Language and Language and Prescriptive Prescriptive

GrammarGrammarA different way to think A different way to think

about languageabout language

For many people, talking For many people, talking about traditional about traditional grammar can be grammar can be

stressful.stressful.

Yikes!Yikes!

Why so Stressful?Why so Stressful?

Many of us have Many of us have been told that been told that we don’t know we don’t know how to talk or how to talk or write.write.

Yet, we seem to Yet, we seem to be able to make be able to make ourselves ourselves understood…understood… It’s making me It’s making me

crazy!crazy!

What is Language?What is Language?

Language is a Language is a very special code very special code that humans use that humans use to communicate to communicate thoughts between thoughts between individuals--individuals-- SpeechSpeech SignSign

Language is Used for Language is Used for Exchanging IdeasExchanging Ideas

IdeaIdea

MessagMessageedecodedecodedd

MessageMessageTransmitteTransmittedd

MessagMessageereceivereceivedd

Talking about the WaterTalking about the Water

Talking about Talking about language is like language is like talking to the fish talking to the fish about the water:about the water:

It is so ubiquitous It is so ubiquitous that most of the that most of the time we don’t even time we don’t even know that there is know that there is something to talk something to talk about.about.

It Takes a Smart It Takes a Smart Person…Person…

……to ask why the to ask why the apple falls down apple falls down and not up.and not up.

If we just accept If we just accept the things that the things that seem obvious, we seem obvious, we never get to never get to science.science.

News Flash!News Flash!

Dolphins don’t swim properly!Dolphins don’t swim properly! Pandas hold bamboo in wrong paw!Pandas hold bamboo in wrong paw! Monkey’s cries in state of chaos!Monkey’s cries in state of chaos! Bird’s nests incorrectly constructed!Bird’s nests incorrectly constructed! Songs of humpback whale known to Songs of humpback whale known to

contain several errors!contain several errors!

Say What?Say What?

How can something that animals do How can something that animals do naturally have “errors?”naturally have “errors?”

What does it mean to say that an What does it mean to say that an instinctual behavior is “in a state of instinctual behavior is “in a state of chaos?”chaos?”

How can there be a “wrong” way if How can there be a “wrong” way if there is no “right” way?there is no “right” way?

Who made up these rules, anyway?Who made up these rules, anyway?

Examples of Prescriptive Examples of Prescriptive GrammarGrammar

Pick your favorite rule!Pick your favorite rule! Don’t use a double negative.Don’t use a double negative.

““I didn’t go nowhere.”I didn’t go nowhere.” Don’t end a sentence in a preposition.Don’t end a sentence in a preposition.

““Who did you give the candy bar to?”Who did you give the candy bar to?” Don’t split infinitives.Don’t split infinitives.

“…“…to boldly go where no one has gone to boldly go where no one has gone before.”before.”

Where did These Rules Where did These Rules Come From?Come From?

People thought Latin was the People thought Latin was the most elegant, logical, well-most elegant, logical, well-structured language.structured language.

They tried to make English They tried to make English behave like Latin. behave like Latin.

Rules for Latin don’t Rules for Latin don’t Work Well for English.Work Well for English.

English and Latin are very different English and Latin are very different kinds of languages.kinds of languages.

Latin is a language that relies on case Latin is a language that relies on case endings (inflections).endings (inflections). Latin has case ending, not prepositions.Latin has case ending, not prepositions. You can’t split infinitive in Latin because they are a You can’t split infinitive in Latin because they are a

single word.single word.

English is a language that relies on English is a language that relies on word order to express roles that words word order to express roles that words play.play.

Language is an InstinctLanguage is an Instinct

Scientists think about language Scientists think about language the same way that they think the same way that they think about:about: Bats using echolocation.Bats using echolocation. Spiders building webs.Spiders building webs. Geese using stars to navigate.Geese using stars to navigate. Salmon returning to spawning beds.Salmon returning to spawning beds. Songs of the humpback whale.Songs of the humpback whale.

EcholocationEcholocation

Not invented (by Not invented (by humans) until WWII.humans) until WWII.

Involves very Involves very specialized specialized equipment.equipment.

Does a very specific Does a very specific job.job.

Locates food (bugs) Locates food (bugs) that is flying around.that is flying around.

What does a Theory of What does a Theory of Echolocation Look Like?Echolocation Look Like?

What does a Theory of What does a Theory of Language Look Like? Language Look Like?

Descriptive Descriptive Grammar.Grammar.

It’s not what you It’s not what you learned in school.learned in school.

Let’s call that Let’s call that prescriptiveprescriptive grammar.grammar.

Research on LanguageResearch on Language

Think about Think about language as if language as if we were aliens we were aliens from another from another planet.planet.

What would we What would we notice about notice about this interesting this interesting behavior?behavior?

When Scientists Study How When Scientists Study How Language Works…Language Works…

They find: They find: Everyone knows her Everyone knows her

own language own language perfectly and speaks it perfectly and speaks it fluently. fluently.

The knowledge of The knowledge of language is not language is not accessible.accessible.

What you know about What you know about your language is your language is largely unconscious.largely unconscious.

Research on LanguageResearch on Language Language Language

appears to be appears to be unique to the unique to the human species.human species.

Babies are Babies are specially specially “tuned” to learn “tuned” to learn language.language.

All Children Learn All Children Learn LanguageLanguage

Just like:Just like: All birds learn All birds learn

to fly.to fly. All spiders learn All spiders learn

to spin webs.to spin webs. All fish learn to All fish learn to

swim.swim. All children learn All children learn

to talk.to talk.

Language TimetableLanguage Timetable

There is a There is a “critical period” “critical period” for language.for language.

If children don’t If children don’t learn language learn language by puberty, by puberty, evidence shows evidence shows that they never that they never will.will.

Research on LanguageResearch on Language

Special parts of the Special parts of the brain are involved.brain are involved.

Stroke affects Stroke affects particular part of particular part of brain.brain.

Patient loses ability Patient loses ability to use language. to use language.

Intelligence is Intelligence is usually unaffected.usually unaffected.

Speech (or Sign) is Speech (or Sign) is PrimaryPrimary

Speech (or Sign) is Speech (or Sign) is the primary the primary channel that channel that carries language.carries language.

Writing is derived Writing is derived from speech.from speech.

Writing is encoded Writing is encoded speech.speech.

Speech is crucial.Speech is crucial. SpeechSpeech

Other Animals don’t Seem Other Animals don’t Seem to Have Languageto Have Language

How do other How do other animals animals communicate?communicate? No system close No system close

to human to human language in language in complexity.complexity.

Fixed set of Fixed set of communications communications that usually that usually concern social concern social hierarchy. hierarchy.

We’ve Tried Teaching it to We’ve Tried Teaching it to ApesApes

Animals have Animals have been raised with been raised with human children.human children.

They have been They have been taught to use taught to use signs.signs.

Despite much Despite much effort, apes effort, apes aren’t able to aren’t able to acquire human acquire human language.language.

Language is not Language is not IntelligenceIntelligence

Consider the Consider the case of Homer case of Homer Simpson.Simpson.

Having Having language language doesn’t make doesn’t make you smart.you smart.

Language is not Language is not IntelligenceIntelligence

Children with William’s Syndrome are Children with William’s Syndrome are often hyperfluent (have higher than often hyperfluent (have higher than normal language skills), but normal language skills), but accompanied by profound cognitive accompanied by profound cognitive delays.delays.

Even typically developing toddlers Even typically developing toddlers can’t tie their own shoes, add, can’t tie their own shoes, add, subtract, multiply, drive a car, or vote.subtract, multiply, drive a car, or vote.

Intelligence doesn’t Get Intelligence doesn’t Get You LanguageYou Language

Apes are smart, Apes are smart, social, and good at social, and good at solving problems…solving problems…

……but they don’t but they don’t have the have the equipment to learn equipment to learn language the way language the way that humans do.that humans do.

Language is not Language is not IntelligenceIntelligence

Language Language depends on such depends on such specialized, specialized, unconscious unconscious knowledge, e.g., knowledge, e.g., grammar, it grammar, it doesn’t play that doesn’t play that big a role in big a role in determining determining intelligence.intelligence.

Language does not Equal Language does not Equal ThoughtThought

Do Eskimos Do Eskimos really have 100 really have 100 different words different words for snow?for snow?

Not exactly.Not exactly. They have about They have about

as many words as many words for snow as we for snow as we have.have.

Research Shows that Research Shows that Language is ComplexLanguage is Complex

SEMANTICSSEMANTICS

S y n t a xS y n t a xPhoneticPhoneticss

MorphologyMorphologypHOnoLoGpHOnoLoGyy

PragmaticsPragmatics

Try building a Computer Try building a Computer that Understands Languagethat Understands Language

No machine has No machine has yet been able yet been able to understand to understand speech speech produced in a produced in a natural context. natural context. (But not for (But not for lack of trying.)lack of trying.)

The Acquisition of The Acquisition of LanguageLanguage

Language is Language is learned very learned very fast by most fast by most children.children.

Children learn Children learn language with language with what seems to what seems to be almost no be almost no effort.effort.

Writing is SecondaryWriting is Secondary No humans have No humans have

ever existed ever existed without speech.without speech.

Lots of languages Lots of languages have never had a have never had a writing system.writing system.

Learning language Learning language (speaking) occurs (speaking) occurs long before long before learning to write.learning to write.

Writing is LearnedWriting is Learned

Unlike language, writing and reading Unlike language, writing and reading are laboriously and painfully learned are laboriously and painfully learned behaviors.behaviors.

Whereas language comes as a part Whereas language comes as a part of our original design, literacy is an of our original design, literacy is an additional part that must be bolted additional part that must be bolted on after we leave the factory.on after we leave the factory.

Grammar is InnateGrammar is Innate Some significant part of Some significant part of

our knowledge of our knowledge of language is in our genes.language is in our genes.

This innate knowledge This innate knowledge has evolved over millions has evolved over millions of years.of years.

This pre-existing This pre-existing knowledge is what allows knowledge is what allows babies to acquire babies to acquire language with such ease.language with such ease.

From a Linguist’s From a Linguist’s PerspectivePerspective

The word “English” itself has at least The word “English” itself has at least two separate meanings:two separate meanings: It may refer to a dialect that is dominant It may refer to a dialect that is dominant

within a country. within a country. ““English is the language of the U.S.”English is the language of the U.S.”

It may also refer to a group of related It may also refer to a group of related dialects, none of which has the status as dialects, none of which has the status as the standard “language”. the standard “language”. ““English is spoken in many parts of the English is spoken in many parts of the

world.”world.”

““Language” is a Language” is a Fuzzy ConceptFuzzy Concept

This is not an unusual This is not an unusual situation in science:situation in science: Is Greenland a large Is Greenland a large

island or a small island or a small continent?continent?

Is light a particle or a Is light a particle or a wave?wave?

Is Pluto a planet with a Is Pluto a planet with a large orbit or an asteroid large orbit or an asteroid with a small orbit?with a small orbit?

Language vs. DialectLanguage vs. Dialect

In China, there are In China, there are many dialects.many dialects.

Some dialects are not Some dialects are not mutually intelligible.mutually intelligible. Mandarin-Cantonese:Mandarin-Cantonese:

46.5% mutual 46.5% mutual intelligibilityintelligibility

((www.www.glossikaglossika.com.com))

Yet, we still call it all Yet, we still call it all the “Chinese” the “Chinese” Language.Language.

Language vs. DialectLanguage vs. Dialect

When we compare When we compare German and Dutch, the German and Dutch, the boundaries between boundaries between languages are not so languages are not so clear.clear.

Eastern Dutch and Low Eastern Dutch and Low German have dialects German have dialects that have very high that have very high mutually intelligibility. mutually intelligibility.

Yet, we call them Yet, we call them separate languages.separate languages.

Dialects in the U.S.Dialects in the U.S.

From a Linguist’s From a Linguist’s PerspectivePerspective

The distinction between The distinction between “dialect” and “dialect” and “language” is largely not “language” is largely not scientific.scientific.

Linguists don’t spend Linguists don’t spend their time establishing their time establishing which dialects get to be which dialects get to be called “a language”.called “a language”.

Such distinctions are Such distinctions are essentially a political essentially a political decision.decision.

Linguistic vs. PoliticalLinguistic vs. Political

Linguists answer this problem by Linguists answer this problem by assuming that everyone speaks a assuming that everyone speaks a dialect. dialect.

A dialect may also happen to be A dialect may also happen to be “language”.“language”.

““Language” is label that usually gets Language” is label that usually gets associated which the dialect that has associated which the dialect that has the most power.the most power.

How Does a Dialect BecomeHow Does a Dialect Become a Language? a Language?

They become the most important They become the most important dialect for certain activities:dialect for certain activities: BusinessBusiness EducationEducation GovernmentGovernment ReligionReligion

Some dialects acquire high status for Some dialects acquire high status for cultural reasons.cultural reasons.

Standard American English Standard American English (SAE)(SAE)

Is a dialect.Is a dialect. Is the dominant dialect in the U.S.Is the dominant dialect in the U.S. SAE is a dialect with the full backing SAE is a dialect with the full backing

of the state.of the state. Thus, we call it a “language.”Thus, we call it a “language.” A “language” is a dialect with an A “language” is a dialect with an

army and a navy.army and a navy.

What does it mean when What does it mean when someone tells you…someone tells you…

……you shouldn’t you shouldn’t end a sentence end a sentence with a preposition?with a preposition?

It usually means It usually means someone who someone who speaks a different speaks a different dialect is telling dialect is telling you to stop using you to stop using your own dialect.your own dialect.

But…But…

People can master People can master different dialects.different dialects.

And there may be And there may be good reasons for good reasons for doing so.doing so. Participation in Participation in

business.business. Academic work.Academic work. To be perceived as To be perceived as

in the mainstream.in the mainstream.

Conventions are Conventions are ImportantImportant

It makes sense to It makes sense to have some kinds of have some kinds of standards.standards.

American American Psychological Psychological AssociationAssociation

Modern Language Modern Language AssociationAssociation

Chicago Style Chicago Style ManualManual