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45 ON LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR Harumi Nakamura (Received 5 November 1977) 0.This is a collection of the revised versions of my early and discusses some of the major aspects of language and g work of Historical and Structural Linguistics and Ge Theories. 1.Writing System Awriting system represents one phase of the total language to certain symbols as the basic communicative signals in writing system consists of a set of graphemes plus certain c their use. Most of the graphemes have re允rence to phonem The grapheme b has a couple of phonemic refξrences, such a ‘力om力,’and o has several refξrences. The writing symbol representing a word is a logogra character represents either an o句ect itself or a symbolic used symbols developed from pictorial co品gurations. For 飴ather was a symbol of truth.*,千and∠フrepresented‘star’,‘ ‘enclosure’respectjvely. The Sumerians developed the refbrences. The Chinese employ a typical logographic system, ter represents a syllable or a word;木/mω4/fbr‘‘ree’, and日 contemporary English, we have a$sign fbr‘dollar’, s. fbr‘shi 十fbr plus, etc., but the alphabet is the basic writing system. Syllables are represented by syllabic symbols, that is, ind resent individual syllables or the sequences of syllabic in West Semitic, symbols represent consonants with va symbols are also fbund in the cuneifbrm writing as in‘ma’,‘mi Japanese Hiragana system is a typical modern syllabary・ く/ character, and is one of the 76 syllabic phonemes.2 Since 1The numbers indicate Chinese tones. 21n addition, Japanese has 33 CyV pattem syllables. The gramlnatical letters. Out of 79 syllables,25 are those with dots(voi㏄d consonants circle(voiceless consonants plus vowels).

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45

ON LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR (1)

Harumi Nakamura

(Received 5 November 1977)

  0.This is a collection of the revised versions of my early papers, and introduces

and discusses some of the major aspects of language and grammar within the触me-

work of Historical and Structural Linguistics and Generative Transfbrmational

Theories.

1.Writing System

  Awriting system represents one phase of the total language structures, and refbrs

to certain symbols as the basic communicative signals in a written language. A

writing system consists of a set of graphemes plus certain characteristic fξatures of

their use. Most of the graphemes have re允rence to phonemic representations..

The grapheme b has a couple of phonemic refξrences, such as/b/or a null as in

‘力om力,’and o has several refξrences.

  The writing symbol representing a word is a logograph. Each logographic

character represents either an o句ect itself or a symbolic idea. Early Egyptians

used symbols developed from pictorial co品gurations. For instance, an ostrich

飴ather was a symbol of truth.*,千and∠フrepresented‘star’,‘vegetation’, and

‘enclosure’respectjvely. The Sumerians developed the symbols with ideographic

refbrences. The Chinese employ a typical logographic system, in which each charac-

ter represents a syllable or a word;木/mω4/fbr‘‘ree’, and日〃」ん4/‘s〆・11n

contemporary English, we have a$sign fbr‘dollar’, s. fbr‘shilling’,&fbr‘and’,

十fbr plus, etc., but the alphabet is the basic writing system.

  Syllables are represented by syllabic symbols, that is, individual graphemes rep-

resent individual syllables or the sequences of syllabic phonemes. For example,

in West Semitic, symbols represent consonants with varying vowels. Syllabic

symbols are also fbund in the cuneifbrm writing as in‘ma’,‘mi’,‘mu’, etc. The

Japanese Hiragana system is a typical modern syllabary・ く/ku/is a one-syllabled

character, and is one of the 76 syllabic phonemes.2 Since the Japanese use both

1The numbers indicate Chinese tones.

21n addition, Japanese has 33 CyV pattem syllables. The gramlnatical chart containes 46 syllabic

 letters. Out of 79 syllables,25 are those with dots(voi㏄d consonants plus vowels)and with a

 circle(voiceless consonants plus vowels).

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46                        Haru㎡Nakamura

the Chinese characters孤d the Japanese syllabaries(耳iragana《堅Katakana), its

writing system accordingly is a・combination of-logographic and syllabic systems.

In書く/kaku/‘to write’, the 6rst character is a logograph, which functions as a

stem of the verb, and the last syllabic Hiragana is an inflectional ending according to

the paradigm of Japanese grammar.

  Alphabetic writing symbols have references within the phonological system of

the spoken language. They have a one-to-one correspondence between phonemes

and graphemes. Each grapheme represents one phoneme(x in English is an excep-

tion)and one phoneme is represented by olle grapheme. The oldest fbrm of the

Greek alphabet gave essentially phonemic representations of the vowels and conso・

・nants. English is basically alphabetic, but‘igん’in‘sight’, and‘仇’in‘this’represent

one phoneme uneconomically, while‘x’in‘six’represents two phonemes.

2.Japanese Writing System

  The Japanese writing system was originally adopted丘om that of Chinese. The

ancient Chinese developed characters, or ideograms, f、om pictures of things. The

visual fbrms of these things were squared off and simpli五ed fbr easier writing.

The Japanese borrowed these ideographic Karji characters and attached them to tlle

original Japanese spoken words of corresponding meaning. The Japanese also

introduced its pronunciation, or Chinese reading, in addition to the new written

character into their language.3 Kanji readings taken from Chinese are called ON・

3Six methods of Ka司i fbrmation(Ka句i Rikusho)漢字六書

α.Shookei(象形):Visual shapes or Pictographs

    日(sun),山(mountain),川(river),木(tree),水(water),火(丘re),雨(rain),田(paddy一丘eld),

    竹(bamboo),人(person),大(bigness),馬(horse),女(woman), etc.

 ●.Sh6i(指示):Abstract Indications

    上(toP),下(bottom),一(one),二(two),血(blood), etc.

 c.Kaii(会意):Combined Compound Meaning

      人+言=信  日+月=明    (person) (word) (believe)  (sun) (moon) (b亘ght)

      人+木=休   田 +力=男    (person) (tree) (rest)  (paddy・6eld) (power) (man)

      心+亡=忘  目+亡=盲    (heart) (die) (forget)   (eye) (lose) (bhnd), etc.

4.Kaisei(言皆声), or Keisei(形声):Combined Compound of a meaningful element plus a pho・

    netiC element

    言(meaning)+吾(so皿d)一語  日(meaning)+寺(sound)=時

      (language)  (time)

θ.Tenchuu(転注):Derivations or Synonyms

       悪一→憎                                                         イヱ Kasha(仮借):Phonetic Borrowing

    亜米利加(America)

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On Language and Grammar (1)              47

yomi, and native Japanese readings are re允rred to as KUN-yomi. When introduced,

many of the original Chinese readings were slightly changed according to the Japa-.

nese phonological system.‘S加η’fbr山,りθη’fbr人, and‘kμo’fbr国(‘yαm〆,

‘励o’and‘κμη」’in native Japanese pronunciation)came to be pronounced‘∫αη’,

りi〆,and‘b吻’respectively. Most of the Kanji have at least two phonological

dif丘rences.

  The typical Japanese KANA syllabic graphemes were developed from the Chinese

characters, though the present shapes of these KANA graphemes are diflξrent from

the original Kanji Chinese characters.アandあdeveloped from阿, andイandい

from伊respectively through a丘w stages of rapid scratched writing・The ON

pronunciation is generally used in a compound, or a sequence of Kanji, and the

other KUN reading elsewhere.教師/吻oos加/(teacher)consists of two Chinese

characters, in which教is pronounced/吻oo/, but/o功」(θ)一/as a verb stem/of教える

/0sMe-rμ/. The Kar面i characters in general are used fbr nouns and radicals of verbs・

adjectives and adverbs. They save space and a number of letters, because each

character usually represents two or three syllables. Since they are ideographs, they

are appropriate in rapid reading. The Hiragana is used to indicate grammatical

functions, prollouns, cor加nctions and af丘xes, and the Katakana to write the fbreign

words the Japanese have borrowed. Since there are many homophones, the Kanji

are conveniently used to prevent ambiguity. For example, in‘そうさ’/sooso/,

操作indicates‘manipulation’and捜索‘search’・間隔/んαηkαW/means‘interva1’・

感覚/kαηkαk磁μ/‘sense,, etc・

  Some of the current Kanji are simpli6ed in terms of the number of strokes, as in

学for學, and会for會, and nearly 2,000 K anji characters, including newly simpli-

6ed or revised ones, are designated by the Ministry of Education fbr practical and

educational use. It should be noted that not all the Kanji characters are used and

have the same meaning in Japanese. First, the Kanji that cover the same or very

close semantic areas both in Japanese and Chinese are椅子(chair),化学(chemistry),

環境(environments),共産主義(communism),愛(10ve),温度(temperature), among

many others. Second,勉強(study),開会(opening of the meeting),意見(opinion),

etc. have dif丘rent meanings and usages in Japanese and Chinese. Third, some are

completely di飽rent;汽車(」αp.‘train’.α加.‘car’),出世(」αp.‘success in li飴’.

αiη.‘become priest’),解釈(」αP・‘interpretation’・α1η・‘persuade’)・and迷惑

(Jαp.‘trouble’. C腕η.‘attract’), etc. Fourth, the next Kar6i are non-existent in

Chinese;私鉄(private railroad),承知(consent),写真(photo),勝負(victory or

de丘at),布団(sleeping quilts),医師(medical doctor),意味(meaning), and運転

(drive). FiRh, still some are existent, but seldom used in daily conversation;行灯

(paper lantern),異義(ot唾ection),意向(intention),手術(surgical operation), and

審議(consideration)・

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48                 Harumi Nakamura

                         3. Language Family

  It is assumed that some languages are realted and have developed f㌃om a common

source. This assumption is supported by the comparison of various languages,

examining consistent similarities and di飴rences. For example,1et us compare

the words fbr‘hay’and‘fbrk’.

‘hay’@French-1biη  Italian一兎eηo Spanish-4θηo Rumanian-∫1η

‘fbrk’Fr.  ・一∫己rcみθItal. 一∫bκαSpan. 一占orcαRum.  一允r磁

We丘nd that the Spanish 4 in these words, now lost in standard Spanish, corresponds

consistently with the∫in the words of French, Italian and Rumanian. From this

硲ct we assume that at least Spanish 4 developed仕om earlier∫through a phonological

change. Then we con丘rm this by other examples. Notice the fbllowing.

‘son’Latin-∫i肱s Span一旬o  Fr-.β1s Ital-∬g lio Rum』∬ω

‘iron’Lat -∫εrwη1 Span-Mθrro Fr-∫εr Ital-∫εγro Rum-∫εrwη2

  We come to the conclusion that French, Spanish and Rumanian are members of one

language family. Through such comparison we can relate other languages, assume

that they developed from an earlier language, and classif\them as belonging to a

speci6c language f乞mily.

  In spite of the similar writing system, Chinese and Japanese are totally uhrelated

languages. The resemblances are due to the Japanese borrowing of the Chinese

characters and pronunciations.4 No reliable evidence about their af駐nities has

ever been worked out. These two Ianguages seem to have developed independently

with vast phonological and grammatical dif陀rences. Linguists have tried to relate

Japanese to the Altaic or Uralic-Altaic飽mily, or to the Malayo-Polynesian白mily,

because these languages all appear to have certain common characteristics. Most

linguists are convinced that, among the adjacent Asian languages, Korean and Japa-

nese are most closely related in their grammatical structures.

  Today, Ryukyuan5 is regarded as a Japanese dialect even though Ryukyuan is

unintelligible to the(standard)Japanese speaking people. The phonological rela-

tionship between Japanese and Ryukyuan is similar to that of English and a Germanic

4cf. Sections 1&2.

5Also see my fbrthcoming paper on“A Generative Trans飴㎜ational Grammar of a R)㎜kyan

Dialect.”

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On Language and Grammar (1)              49

language, or to that of Spanish and French.

  4.Human Language Capacity and Communicative Systems Among Animals

  The communications of most animals are based on instinct and genetics with

non-verbal behavioral media, while human language characteristically used fbr human

communication is acquired through learning.6 Accordingly animals are not en-

dowed with the power of speech, but only with the sounds or the noises carrying

loudness, pitch, staccato and slur. The animals that can’t make any kind of noises

manifbst their communication by the physical movements. Each signal serves as

all or part of the stimulus fbr the next. They don’t have duality in their behavior,

but human language has phonological and grammatical systems. A human speaker

of any language can produce an i孟nite number of utterances he has never used or

heard befbre. The animals show no productivity at a11, exρept the kind seen in

bee dancing.

  Human Ianguage is arbitrary in its semantic conventions and human beings can

talk about anything, while the communications of animals occur in mating, the

caring for the young, cooperating in obtaining fbod or territory and fighting within

the species or against predators in order to maintain their existence instinctively.

People・possess the organic systems to encode and decode language. A speaker

can be a hearer and vice versa, but most animals do not have this kind of inter-

changeability. The animals do『not have in their communicative systems such

psychological and cultural knowledge acquired through learning and imitation7

as human beings do.

,5. Data of a Formal Grammar

  Ahuman being somehow intuitively has the ability to use a language, that is,

to understand and produce a language. There are an infinite number of utterances

in a language, and he has some method or scientific knowledge of understanding

even novel sentences he has never heard befbre. It means that he has in his knowl-

edge rules that generate or determine sentences, or generalizations about language

which make him evaluate the grammaticality of any novel sentence. A linguistic

description of some natural language must establish a丘rm theory of grammar with

data that is based on native speaker’s intuitive ability to distinguish grammatical

or we11-fbrmed sentences from ungrammatical Ones, sentences from non-sentences,

6The viewpoint of behaviorist psychology. Chomsky and other transformationaUsts have a

 dif飴rent attitude toward learning.

7Also see Note 6.

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50                 Harulni Nakamura

and to recognize similarities and dif琵rences among sentences and their relations.

This data should not be obtained from observations or any kind of recordings

collected in ordinary conversations, because a number of them are not accurate

reθections of ordinary utterances. They are conditioned by the psychological alld

physical settings, and should be excluded as data from a linguistic description. A

grammar should not contain all the utterances we can describe. Naturally, we do

not have to collect an in血nite number of Inaterials fbr Iinguistic data. A limited

amount of data will su伍ce if we set up a 6rm linguistic theory. Since it is hard to

describe the competence of a native speaker, it may be easier fbr us to establish a

general theory of grammar which will precisely specif\the fbrm that a grammar

may assume・

  Let us now consider the fbllowing sentences, which interest us and accordingly

make powerful data fbr a linguistic description, or fbr a fbrmal grammar of English.

(1) α. John are here.         4. John vanished an apple.

    b. John saw he and I.    θ. John’s idea crossed the street.

    c・ Should us call you?     兄  John frightened sincerity.

The sentences o, b, c are ungrammatical and so non-interpretable. The senten㏄s

4,θ,∫may be grammatica1(on the level of structural linguistic point of view)and

interpretable. Nonetheless, they break the semantic metaphor, so are hard to under・

stand. A fbrmal grammar should explain that these are ungrammatica1, and that

they can’t be produced f㌃om its theory.

  Next, certain kind of English sentences are the same type, but have a di丘brent

meaning. Notice the fbllowing pairs of sentences in 2.

(2) α.John kicked Bi1L        ε. Bill wanted me to stay here.

    b. Bill kicked John.         ∫ Bill wanted to stay here.

c. Bill is easy to please.

4. Bill is eager to please.

Although both sentences a&bhave the same fbrm, that is, the word order and the

functional relations are the same, they belong to dif民rent categories in meaning.

Inα, it was Bill that was kicked, but it was John that was kicked ill b. The dif[br.

ence comes from the semantic level, and f士om the point which word the verb‘kick’

chooses as its su句ect and as its o句ect. The sentences c&4are superficially

similar, but we recognize that the underlying fbrms are di丘brent. When rearranged,

cbecomes‘‘∫∫isθαsy∫bγμs ro plθαse Bi11,”in which Bfll has the o句ective relation

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O山nguage and Gra㎜arΦ       51

to‘p1θαsθ’, and 4 becomes“Bj〃isθαge”o pleαseμ5,”in which Bi〃has the su句ec-

tive relation to‘pleαsθ’. In尤the one who stays is別〃, but∫in e. This significant

data fbr a fbrmal gralnmar, which provides a generalized explanation fbr all these

cases and show the relationship between these and hundreds of other sentences that

are identical in fbrm but di丘brent in meaning.

  There are some other sentences that are related in a de丘nite way but are not the

same type of utterance. Consider 3.

(3) α. John kicked Bill.      c. The boy kicked the ba11.

    b.Did John kick Bi11?   4. The ball was kicked by the boy.

(3)一α&bare related in a sense that b is a yes-no question derived from the amrma-

tive declarative sentenceα. The sentence c is an active sentence and 4 a passive

counterpart of c. Both of them exactly refbr to the same fact. A linguistic theory

should explicate the relationship between the two respectively.

  Still some sentences are ambiguous. Consider the fbllowing examples.

(4) α. They are hanging curtains.

    b.John likes his teacher more than his brother.

    c. Isaw the man in the street.

‘They’inαmay be pθoμe who are doing something, or may be the cμ〃α伽which

are hanging on the window. Senten㏄bcan mean both‘‘Joみη批θs玩s fθαcぬθr

η20rθ仇αηんis bro∫みθr∂oθs,”and‘‘Joみη膓jkesんjs’θαcみerη10γθfんαηみe Ij瓦θsh fs

bro仇θr.” In c, it is not clear whether‘‘∬wαs∫η仇θsfrθ百”or‘‘τhθη1αηwαs in’んe

5’rθθτ.”

  Furthermore a fbrmal grammar tries to explain that some groups are recognized

as the same kind of constituents as in 5. Note the underlined parts.

(5) α. John saw仇θ〃2αηiη仇θbIαck sωir.

    b. Jo加’s i4θαq∫αgoo4‘」η1e is to wash windows.

’    The underlined phrases are Noun Phrases composed of{NP十Prepositional Phrase}.

        Based on this data, a theory of a fbrmal grammar tries to explain that these sen-

        tences are grammatica1, but those are not, and to provide an explicit basis fbr ex-

        plaining the native speaker’s understanding of the relationship between the sentences.

6. Criticisms of Formal De血nitions of‘‘Sentence in English,,

6.1 Language is characteristic of human verbal behavior and therefbre consists

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52            “   Harumi Nakamura

of any communicative utterances. All the utterances must be meaningful and convey

some ideas. However, the proposal that‘‘An English sentence is any utterance

that makes sense, or means something to a speaker of English”is not precise and

unworkable, since there are some meaningful utterances that are not sentences.

This definition does not give any clear and theoretically reliable explication. Sup-

pose we ask,‘‘What is an utterance?How is it generated?What parts make up

asentence? How are these parts grouped togetller into significant sequences?

And what type of grouping is each?” The above proposal of the sentence definition

will never solve these questions.111 tl〕at sense, the notion‘any utteranceうmay well

include child’s vocalization or babbling in addition to the ungrammatical utterances

of mature adult’s perfbrmance. These may all make sense to a native speaker.

There is no way here to de6ne them as sehtences. Again, what does it mean to say

that an utterance makes sense? ‘Make sense’here is not clearly explained. How

is a sentence generated to make sense? In other words, what kind of fbrmal charac-

teristics make sense and are grammatical to understand? Let us consider(6).

(6)α.Me and him did it.    c. How many book she has?

    b. Iain’t got nothing.

If the sentences in (6), in addition to the sentences in(1)(treated in Section 5),

are supposedly uttered by a native speaker of English, they are ungrammatical, or

not treated as correct grammatical sentences. Nonetheless they are not nonsensical,

that is, they may be understood. Sentences(4)一α, b, c are good sentences, but how

can these ambiguous meanings be difl>rentiated? These sentences are accidentally

spoken and cannot be the set of grammatical sentences unless their underlying struc-

tures are explicated according to an adequate linguistic theory which proves that it

ca皿ot produce ungrammatical sentences.

(7)John played the violin and Mary er∂oyed it.

(7)is also an utterance. It is uttered all at one time, starting with Joみηand ending

with jτ. If a sentence is any utterance as proposed befbre, this may be regarded

as one sentence instead of two. The proposal is very weak since it explains a sen-

tence only from the viewpoint of‘‘meaningful units.”

  6.2 Let us consider the proposal that a sentence is any finite sequence of words,

each word being chosen from a complete English dictionary.(8)is a sentence of a

6nite sequence of words chosen from a complete English dictionary.

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On Language and Grammar (1)              53

(8) The cat likes the mouse.

Obviously this sentence has fbur words, and in a sense is a丘nite sentence. However,

how does this proposal explain‘a finite sequence of words’? How does it find

aword‘ほθs’(with a{s}morpheme)in a dictionary?What is the knowledge,

competence or perfbrmance, that enables one to choose these words fTom a list of

words(a dictionary)and to put them together in that way? Alinguistic theory shows

that it produces an in6nite number of sentences. But a random、sequence of words

does not make a grammatical sentence. Suppose we choose words from a list,

then it must include all the in6ections and declensions, or the afnxes. How do we

collect our choice? (4)-c is a sentence, a sequence of words chosen from a diction-

ary, but this proposal does not give any satisfactory fUnctional rules to dif琵rentiate

the ambiguity. It does not make clear which group of words fbrm constituents of

the sentence. The main Haw in this proposal is that it admits ill-fbrmed strings like

‘‘№茶ソ∬」η仇eθατoρer.”

  6.3  Asentence is any utterance containing a su句ect and predicate and express-

ing a complete thought. The de6nition proposed here is semantic. It assumes

that‘the little・man’knows the meaning of the phrase‘a complete thought’. But,

what is a complete thought? The de6nition is meaningless unless we already know

what a sentence is. Suppose a sentence is composed of a su句ect and predicate ex.

pressing a complete thought.

(9) α. Help yourself!    c. John’s arrival relieved us.

    b. Fire!           4. 1’11 do it ifIcan....

The above sentences are all good sentences, grammatical and acceptable. However,

the sentencesαand b have no su句ect, nonetheless they make sense. They may have

‘acomplete thought’if the proposal permits the concept. If these do not satisfy

the complete definition proposed here, they are not sentences. The proposal turns

out to be wrong. In addition we wonder whether these sentences express a com-

plete thought or not. What about the sentences c and 4?If the proposal works

all right, then c should have two su句ects and predicates. The phrase‘Joみピs

αrr加α」’is an NP and has the underlying structure‘仇θ允cττ加彦Joみηαr励θ4’,

in which Joみn is the su句ective relation toα”加αL This explanation is confusing,

and does not make clear what a sentence is. Suppose the sentence 4 is uttered with

the 6nal intonation sustained(not dropped to nnish the utterance). Semantically

it may include some more‘connotative meaning or thought’if the proposal is per-

mitted to apply. Then in this case, this will be excluded from a sentence category

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54                  Harumi Nakamura

from the reason that the speaker has not丘nished his‘complete thought’yet. It

is still a grammatical sentence. The proposal is皿workable.

  6.4 The fburth proposal is that a senten㏄is any sequence of words which con一

食)rms to one of a given list of‘‘word-type sequences,”i. e., the given sequence

of words can be obtained by replacing each word-type symbol in the fbrmula by a

single member of that word-type. It means that a sentence consists of a sequen㏄

of word・types. Some word・types are article, noun, verb, which will produce a per-

missible sequence word-type sentence like(10).

(10) Article Noun Vefb Nou11      ’乃θ 酩αηεατぷρεαぷ

This proposal must de6ne each element so that it can constitute the grammatical

sequence of words. It has to explicate what word belongs to what class. The

traditional description of semantic characterization, which unsuccessfully produces

the word“η1ωr4e〆’in two defillitions of categories-noun and verb, is turlled down.

Accordingly, the final definition of a sentence as a sequence of wordrtypes is to

classif\words by the frame or slot. This concept of slot is thought to be a reliable

de6nition which can determine each element without a violation of grammatical-

ness. Thus, they set up a definable sentence fbrmula like(11).

(11) The      can be good.

Anoun is anything that can occur in the underlined blank. On what basis do they

set up the de丘nable sentence such as(11)? It seems to be absurd to de6ne a lloun

in this frame, because they already know what a noun is befbre or at the time they

insert a noun in the slot. SupPose they set up a de6nable sentence as(12)・

(12) The      vapored.

This sentence has the determiner, the slot and finally a VP. If we insert‘c1α∬ics’

in the slot, it wilmt in(11)aU right, but not in(12). We can conclude that a noun

can’t be de6ned this way. Since this proposal emphasizes the morphological level,

or the definition of the parts of speech, and does not ref>r to what certain constituents

actually are alike, this is also refUsed as a weak grammar.

  6.5 Last, a sentence is the last line of any terminated phrase structure tree

constructed by applying any sequence of rules taken from a given set of rules, each

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On Language and Grammar (1)              55

of the fbrm A→Y, where A is a single non-terminal symbol and Y represents a string

of one or more non-terminal symbols or words f士om a given lexicon, and where the

6rst rule rewrites a 6xed initial symbol S(a phrase-structure grammar). We have

負)und out that the fbur proposals of de丘nition of sentence are somewhat futile.

The fbrmer definitions were based on meaning and the rules are clear only to those

who already know a great deal about the Ianguage. Language is a set of o句ects

composed of a set of elements which are concatenated by the.set of rules. In order

to define a sentence, it is necessary to establish a simple but powerful and explicit

grammar which generates the i面nite number of the clear sentences and none of the

non-sentences. Every rule shall consist of the fbrm A→Y. Now, a sentence(termi.

nal derivation)is generated by applying the fbllowing set of rules.

(13)  Rule 1. S→NP十VP       Rule 4. T→the

            2.NP→T十N        5. N→man, bal1

            3.VP→V十NP         6. V→hit

(13)includes the finite set of rules. Given such a set of rules we can de丘ne any

grammar of sentence. S is an initial string. A→Y is interpreted as‘‘rewrite

Aas Y.” 十is the concatenation sign to string the constituellt elements together.

S→NP十VP is the rule to rewrite S as NP十VP, or S consists of NP十VP. Notice

we always rewrite the symbol to the left of the arrow as the one(s)to the right.

This rewriting rule is never applied from right to le丘. The order of the rules is

numbered at the left. The given lexicon are‘τ乃θ’,‘ηταη’,‘bα〃and‘励’. Now

we wiU derive the sentence‘‘仇e 7ηαηみ“仇e bα〃,”by applying(13).

(14)S

     1.NP十VP        5. the十man十V十NP

     2.T十N十VP      6. the十man十hit十NP

     3.T十N十V十NP    2. the十man十hit十T十N

     4.the十N十V十NP    4. the十man十hit十the十N

     5.the十man十V十NP   5. the十man十hit十the十ba11

The generation of the terminal string of the grammar is carried out by applying the

rules, first to an initial string, then to every subsequent string, to produce a deriva-

tion. A finite sentence is to be obtained by the kind of rules we apply. Suppose

the so-called‘‘recursive”rule(i.e. NP→T十N十S)is applied, then an in6nite number

of sentences will be generated. There are some restrictions in the application of

these rules. The order of application must be kept. We cannot apply Rule 4

befbre Rule 2. Only one symbol is to be rewritten at one time.

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56                 Harumi Nakamura

(15)NP十VP→T十N十Verb十T十N

Suppose the rule(15)is applied, then we cannot tell which symbols belong to NP

and which ones to VP. The symbol at the left of the arrow must be a single non-

terminal one, and produces a string of one or more symbols or words. We can also

represent the derivation in a branching tree diagram.

(16)             s

                --              Np                         VP

       /\      ./\      T              ・N          v              NP                                           /\

                                                      

                                           l    l

     ’the            man        hit        the       ball

In this tree diagram we can easily determine which words group together, or are the

constituent(in a phrase structure grammar)since they can be traced back to the node.

For example, we can easily te11‘man’and‘hit’do not make a collstituent because

they cannot be traced back to a point of origin. It should be noted that it is dimcult

to recognize the order of application of the rules in this tree diagram. The terminal

derivation, or the kernel sentence, is obtained when no other rules can be applied

any more. We can conclude the PS rules are the most powerful, simple and com・

plete grammar to de血ne or generate the basic, kernel English sentences.

  However, no matter how powerful this theory耳nay be, it should be developed to

generate various kinds of derivations. For example, the verb may have at least

three diflbrent fbrms(hit, hits, hitting), and when the su句ect NP is a singular,‘hits’

must be selected as‘verb’. It means that some more rules must be added. More-

over, it will be very inadequate fbr the phrase structure grammar to apply its rules to

questions, passives, imperatives, etc. Let us consider some of the examples of the

shortcomings of the phrase structure grammar in tree diagrams.

(17)

J。h。、。ll,d・p  th・p・lice  J・hn  cali・d th・p・lice up・                                      L____.._..___」

(17)一αand b are related, but the tree ofわhas the disadvantage, because b shows

no clear relationship between‘ωIIθ4’and‘μp’. Consider(18).

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On Language and Gra㎜ar(1)       57

(18) α.John called him up.   c. John crawled up the stairs.

     b.*John called up him.   ∂.*John crawled the stairs up.

(18)一αis grammatica1, but b is not. We need some restrictions here, or must apply

some transfbrmational rules. If(17)一αand b are correct, then(18)-c and∂must

equally be grammatical. But only c is permitted and 4 is out. It seems that the

PS grammar cannot solve these problems.

(19) α. John sat in the kitchen.    c・ John called in the police・

     b.Where did John sit?    ∂. Where did John call?

The sentencesαand c look similar and may have the same tree diagram. If sentences

αand b are related, then c and∂must be related, too. However, c and∂are not

related at a11.

  In(20), the sentencesαand b are related, but the PS gralnmar separates‘cαη’

and‘swα〃ow’, and they do not look like the constituent・

(20) α. John can swallow a goldfish.   b. Can John swallow a goldfish?

              \./             \i/

It is clear to see that the active and passive sentences do not look alike in the trees・

Observe(21).

(21) α・                 ・         b・

J・h・lP・li・h・d・h・f・mi…e.  Th・f・mi…ew・・p°lished by J・h・・

Moreover, under the PS rules both‘‘Joみηsαw仇θ励1~’and the il1-fbrmed sentence

‘‘ VWθταble sow Joみ〆’may be produced. They are not related at a11. In addition

to these, the ambiguous sentences may have the same trees, and we 6nd no good rea-

son to dif民rentiate the trees. To generate‘‘Hθ1ヵyoμrs¢ぴ”is beyond the PS gram-

mar. These difnculties, complexities and dif丘rences arise from various kinds of

the derivations and underlying deep structures, which are solved or cleared by es-

tablishing restrictions and by applying transfbrmational rules. The PS gralnmar is

・impl・,・xpli・it・nd p・w・・f・1, but th・・e a・e・ent・n・r・th・t・・e b・y・nd it・c・nt・・L

                      7. Linguistic Theory

This section tries to characterize succinctly the theory of language underlying

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58                 Harumi Nakamura

sentence diagraming and the generative transfbrmational theory of language, es-

pecially f士om the point of view of such issues as the goals of each theory and the

claim that each theory makes about the nature of language. A grammar of language

is essentially a theory of language which describes the ideal speaker-hearer’s intrinsic

competence. The generative transfbrmational grammar of language, which is in-

debted to logic and mathematics, maintains that a man has in his knowledge rules

that generate or determine sentences, and generalizations about language which make

him evaluate grammaticality of any novel sentence. Thus, a Iinguistic description

is to establish a 6rm theory of grammar, with data based on his intuitive concept

and ability(1)to distinguish grammatical or well-fbrmed sentences from皿grammati-

cal ones,(2)to distinguish sentences from non-sentences,(3)to recognize sim▲larities

and dif琵rences among sentences and their relations,(4)to explicate ambiguities and

(5)to generate an iφnite number of sentences.

  Let us take up characteristics of the traditional diagraming theory which explains

the grammar of a language di丘brently from that of a generative grammar. Here

are the de丘nitions of a sentence, or a language by some traditional grammarians.

Compare these with the one by Chomsky.

  Sonnenschein:Asentence is a group of words which makes sense.

  Curm:    Asentence is an expression of a thought or fbeling by means of

               aword or words in such fbrm and manner as to convey the mean-

               ing intended.

  Jespersen:   Asentence is a(relatively)complete and independent unit of

               communication-the completeness and independence being

               shown by its standing alone or its capability of standing alone,

               i.e. of being uttered by itself.

  Chomsky:  (A language is)aset(6nite or in且nite)of sentences, each 6nite

               in length and constructed out of a且nite set of elements.

Let us now take diagraming based upon their theory of descriptions of the fbllowing

sentences.

(22)1.We asked fbr whoever might be there.

     2.The mayor denied that the promise which he had made was binding.

     3.When did John promise that he would call?

(23)1一α.We I asked

              lfor whoever l might be

\警e1-b.We l asked..._.一一一.一._._一.一_一一一......」there

         lfbr whoever      lmight be

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On Language and Grammar (1)              59

                                               1

2.Su句ects(the mayor, the promise, he) Verbs(denied, was)

   Oblect(which) Predicate Adjective(binding) Conjunction(that)

             .   . that he l would call

3.α.John|dld promlse i/        when

         .    . that he l would cau

b.John l dld promlseじ/

\<n

The above diagraming is an aid to understanding the sentence structure, but it

reveals only the surface structure of a sentence, and is a relatively linear description.

It gives many di{丘rent descriptions of the same sentence. It just labels parts of

speech and does not tell clear structural relationship among sentences. Moreover,

it gives no explication of why‘励eη’comes at the beginning of the sentence;it gives

no relationship between declarative and question sentences. It does not attempt

an explicit mathematical formulation of the creative processes of language. A

traditional or structuralist grammar classi丘es only particular examples and does not

try to fbrmulate generative rules on any signi6cant scale. It contains ample infbr-

mation about structural descriptions of sentences, but they are not precise, just being

isolated pieces of structure. It does not express many of the basic regularities of

the language.

  Traditional grammarians claim that there is a natural order of thought which

the order of words re且ects. If so, it is not grammar, but some other su句ect, whose

rules fbrm sentellces. As a result, grammatical rules are limited to ellipsis, inversion,

and the Iike.

  On the other hand, a generative grammar, or a linguistic theory, as indicated

at the beginning, attempts to be precise and universa1. It contains、 a central syntactic

component and two other components, phonological and semantic. It is a system

of rules with which structural descriptions are assigned to sentences in an explicit

and wel1-de6ned way. It claims that a grammar should describe(generate)an in6nite

class of sentences(the recursive nature of language), explain grammaticality and

acceptability(competence and perfbrmance), distinguish・grammatical sentences

from ungrammatical ones, explicate all of the grammatical relations that are ob-

tained in the sentence, explain ambiguity-if a sentence has n stfuctural ambiguities,

the grammar must provide n structural descriptions, and satisfンamechanical, auto-

matic process. The五rst example is generated by embedding or in the grammar of

Z→aZb, Z→abZ, or Z→Zab, etc. Secondly,‘‘功e boyη2αy∫涜g加eη5」ηcθriτy”is

unacceptable, thus uninterpretable, nonetheless more grammatical(in a sense)than

‘‘ 鴻ソyboy励cθr吻仇θ介igん‘θη.” Agrammar should distinguish these丘om we11一

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60                 Harumi Nakamura

fbrmed sentences. Thirdly, it must make a distinction between the two sentences,

‘‘ai〃is eα5yτo pleαsθ”and‘‘Bf〃isθogθ〃o plθα∫e,”which are superficially similar,

but have di丘brent underlying fbrms. It also must generate a sentence automatically

through the structural change operation. A generative grammar attempts to specifシ

what the speaker actually knows, not what he may report about his knowledge.

8. Explanatory Ade《1uacy

  8.1 Ambiguity. First, let me explain the signi丘cance of such structurally

ambiguous sentences as the fk)110wing to the study of grammar.

(24)α.When did John promise to call?b. John likes Bill more than Harry.

Any native speaker of English intuitively knows that these are ambiguous.‘例昭ピ

has the structural relationship either with‘promisθ’or with‘cα〃’. ‘Hαrrゾis

the su句ect-of‘‘Hα”y Ii瓦θs B批”or the o句ect-of‘‘Jo乃η批es Hαrry.” However,

to expose these facts is just to account explicitly fbr their grammar. The point is

why and how they are ambiguous. The surface structure is the same, but the under-

1ying deep structures are dif』ent. That’s why they are ambiguous. Consequently,

these sentences are a powerful and signi6cant data fbr the study of grammar.

  Let us consider the history of the derivation and the transfbrmation. Sentence

24一αis fbrmed from the underlying deep structures given in(25)by fbllowing the con-

ventions.(This WH-question is generated through several steps of transfbrmations.)

(25)αms芝\                  ソ 

       1   /\      N    Aux        VP

John       past     pro

/\V           NP

       c・シ )ミ\

                S           Adv

            △一     lmi記  that :he w・uld call  <+time>(at the)

6:    #S#

Nr/\一“1 。乙Lv  N,.

’N

@    。。砺/\・                       1   ∠=:こ\

’John  promised  at ten   .that      he would call

            <十tlme>

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On Language and Grammar (1)              61

Applying question(Wh-movement operation)and deletion transformations we can

generate a structurally ambiguous surface structure. The signi且cance is to study

the two levels, namely surface and deep, and to apply the transfbrmational rules.

  The underlying deep structure of 24-b is as fbllows.

(26)          #s#

N         V                     。。m,,/\\貢P

                                                }

                  Np            VP

                            /\                           V         NP

                            l     l

               α. John      likes       Harry

               、b. Harry、    likes       Bi11

The fbatures constituting the lexical fbrmatives are irrelevant here and thus omitted.

The transfbrmational rules 6rst apply to the most deeply embedded base P-marker,

namely‘‘JoみηIiκes.Hαrry”or“Hαrry I沈es Bj〃,”then to the full configuration,

(omitting various refinements), and we will obtain the fk)110wing terminal string.

(27) α.John likes more than(#John likes Ha仕y#)Bill.

     b.John likes more than(#Harry°1ikes Bil1#)Bill.

Finally the comparative transfbrmation and an erasure operation are applied to arrive

at the given surfごce structure.

 8.2 Subcategorization. Let us provide a precise, even if not fUlly負)rmalized

description of sentences like(28).

(28) α.John clari6ed the broth. θ. John veri丘ed the rumor.

     b.*John clarified the chair.  ∫.*John veri血ed the soup.

      c. John puri6ed the milk.

      4.*John purified the theorem.

                                                              ■

To distinguish well・R)rmed grammatical sentences from ungrammatical ones, we

will apply the selectional rules and consider the lexical fbatures dominated by the

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62                  Harumi Nakamura

symbols fbr lexical categories. Observe(29).

(29) Jo加[十huma11,-count,-liquid_]

    bγo仇,γη汲,soμp[-count,十1iquid,-human...]

    cみαか[十count,十common,-human,-1iquid...]

    仇θorθη1, rμη10r[-count,十abstract,-human_]

    clαr豹1, Pμγ蓼ン, uθr豹1[十V,十transitive,十human su句ect_]

To(29)we apply the base components(base rules and grammatical relations)to

generate the Phrase-marker, and get the fbllowing lexicon.

(30)

 bro彦ん,励1κ, so仰[十N,十DET  ,-Count,-AbStract,十Liquid_]

 c肋●      [十N,十DET  ,十Count,十Common,-Abstract...]

 仇ωreητ, rμ7ηor [十N,十DET  ,-Count,-Common,十Abstract...]

 Jo加       [十N,一[十DET]  ,十Human,-Count_]

c励’PW m‡:二;ET[遼蒜舗el}+[+HumanS両’]

[十N,十_NP,十Human Su句ect,-Animate O句ect,十[_十[十DET[十Abstract_]]]_]

In the next tree diagrams only the major fξatures are included.

(31)α

          Np                   VP

           ll/二〉一}

ゐ.

              

   /\   NP                 ・VP

               /-

  John             veri6ed                the              rumor

ぐ〉〈聴齢く三〉〈無〉

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On Language and Grammar (1)              63

Finally, we can select the proper components:‘oer助’can only take a human su句ect

(-Human is r{司ected), and an abstract o切ect(‘wη10〆or‘仇eor臼η’, but not‘疏Ik’,

or‘c肋〆).

  Another speculation is that the grammaticality is de6ned by the paraphrased

structure. From such sentences as‘‘Joみηc鋤sθ∂仇e bro仇τo coητe ro bθclθαγ,”

we get the kernel‘‘仇θbro∫みis c1θαr.” Since we cannot say‘‘*肪e c肋かjs cleαr,”

any Iexical item having the fξatures[十N,十Det  ,十Count,十Common,

-Abstract...],(as in‘cカo●’), is not used with‘cIεα〆and‘cIαr豹ノ’.

  8.3 Passivity. The sentences in(32)are similar to passives, but those in(33)

are not. We attempt to speci巧the di飽rences.

(32) o.John got married.    (33) o. John is married.

     b. The broth got clarified.      b. John is worried.

     c. The car got wrecked.       c. John is satisfied.

Let us first consider the characteristics of Active and Passive sentences.

(34)o.Max built the house.    (NP1-Aux-V-NP2-Y)

     b.The house was built by Max. (NP2-Aux-be十en-V-by十NP1)

Moηηθr.4ゐθrbs will not make these sentences ungrammatica1. Notice(34’).

(34’)α.Max cαγφIly built the house.

     b.The house was cαrψ〃y built by Max.

Suppose we apply the above test to(32)and(33), then we get grammatical sentences

only in(32), but not in(33). Consider(32’)and(33’).

(32’) α.John got married cαrψ11y.

     b. The broth got clarified cαrψ〃y.

     c. The car got wrecked jηαslrαηgθwαy.

(33’) α.*John is married cαr吻Ily.

     b. *John is worried coγ吻〃y.

     c. *John is satisfied肋αsぴαη9θwαy.

Moreover, if we use a simple present丘)rm in pseudo passives(32), we get unnatural

sentences as in(35),(but OK with simple past or future), but have no problem with

those in(33).

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64                  Harumi Nakamura

(35)o.?*Max builds仇e house.

     b.?*TWe house is built by Max.

     c. ?*John gets married.

These are all awkward sentences. This proves that passive-1ike sentences charac-

teristically do not have present state(condition)with a simple present fbrm.

8.4 The Underlving Stmcture and the Gammmaticalness.

Let us observe(36).

(36) α.John dislikes U. S. fbreign policy.

     b.John dislikes U. S. fbreign policy, but∫40μbτthat George does.

     c.*John dislikes U. S. fbreign policy, but yoμ∂oμb‘that George does.

What assumptions about the underlying structure of sentence(のwill most naturally

account fbr the grammaticalness of(b)and the ungrammaticalness of(c)? How do

we justif>our assumptions? Let us 6rst consider the fbllowing sentences.

(37) α.1彦M酩John dislikes U. S. F. P., but 1∂oμb‘that George does.

     b.*1砺砿John dislikes U. S. F. P., but yoμ∂o励r that George does.

     c.*∫妬η丘John dislikes U. S. F. P., but舵∂oμ●τ5 that George does.

     ∂.*∫伽ηたJohn dislikes U. S.F. P., but s乃θ∂oμbτs that George does.

     θ.*∫伽酩John dislikes U. S. F. P., but 1力θy 40ωbτthat George does.

, ∫*】晦μ妬酩John dislikes U. S. F. P., but∫40励τthat George does.

     g.*He仇」酩s John dislikes U. S.F. P., but∫40μbτthat George does.

     み.*Sみθ妬ηたsJohn dislikes U. S.F. P., but∫40μbτthat George does.

     f.*丁乃θy砺酩John dislikes U. S. F. P., but∬40功τthat George does.

Since the sentences b-j are not acceptable, or ungrammatica1,(37)一αis supposed

to be the underlying deep structure fbr(36). Since semantically‘but’combines

two contrary clauses, the main clause is regarded to have included‘‘∬砺ηk”in

contrast with‘‘〃oμbτ.” Moreover,‘∂oμ●1’has a negative semantic meaning, and

corresponds to‘‘∫∂oη’彦仇iη1c.” Consider the following.

(38) α.He is young, and she is too.

     b. ∫仇iη1ヒhe is young, and(∫仇fηκ)she is too.

     c. ∫rん仇たhe is young, but∬40η’r仇」ηk she is.

     ∂. ∬仇iηkhe is young, but∫40μbτshe is.

     θ.1∂oη”仇i融Jane failed, but∫仇汕Mary did.

    ∫ 〃oμbτJane passed, but∬beliωθMary did.

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On Language and Grammar (1)              65

In declarative sentences, such verbs as 仇仇κ, bθ1元eue,40μbτ,∫ωrθ,みoPθ, are used

with the丘rst person as their su句ect. Thus,(37)-o is the only grammatical sen-

tence, and the others not.

(Part I concluded, Oct.1977)

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