lookback

throughtime.Whathopesdidtheyhaveforyouinwhatyoumightachieveintheworld?If

thatolder,wiseryouwalkeduptoyounow,whatadvicewouldtheynowgiveyouaboutthe

wayyoulive?

Theintendedeffectofthisframingistoleadparticipantstoapointwheretheyregardthemselvesas

capableofaffectingcontrolovertheirowndecisionsinleadershipandcareer.Thechoicepresented

toFrankinitiallyofcourseiswhethertoencouragesuchthoughtsatall.Thisisanadaptivechoice.

Dangerpresentsinthepossibilitythatparticipantsmaydevelopanover-inflatedsenseoftheir

capacitybothtodeterminetheirownpathwaysthroughorganisationalleadership,butalsoto

challengeestablishedwaysofleadingandpowerrelationships.

Theextenttowhichfacilitatorsencouragetheexpectationsofparticipantscanbeidentifiedasakey

tension.Ontheonehand,topresentaprogrammeasaimedatmarginalchangeinpractice,content

toleavepowerstructureslargelyunchallenged,seemsoverlyconservative.Ontheotherhand,over-

emphasisingwhatispossibleforanindividualorsmallgroupofparticipantstoachieveasaresultof

asingledevelopmentinterventionisalsoaproblematicstance.Thisisanethicaldilemma:howfar

shouldparticipantsbeencouragedtotaketheirleadershipandtowhatextentcanadevelopment

facilitatoroffersupport?

Wehaveworkedinsideorganisationswhereparticipantshaveexpresseduneaseregardingthe

safetyofspeakingup,ofchallengingpower.Wehavealsomadethemistakeofseemingdismissive

ofsuchconcerns–“youneverknowuntilyoutry!”Yetadoptingsuchastanceisinconsiderateofthe

materialrealitiesofworkingamidstpower.

Frank’sdecisionwastoencourageasignificantsenseofagencyamongsthisparticipants.Itisaview

heholdsstrongly,thatingeneralpeopleinorganisationsunderestimatethepoweroftheirown

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actionsandvoices.Analternativeapproachmighthavebeentoplaydownasenseofagency.Sucha

strategymighthaveencouragedaseriesofdiscussionsontheroleoftheindividualmanagerwithin

alargersystem–thepossibilitiesandtherealpolitikofactinginorganisations.Perhapsthis

approachcouldbeviewedasconservative,butalsoperhapsaspragmatic.

Nevertheless,asstated,Frankchoseanalternativestrategy,onehebelievedtobemorecongruent

withhisbeliefsregardingorganisationalchangeandinkeepingwiththelevelofsupportavailableto

participants(aprogrammeofcoachingandactionlearninginadditiontothemoreformal

developmentsessions).

ThemacrochoiceforFrankinthisexercisewasthereforetheextenttowhichheencouragedthe

agencyandambitionofhisparticipants.Wenowmoveontoamoremicroanalysisofthelinguistic

choicesopentoFrank.

WhatstrikesusaboutthelinguisticworkofFrankisitsambition.Forthedurationoftheexercise

Frankseekstocreate,throughthelanguageandformofhisexercise,asuspensionoftimeand

space.Ineffect,participantsareinvitedtoparticipateintheirownstoryconstruction.

First,aninsideandanoutsideareevokedbythefacilitator.Theoutsideworldmaybebusy,even

anxiety-inducing,tothepointwherepeoplefeelthattheyhavelittlecontrolovertheirown

decisions.Insidethisdevelopmentarena,adifferentenvironmentisgenerated(pleasantscenery,

evocativefacilitatorlanguageetc).Theoutsideworldispermittedtoenter,butonlyonthetermsof

thefacilitatorandparticipants.

Second,bothtimeandspaceappeartobeunderthecontrolofparticipants.Theyenactthiseffect

throughthecarvingoutofphysicalspaceonthelawn–whereina‘timeline’theybelieve

themselvestobesituated,andsoon.Timeisalsoseenasflexible,withparticipantsdetermining

howlongtodwelloverparticulareventsinthepast,presentandfuture.Itisundoubtedlythecase

thatparticipants,intheoutsideworld,donotenjoysuchdiscretionoverthecourseoftheircareers.

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Yetitwouldbeinadequateindeedwithinadevelopmentprogrammetosuggestthatparticipants

haveonlylimitedcontrolovertheirowndecisions,theirowncapacitytochallengethestatusquo.

ThechoiceofFranktoseektoenhancetheagencyofhisparticipantsisthusenrichedthroughhis

metaandmicro-positioningofthedevelopmentexercise.

DrawingonthecaseofFrankandthePLP,whatbecomesvisibleisaseriesofchoicesavailableto

developmentfacilitatorsinrelationtothepositioningofdevelopmentinaprogrammeostensibly

aimedatdevelopingmorecollaborativeleadership.Drawingonourexperienceasethnographic

researchers,wetheorisedtwoparticularcategoriesoffacilitatorchoiceswhichwebelievedassisted

usindrawingoutthepolitical,ethicalandpracticalnatureoftheworkoftheleadership

developmentfacilitator:framingchoicesandadaptivechoices.Theremainderofthearticleis

dedicatedtoaconsiderationofhowthistheorisationofchoicesmaybeworkedwithintheoryand

practice.

Conclusion:Livingwithleadershipdevelopmentatthecrossroads

Withpublicleadershipliteratureandpublicpolicyincreasinglymovingtowardsmoreofanemphasis

oncross-organisationalandcollaborativeleadership,leadershipdevelopmentfacilitatorsmaybe

seenasoccupyingaspacebetweenthisstanceandtheeverydayleadershipidentifications,anxieties

andpracticesofpublicmanagers.Theroleandpracticeoffacilitationmaythusbeviewedasapinch-

point,wheretheorisingofpublicleadershipmeetstheeverydayconcernsofprofessionals.Howthis

roleisconceptualisedandsupportedisanunderdevelopedyetcrucialconcernifgovernmentswish

toimplementachangeinthedominantleadershippracticesoftheirdepartmentsandagencies.

Henceaneedtobetterunderstandthechoicesleadershipdevelopmentfacilitatorsfaceintheir

practice.

Framingchoicescanofcoursebeseenascontinuouschoiceswithinleadershipdevelopment(Carroll

andSimpson,2012),thosedecisionswemakeconcerninghowcertainsessionsarepitched,the

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lessonswegleanfromplenarydiscussionsorexercisedebriefs.Themicro-textualdecisionsmadeby

facilitators,whilesuperficiallypresentingasminorchoices,providehintstothebroaderpositioning

ofdevelopmentfacilitation.Wesuggestthatholdingtheideologicalasanexplicitreflectiveframe

mayprovevaluableinnavigatingbothdesignandin-the-momentframingdecisions.

Discussionofsuchpoliticalpositioninghighlightsanethicalconcernfortheroleofthefacilitator.

Namely,ifthefacilitatorsitsbetweenthedemandsoforganisationandthepracticeandvaluesof

programmeparticipants,suchapositionmaybecharacterisedasachargedone.Thisleadership

‘pinch-point’canbethoughtofasoneimportantplaceinwhichtheoryandpracticemeet.Weare

drawntothisnotionofa‘pinch’asitseemstocaptureourfeelingswhilefacilitatingleadership

development,thepangofpainasourtheorisingonleadershipmeetscontraryviewsand

experiences.Thedefaultofmostfacilitatorsinsuchasituationmightbetoconsiderhowshe/he

mighthavepositionedcontentdifferentlyoradoptedanalternativepedagogicalapproach.While

suchconsiderationsareundoubtedlyimportant,itisperhapsofsomecomforttosituatesuch

thinkingwithinthecontextofthe‘pinch’offacilitation,theknowledgethattheresponseof

programmeparticipantstoframingchoicesmayhaveasmuchtodowiththepositionthefacilitator

occupiesintheprocessoforganisationorsectorchangeasitdoeswithindividualdesignand

deliverychoices.

Momentsofconfusionanddisagreementasadisruptiveframeisofferedmayinfactprovea

welcomesignthatthefacilitatorisexperiencingadevelopmentalrelationshipwithparticipants.We

thusurgefacilitatorstothinkoftheirframingactivitywithinsuchapoliticalcontextasameansof

bothmoreeffectivelysituatingtheirprogrammesinthecontextofsectorandasameansofeasing

theburdenofdiscomfortoftenexperiencedwhenonefacesascepticalorconfusedgroupof

programmeparticipants.

Adoptingastrategyofreflexiveengagementinfacilitationframingchoiceswouldimplythatthe

facilitatormakespublichis/herchoices,engagingparticipantsinwhycertainframeswerechosen

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overothers(Cunliffe,2002and2004).Suchaprocess,webelieve,wouldnotonlyindicateamore

inclusive,democraticdevelopmentexperiencebutalsodrawoutakeydevelopmentalfeatureof

collaborativeleadership.Namely,thatifcollaborativeleadershiprequiresthequestioningofexisting

ideologicalpositionsthenperhapsitissensiblethatthefacilitatorofcollaborativeleadership

developmentisabletomodelsomeoftheproblemsandpossibilitiesofsuchframingchoicesin

action.

Inamorepracticalandimmediatesense,someliteratureexiststoguidebothfacilitatorsand

practitionersofleadershipregardingthepracticeofframing(e.g.CarrollandSimpson,2012;

FairhurstandSarr,1996).Nevertheless,perhapsthisstudyhashighlightedtheimportanceoffurther

appliedresearchwhichfocusesmoreexplicitlyonthedetaileddynamicsoffacilitationframing.

Focusingonadaptivechoicesinfacilitationhighlightsimportantethicalquestionsrelatedtothe

agencyofprogrammeparticipants.Aleadershipdevelopmentprogrammewouldappearaslimited

indeedifitdidnotencourageitsparticipantstoapproachmajorissuesofleadershipwithinand

outsidetheirorganisations.Indeed,changemustoriginatesomewhereandwhynotwithmanagers

enrolledinaleadershipdevelopmentprogramme?Yetthedangerinherentinagencyisthe

possibilityofover-statingthecapacityofanyindividualorsmallgroupofgeneratingmajorstructural

changeandunderplayingthepossibilitythattheactofleadingmayasoftenbedrivenbythehistory,

culture,followers,evengeographyofanorganisation(Grint,2005b;Ladkin,2010).

Wethereforeurgeabalancedstanceinapproachingsuchadaptivechoiceswithinleadership

development.Topushparticipantstofocuslargelyontheirownagencyabovethecontextseems

irresponsibleandethicallyproblematic.Likewise,toswampprogrammeparticipantswithstructural

influencesmightgenerateadegreeoffatalism.Suchchoicesfordevelopmentfacilitatorsare

pragmaticmatterswhichcanonlybejudgedthroughcarefulresearchintothestateofpower

relationswithintheorganisationalcontextofaparticipant.

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Thinkingofadaptivechoicesoverthecourseofanentiredevelopmentengagementcanleadthe

facilitatortothinkmorecreativelynotonlyaboutmomentsofintensificationandeasingofheatbut

alsowhatmayberealisticforparticipantstoexperimentwithbetweenengagementswiththe

facilitator,atwork.Howcanafacilitatorplanadaptiveinterventionsinordertogenerateenergyand

enthusiasmforworkplaceexperimentationinawaythatwillcreatemomentumbutnotoverwhelm?

Decisionsconcerningwhethertofocusonthepersonal,thecollective,orsomewhereinbetween,

weseeasadaptivechoices.Apersonalfocuscanofferaplaceofconsolidation,ofrestfromtheco-

constructedchallengeofcollaborativeleadership.Žižek(2009b)wouldholdsuchmomentsas

fantasies,astheyofferafalsesenseofcomfortandcompletion,thattheproblemissolved.Yet

fantasiesmayalsobeheldasvaluablesourcesofrecuperationfromtheintensityofachallenging

developmentexperience.

Afterall,reflectingonindividualagencyinthecontextofcollaborativeleadershipgeneratesaseries

ofquestionsregardingthecapabilityandauthorityofindividualleaderstoinstigateandembed

leadership.Ifwenolongerhaveafigureofauthoritytotelluswhattodoandtoreassureusintimes

ofuncertainty,thenwhoorwhatdoweturntointermsofpsychicalsupport?

Adaptivechoicesseemtohavetheeffectoftellingparticipantsthattheyaretheoneswhoneedto

acceptmoreresponsibilityforleadership,toaccepttheburdenofbeingafigureofnarcissistic

investment(Cluley,2008;Gabriel,1997),aphenomenonwhichisamplifiedthroughafocuson

collaborativeformsofleadership.Yetparadoxicallyandsimultaneouslyafocusoncollaborative

leadershipseemstounderminethisveryfigureofnarcissism,thestrongindividualleader(Costas

andTaheri,2012;Grint,2010;Stavrakakis,2008).Suchadilemmasuggeststhatfacilitatorsmayneed

tobecomemoreadeptinsupportingthepsychicalresilienceandemergingidentificationsof

individualmiddlemanagers.Wearenotsuggestingherethatonemustbeaprofessionalanalystto

facilitateleadershipdevelopment,northatoneoughttoviewdevelopmentasanexercisein

psychoanalysingparticipants.Nevertheless,itisworthbearinginmindthatfacilitationchoicesare

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notsimplydiscursiveones,butchoiceswhichinterveneintheaffective,emotionalsideof

organisations(Gabriel,1995).Planningtosupportparticipantstobecomefiguresofleadership

authority,aswellastheconstructionofanalternativesystemofsupportandauthoritybecome

importantconsiderations.

Asafinalpoint,beyondconsiderationsofframingandadaptivefacilitatorchoicesisthesensethat

thesechoicesoverspilltheconfinesofadevelopmentinterventionandthusalsotheroleofthe

facilitator.Suchchoicesarealsomattersfororganisationsandgovernmentswhenplanning

leadershipdevelopmentinitiatives.Theideathatfacilitatorsandprogrammeparticipantsshould

enterleadershipdevelopmentinterventionscold,andthatparticipantsshouldexitleadership

developmentprogrammesintoorganisationsnotpreparedthemselvestograpplewithleadership

developmentfacilitationchoicesseemstousaflawedstateofaffairs.Keytothispaper,afterall,is

theargumentthatproblemsencounteredasrelativelyminorissueswithintheconfinesofa

leadershipdevelopmentprogrammemayinfactindicatelargerorganisationalandsocialproblems

requiringmoresystemicengagementanddebate.Thecrossroadsareeverpresent.

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L2 Learners’ Strategy Preference in Metaphorical Test ...ilt.atu.ac.ir/article_1345_39de8a2ffb49b10588005507bda52f13.pdfL2 Learners’ Strategy Preference in Metaphorical Test Performance

L2 Learners’ Strategy Preference in Metaphorical Test ...ilt.atu.ac.ir/article_1345_39de8a2ffb49b10588005507bda52f13.pdfL2 Learners’ Strategy Preference in Metaphorical Test Performance

EFL STUDENTS’ METAPHORICAL … students’ metaphorical conceptualizations of language learning ... 1989; zimmerman, 1997). however, not much . ... cienki & mÜller, ...

EFL STUDENTS’ METAPHORICAL … students’ metaphorical conceptualizations of language learning ... 1989; zimmerman, 1997). however, not much . ... cienki & mÜller, ...

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George Lakoff - Metaphorical Thought

ANALYSIS OF METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS ON EVERLASTING LOVE …

ANALYSIS OF METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS ON EVERLASTING LOVE …

Rahner's Primordial Words and Bernstein's Metaphorical ...

Rahner's Primordial Words and Bernstein's Metaphorical ...

Metaphorical sentences are more emotionally …adele/Princeton_Construction_Site/...Metaphorical sentences are more emotionally engaging than their literal counterparts Francesca M.M.

Metaphorical sentences are more emotionally …adele/Princeton_Construction_Site/...Metaphorical sentences are more emotionally engaging than their literal counterparts Francesca M.M.

GAB Annual Report for Bursa submission.pdf

GAB Annual Report for Bursa submission.pdf

Understanding Metaphorical Comparisons: Beyond Similarity · Understanding Metaphorical Comparisons: Beyond Similarity Sam Glucksberg and Boaz Keysar Princeton University Traditionally,

Understanding Metaphorical Comparisons: Beyond Similarity · Understanding Metaphorical Comparisons: Beyond Similarity Sam Glucksberg and Boaz Keysar Princeton University Traditionally,

Digital landscapes as metaphorical spaces

Digital landscapes as metaphorical spaces

sarah's jurnal submission.pdf

sarah's jurnal submission.pdf

The Development of Conceptual Fluency & Metaphorical

The Development of Conceptual Fluency & Metaphorical

Metaphorical Journey - Vladimir Kush

Metaphorical Journey - Vladimir Kush

On Going Beyond the Literal: Translating Metaphorical Conceptualizations in Financial ... · ... Translating Metaphorical Conceptualizations in Financial Discourse ... On Going Beyond

On Going Beyond the Literal: Translating Metaphorical Conceptualizations in Financial ... · ... Translating Metaphorical Conceptualizations in Financial Discourse ... On Going Beyond

THE METAPHORICAL STRUCTURE OF NORMATIVITYcdn.theologicalstudies.net/58/58.2/58.2.6.pdf · THE METAPHORICAL STRUCTURE OF NORMATIVITY ... and nature allows for the contours of a metaphorical

THE METAPHORICAL STRUCTURE OF NORMATIVITYcdn.theologicalstudies.net/58/58.2/58.2.6.pdf · THE METAPHORICAL STRUCTURE OF NORMATIVITY ... and nature allows for the contours of a metaphorical

Van Hook, Metaphorical Terminology PDF

Van Hook, Metaphorical Terminology PDF

WM5-50 5-Stage Reverse Osmosis System · 42445 Avenida Alvarado, Temecula, CA 92590 1 (800) 451-9343 WM5-50 5-Stage Reverse Osmosis System 42445 Avenida Alvarado Temecula, CA …

WM5-50 5-Stage Reverse Osmosis System · 42445 Avenida Alvarado, Temecula, CA 92590 1 (800) 451-9343 WM5-50 5-Stage Reverse Osmosis System 42445 Avenida Alvarado Temecula, CA …

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Mediators and Metaphorical Analysis: The TIMS Model

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Metaphorical motion in mathematical reasoning - Chris Fields

The metaphorical gesture in metaphysical limit

The metaphorical gesture in metaphysical limit

THE ROLE OF METAPHORICAL THINKING ON

THE ROLE OF METAPHORICAL THINKING ON