COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOKCOMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOK

Community Radio Handbook

Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo Estrada

© UNESCO 2001

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the following people and organizations for their generous support and help: Maria Victoria Polanco, Sophie Ly, and Elvira Truglia of the WorldAssociation of Community Broadcasters (AMARC); David Shanks of the World Association for Christian Communication (WACC); Martin Allard of Mallard Concepts Ltd.;Lawrie Hallet of the UK Community Media Association; and the authors of the five case studies Louie N. Tabing, Ian Pringle, Alex and Wilna Quarmyne, Zane Ibrahimand Ms. Adams and Bruce Girard. Special thanks are due to Louie Tabing whose pioneering work in the concept and practice of true community radio, and prolific writings on the subject, have been aninspiration for much of the material in the handbook.

Much research interest has been devoted to mass media. In their findings, communicationspecialists have always acknowledged that there are many sectors, communities and minorities whose access to information, and means of self-expression are not always guaranteed by mass channels. They have recognized that more sharply focused, customizedand essentially small and local media are crucial in filling this gap.

During the last two decades UNESCO has commissioned a number of studies andpublished monographs on the theme of community media. The first monograph published byUNESCO on the theme of community media was Access: Some Western Models of CommunityMedia by Frances Berrigan, which appeared in 1977; and in 1981, the enquiry was extendedto the developing countries in a study by the same author entitled CommunityCommunications – the Role of Community Media in Development (No. 90 in the series ofReports and Papers on Mass Communication). A few years later, Peter Lewis prepared theUNESCO study Media for People in Cities (1984) which brought together a number of case-studies, and the conclusions of two research meetings, on urban community media.

During the ensuing years, UNESCO began setting up community radio stations in Africa(Homa Bay, 1982) and Asia (Mahaweli, 1986 and Tambuli Community radios, 1982) The growthof the community radio ‘movement’ was covered in a section of the UNESCO WorldCommunication Report in 1997.

UNESCO sees community radio as a medium that gives voice to the voiceless, thatserves as the mouthpiece of the marginalized and is at the heart of communication anddemocratic processes within societies. With community radio, citizens have the means tomake their views known on decisions that concern them. The notions of transparency andgood governance take on new dimensions and democracy is reinforced. Community radiocatalyzes the development efforts of rural folk and the underprivileged segments of urbansocieties, given its exceptional ability to share timely and relevant information on developmentissues, opportunities, experiences, life skills and public interests. Given the audience’s lowliteracy rate and radio’s ability to involve women and to treat them not only as objects ormerely as a target audience, but as participating agents and as a valuable source, communityradio becomes one of the most promising tools for community development. This hasbeen demonstrated by the special UNESCO project Women Speaking to Women community radiostations for the empowerment of women.

In the age of multimedia and online communication, the potential of community radioto provide for effective outreach to discuss and create demand for the Internet has becomeeven greater. The Kothmale Internet radio experiment in Sri Lanka has proven that radiostations can promote and use the Internet in rural communities, overcoming language barriersand lack of infrastructure. By using radio and browsing the Internet to respond to listeners’direct queries, by sharing information and knowledge derived from the Internet, the wholecommunity is involved and empowered with new opportunities.

Against this background of challenges, I believe that this handbook can contributetowards helping different communication actors, technicians, operators and radio producersin community radio stations to make more efficient use of community media for communitydevelopment by getting people involved in clarifying issues and solving problems and intalking to each other.

The handbook is based on the experience and innovative thinking of communicationexperts and practitioners whose contribution I would like especially to acknowledge: thelate Jake Mills, former Director of Engineering, Ghana Broadcasting Corporation, whodesigned the prototype sound mixer; Martin Allard, electronics engineer, designer of theUNESCO prototype transmitter; Alex Quarmyne, former UNESCO RegionalCommunication Advisor in Africa and project manager for Homa Bay in Kenya, the firstcommunity radio in Africa; Carlos Arnaldo, former Chief of Communication Policies andResearch Section at UNESCO as project manager of Mahaweli community radio; GeorgesDupont-Henius, engineer, UNESCO Communication Development Division; WijayanandaJayaweera, UNESCO Regional Communication Advisor for Asia and creator of KothmaleInternet Radio project; Kwame Boafo of UNESCO Communication and InformationSector; Louie Tabing, project manager of Tambuli community radios and creator of " Village on the Air. " For the time they took in producing this book and for their valuablecomments, I should also like to thank Sonia Restrepo Estrada and Colin Fraiser for compilingthese experiences and putting them together for publication.

Claude OndoboDeputy Assistant Director-General

for Communication and Information and Director of Communication Development Division

PREFACE

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Preface ………………………………………………………………………………… iii

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………… 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station ……………………………………………………… 1

Chapter 1: Community Radio

in the Broadcasting Scene …………………………………………… 3

Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media ………………………………………… 5

The Evolution of Community Radio ……………………………… 6

An Important Initiative by UNESCO ……………………………… 8

Box 1: The Miners’ Radio in Bolivia …………………………… 12

Box 2: Radio Sutatenza/ACPO in Colombia …………………………………………………………………… 13

Chapter 2: Features and Functions

of Community Radio …………………………………………………… 15

Essential Features of Community Radio ……………………… 15

Functions of Community Radio ……………………………………… 18

Box 3: Involvement of Women ………………………………… 23

Chapter 3: Legal Aspects …………………………………………… 25

Uneven and Haphazard Legislation ……………………………… 25

Most Progress in Africa …………………………………………………… 25

Asia and India’s Lengthy Debate on Community Radio ………………………………………… 27

Legislation in Some Latin American Countries …………… 28

Some Examples from Western Europe ………………………… 30

Convergence and Divergence in Legislation ………………… 31

Applying for a Licence …………………………………………………… 32

Chapter 4: Technical Aspects …………………………………… 33

Technical Background ……………………………………………………… 33

Broadcasting Equipment ………………………………………………… 35

Reliability and Maintenance …………………………………………… 39

Studio Premises ………………………………………………………………… 40

Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station ………………………… 40

Future Possibilities …………………………………………………………… 41

Specialist Advice ……………………………………………………………… 43

Box 4: Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station ……………………… 44

Chapter 5: Getting Started ……………………………………… 45

Legal Context …………………………………………………………………… 45

Preparatory Work in the Community …………………………… 46

Importance of a Mission Statement ……………………………… 48

Role of the Religious Establishment ……………………………… 49

Role of Local Educational Institutions ………………………… 49

Involvement of Politicians ……………………………………………… 49

Choosing a Location in the Community ……………………… 49

Box 5: Involvement of Politicians ……………………………… 50

Choosing a Model …………………………………………………………… 50

Power of the Transmitter ………………………………………………… 51

Ownership and Management ………………………………………… 51

Programming……………………………………………………………………… 51

Staff ……………………………………………………………………………………52

Sustainability ………………………………………………………………………52

Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs …………54

Box 6: Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio …………………………54

Chapter 6: Programme Policies………………………………… 57

Participatory Programmes ……………………………………………… 57

Community News …………………………………………………………… 60

Balancing Views ………………………………………………………………… 60

Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events …………………… 61

Local Election Broadcasts ………………………………………………… 61

Educational Broadcasts …………………………………………………… 61

Audience Surveys …………………………………………………………… 63

Chapter 7: The Community Broadcaster ……………… 65

Code of Conduct ……………………………………………………………… 65

A Prototype Code of Conduct ……………………………………… 66

Selection of Community Broadcasters ………………………… 71

Training of Community Broadcasters …………………………… 71

Chapter 8: Case Studies ……………………………………………… 75

Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project), Philippines …………… 75

Radio Sagarmatha, Nepal ……………………………………………… 80

Radio Ada, Ghana …………………………………………………………… 85

Bush Radio, South Africa ………………………………………………… 90

Radio Chaguarurco, Ecuador ………………………………………… 95

Table of contents

Communities and Communication

“People live in a community by virtue of the things

which they have in common; and communication is

the way in which they come to possess things

in common.” 1

There are more than 20,000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion

radio receivers. Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded, forradio is in constant expansion. Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet. It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy, and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in.

The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations. Among the reasons forthis are: the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world; deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions; and disaffection withcommercial radio channels.

Furthermore, awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation. And it is also evidentthat when people, especially the

poor, can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives, it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves.

� ANY COMMUNITY CAN

START ITS OWN RADIO

STATION

To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think. There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community.

Community Will is the Key

The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousness.There must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus

that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community.

As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio, the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them. Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture, health, education, andso on, and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority. Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail, and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization, will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals. This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station.

“Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and

expression; this right includes freedom to hold

opinions without interference and to seek, receive

and impart information and ideas through any media

and regardless of frontiers.”

Right of information section, Article 19 of the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

“Community radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them, thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny, whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood, or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean, or agitation for theelection of new leaders. The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media, in this case radio, toachieve it. In every sense, this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else!). It is above all a process, not a technology, not merely ameans, because the people are part of that means, and sois the message and the audience.Community radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community, and this could be severalfamilies, several neighbourhoods, or even several villagesor communities, but the important thing is that theyinteract. That is why I think of community radio as the

community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goals.”

Carlos A. Arnaldo

Introduction

A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso.

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Producing Programmes does not

need Magical Skills

The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities. Unfortunately, expo-sure to commercial and/or stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm, and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized. Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality.

This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant. For example, impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand. However,experience with community radioshows that, when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic, the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of training.And as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience, their skills developmarkedly. They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance.

The Cost and Technology

are not Prohibitive

The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain, and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training. Its cost isconstantly falling. For atypical community radiostation, the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20,000. For minimalbroadcasting, there is even asuitcase available, weighing 16 kg,which contains a five-watt trans-mitter, a six-channel audio mixer,two compact disc players, two cas-sette taperecorders/players, and anantenna. The total cost is aboutUS$3,000.

There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a battery.At night, the radio can be poweredby a dynamo; winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time.

The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation, use, and maintenance.And local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves. For example,in Cape Verde, UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single

transmitter on one island.However, the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islands.This was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation. Furthermore, they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day.5

Media and Development

“Developing communities are characterized by

isolation from ideas and information as well as

services... At the simplest level, before people can

consider a question, they need to be fully aware of all

the facts: the short-term effects and the long-term

implications, ways in which decisions taken in one

area will affect future planning. Communication

media could present this information.” 2

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The Judges are the Listeners

“It is unfortunate that the so-called radio

professionals have set certain artistic production

standards which could intimidate the regular village

people. The irony is that the so-called professional

productions cannot compete with programmes done

by the inexperienced village people. The professionals

forget that the ultimate judge of a radio programme

is the listener.” 4

Don’t be afraid of radio!

“No one should be afraid to use radio. I have been a

broadcaster for almost a quarter of a century and

I know nothing about the electronics side of radio.

Even today, I cannot explain how my voice in the

studio is processed and passed on finally to the

family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres away.” 5

1 John Dewey, (1916), cited by Elizabeth Blanks Hindman,“Community, Democracy, and Neighbourhood News”,International Communication Association, (1998).

2 Frances J. Berrigan, “Community Communications - the role ofcommunity media in development”, Reports and Papers onMass Communication, no. 90, UNESCO, (Paris, 1981).

3 Louie Tabing, Neighbourhood Radio Production,UNESCO/DANIDA Tambuli Project, Philippines.

4 Martin Allard,”On the Air…The Development of CommunityRadio”, UNESCO Sources, no. 21, (1990).

5 Louie Tabing, Manager of the UNESCO/DANIDA TambuliProject, Philippines.

Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe!

Chapter 1

Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene

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This chapter describes the place of

community radio in the broadcasting

scene and explains the essential

difference in its approach compared to

conventional public service or commercial

broadcasting. A rationale is put forward for its

importance in the scenario of increasing media

globalization.

The evolution of community radio from its

first experiences some 50 years ago is traced

and set in the context of broadcast media

ownership patterns, technical developments,

and the recent trends towards

democratization and decentralization.

The reader will acquire:

• An understanding of the special nature of

community radio compared to other types of

radio broadcasting;

• An understanding of its place and importan-

ce in the trend towards media globalization;

• Knowledge about its background, specific

field experiences, and the factors that have

determined its evolution.

This theoretical framework provides the long-

term foundation for practical knowledge and

skills to be gained in later chapters.

Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories:

• Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity, which is usually - though notnecessarily – a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation. Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body, such as a councilor a legally constituted authority. This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide information,education and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general, and independently of government,party politics or other interests. Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listeners/viewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes.

• Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals, or by commercial enterprises.

• Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular community,usually through a trust, foundation, or association. Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community. It is, ineffect, a form of public-service broadcasting, but itserves a community rather than the whole nation, asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove. Moreover, it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community. A community is considered to be a group of people who share

A Declaration of Principle

“Community radio responds to the needs of the

community it serves, contributing to its development

within progressive perspectives in favour of social

change. Community radio strives to democratize

communication through community participation in

different forms in accordance with each specific

social context.”

World Association of Community Broadcasters

(AMARC), 1988.

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common characteristics and/orinterests. The commonality ofinterests may be based on:

- The sharing of a single geographicallocation, that is to say those livingin a specific town, village, orneighbourhood;

- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade, marketing,exchange of goods and services.

Unfortunately, this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice, forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations. For example,a local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes; a station ownedand managed by an NGO, such as areligious institution, may fill most ofits air time with such programmes;and state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it.

Not surprisingly, there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio. And to complicatematters further, there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as ‘local’,‘alternative’, ‘independent’, or ‘free’radio. All of these lack precision. Forexample, the term ‘local radio’

could also cover the decentralizedoperation, through a local station,of a state-controlled broadcastingsystem, or even a small commercialstation. Terms such as ‘alternative’and ‘free’ are also imprecise, even ifin the context of radio, they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control. Logically, therefore,they include community radio, butthey do not necessarily include it.

The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements. Thesimple and catchy phrase, ‘Radio bythe people and for the people’ isoften used as a good summary. Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio. It must firstly,be managed by the community;secondly, be to serve that community.

Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio, even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community development.This is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions, and in practice the term

‘community radio’ is often used tocover this type of operation as well.One example is Radio Maria, whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries. It is essentiallyan evangelical operation, but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community development,using volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners.

The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation; this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio.

“Community radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-ting… The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects, to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed, community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipants.” 4

One Definition

“A community radio station is characterized by its

ownership and programming and the community it is

authorized to serve. It is owned and controlled by a

non-profit organization whose structure provides for

membership, management, operation and

programming primarily by members of the

community at large. Its programming should be

based on community access and participation and

should reflect the special interests and needs of the

listenership it is licenced to serve.” 1

On Radio Work for Ordinary People -

a Practitioner’s View

“Radio is simply people talking with people.

The Tambuli stations have merely expanded the

opportunity for people to talk more to a wider

audience and to listen to a more expansive array of

ideas on matters that directly concern them.” 2

On Community Ownership and Management

“To qualify as a community radio, the ownership

and control of the station must rest squarely,

and unquestionably, with the community it claims

to serve.” 3

Commercial Media Antagonism Towards

Community Media

“Mainstream commercial media continue to harbour

negative feelings about community media and are

convinced that they are adequately able to serve

community needs. They have not yet come around to

accepting that the special character of community

media is complementary rather than antagonistic

and mutually exclusive.” 5

This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category, treating listeners as objects, is significant,for even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes, they usually remainin the same prescriptive mode.This is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming.

� COMMUNITY RADIO

IN THE CONTEXT OF THE

GLOBALIZATION OF

MEDIA

Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia. Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmes.Certain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction, mainly of an enter-tainment character, and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwide.Obvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA. However, audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientations,rather than those imported fromothers. For this reason, media productions from developing

countries, such as Brazil, China,Egypt, India, and Indonesia, arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media.

While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures, others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficial.They see global media and community media as complemen-tary, each forming important functions that the other cannot.And this is certainly the case.

By definition, global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content. Thus, they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of people,using well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formats.The lack of variety in programmeorientation is, therefore, generallyattributed to the ‘self-censorship’of the market, which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection. However, it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment, rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and

current affairs. For these reasons,themes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered, or deliberately ignored,by private broadcasters.

Clearly, given their characteristicsand orientation, commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they cover.The excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting, stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences. A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community level,especially through communityradio, in which accessibility is thenorm.

Furthermore, community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves; it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages; it is relevantto local problems and concerns;and its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially, culturally,and economically. This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations, it is also in contrastwith centralized, urban-based 5

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Global Communication?

“George Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us of

a society controlled by Big Brother. Is that what we

are encountering today when we see so many people

in poor communities tuning into western dominated

ideals of the rich consumer society? Orwell was very

concerned about the socialist drives of the industrial

age. But perhaps he was also warning about the take

over of society by a democratic political power driven

to degradation by these very industrial drives and by

the easy resort to globalization of media.” 6

The Power of the Local Approach

“An effective strategy for the community radio

station is to present what cannot be offered by any

other radio station; that is, local content with a local

flavour... The local radio station must dwell on its

strongest reason for existence - local events, issues,

concerns, and personalities. If a local station can do

an exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its

community on a regular basis, there is no way a

regional or national broadcast outfit could compete

for listenership. The element of proximity is the most

potent quality that the community radio should

capitalize on. People will be enthusiastic to know on

a daily or even hourly basis about the people and

events unfolding next to their place of abode.” 7

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national media, even of a publicservice nature, for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs.

� THE EVOLUTION OF

COMMUNITY RADIO

The pioneering experiences fromwhich today’s community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America. Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences, one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMiners’ radios and another inColombia in the same year, knownas Radio Sutatenza/AcciónCulturalPopular. (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions).

These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend, even iftoday’s concept of communityradio has evolved considerably. Forexample, the Miners’ radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalism.Thus, their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions. They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios, even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase

of equipment and running costs.

Radio Sutatenza/ACPO in Colombia,although inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants, was not owned or directlymanaged by them. There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50,000 letters a year – and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasants’ desires and needsinto the radio’s programming. Butit was not truly ‘radio by the peoplefor the people’, which is today’saim.

Even so, this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement that“…spread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER, the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation. This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin America.” 8

However, even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America, itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non, an alternative to – or a critiqueof – mainstream broadcast media.The first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when “swashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the

audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the state.” 9 In theWest, these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio.

In Africa, the establishment ofcommunity radio became, in abroad sense, a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa. This wasfollowed by democratization,decentralization, and to someextent structural adjustment,elsewhere in that continent.10

The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (e.g.miners, pirate radio operators, missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia. In their place, internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the ground.And in some cases, it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services.

Vision of Joaquín Salcedo, founder of Radio

Sutatenza and Acción Cultural Popular

“Within weeks of arriving in Sutatenza, Salcedo as a

junior priest had challenged the peasantry from the

pulpit to take up arms against the poverty and

backwardness that afflicted them and had offered his

hand and vision in a partnership. They responded,

and so a pact was formed.

Salcedo pioneered a concept known as ‘integral

fundamental education’ ... similar to what today is

often called ‘life education’. The core of the concept

is that the educational process must be the

development of the individual as a whole person

and as a member of society...

It became an ACPO slogan that ‘development is in

the mind of mankind’. And providing people with

education in the broadest sense would enable them

to make informed decisions and become proactive

in taking control of their lives.” 11

The Influence of Different

Broadcasting Ownership Systems

Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcasting,with multiple stations of variedpower and reach. In this context, itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up. And several thousandhave done so in Latin America,often initially as illegal or piratestations.

In Western European countries,the public-service state broadcastingmonopolies, which had been setup when radio, and later TV, werefirst introduced, usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies. Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government, partypolitical, or other influences.

European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because, from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s, and TVsome 30 years later, the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture, education,and information, and for improvingsocieties. According to that thinking,the mass media could not be

allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products.

Many countries in the developingworld, especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers, adoptedthe European model, at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned. However,they did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody, preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media. Thus, manygovernments, especially those ofcentrally planned economies, usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims, and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base.

In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower, these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently. This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started. Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media, but even today, manygovernments still effectively oppose

the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media.

On the other hand, it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail. The fax machine on a desk, thecomputer connected to theInternet, electronic mail, andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive. This situation, coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world, is opening thedoor to community media initiatives,and particularly to communityradio. And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d , e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment.

Technical Evolution

In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcasting,there are technical factors thathave played, and continue to play,a very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio. 7

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Alternative Media as Antibodies?

“Some fifteen years ago I described

alternative media as antibodies produced

as a protection against the neglect,

insensitivity and insanity of

the conventional media.” 12

8

Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress: firstly,cheap transistor receivers; andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters.

Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s, radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome. Until that time, mostof the world’s radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe, but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s . Fo r e xa m p l e , i n Sub-Saharan Africa, India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975. And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today.

The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio, with apush-pull effect in the sense that,once a community station starts tobroadcast, there is often a significantrise in radio ownership. This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of people’sinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver. For example, in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function,

radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent. 13

The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM). Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s. (See also Chapter4). Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operations.Much of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries.

� AN IMPORTANT

INITIATIVE BY UNESCO

Among UNESCO’s missions are“the free exchange of ideas andknowledge” and promoting “freeflow of ideas by word and image”.In this context, UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980.

The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting. Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as

much as 80 percent of the popula-tion. The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis. Thus, no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day.

There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance: the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligibly;and the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly.

The discussions in those early days,and for many years afterwards,assumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations. These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally. This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters, and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday.

On the Potential of Community Broadcasting

in Africa

“Community-based radio broadcasting could be the

least costly mass medium for development in

media-starved rural Africa. It could promote positive

cultural identity using local languages, which are

ineffectively used on national broadcasting stations

and are usually accessible only to urban and elite

audiences.” 14

Big Boxes are More Impressive

“Integrated circuits and new components

enable us to make smaller pieces of

equipment, but some manufacturers just

like to use big boxes; open them up and

they are practically empty inside.” 15

Equipment Factor: A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations. SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British, Chinese,Cuban, French and Ghanaian engi-neers. The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts. A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels; and thesecond, was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer, similarly powered, forbringing together sounds (voices,music and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing. The other necessary items,such as tape recorders and recordturntables, could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market.

The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain, and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills, aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation.

Based on integrated circuitry, theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier. It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled. The largest component in theequipment was the transformer, the

device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent.

The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2,000, comparedto about US$15,000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power.

Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km. Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a car.Powered from the car’s battery,and with an antenna hoisted into atree, an outside broadcast stationcould be set up.

UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts. Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receivers,it proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for

Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham, UK.

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even the very poor to buy. Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today, but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk.

Political Factors: Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radio.UNESCO’s push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical, based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression. But the world of theearly 1980’s was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right, and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries.

It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power. However, closer consideration shows thatmany governments, especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages, feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national language.Whatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting

monopolies, UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio.

The First Community Radio

Station in Africa

The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCO’sproposal for setting up a communityradio. In May 1982, a Mallard 10-watt transmitter, as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipment,of a total value of less thanUS$25,000, were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay, on LakeVictoria. This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment. Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment, and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo, one of Kenya’s principle lan-guages, but not that of the dominantethnic and political group.

Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down, forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages. Furthermore, despite itsvery local coverage, it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups.

Building on Homa Bay

Despite this political setback, theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up, withequipment costs of less thanUS$25,000, and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems.

UNESCO’s initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it. The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies, leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them. But innon-Marxist countries too, demo-cratization, decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch, and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems.

In Sri Lanka, the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services, andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step. Thus,in 1983, the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation scheme,the Mahaweli DevelopmentProject. About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly

Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of Mahaweli

Community Radio

“It has animated settlers into participation in

activities that not only encouraged self-actualization

but also community identify and development. In

tandem with Mahaweli development workers, it has

motivated the settlers to try innovative practices in

agriculture and health. It has likewise motivated

local development workers to take the settlers and

their problems more seriously, ensuring a more

palpable degree of service to the people.”

Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio

“In one area we came across a group of teenage

delinquents who had no land and were desperately in

search of something to do. Through our programmes

and discussions, we motivated them to clean up the

village pond and set up an ornamental fish

production enterprise. In another village we

arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriage

of elderly couples who were living together.

Their offspring had faced many hardships as their

parents were not legally married. I produced many

programmes on gambling and alcoholism which

helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves and

give up the vice.” 16

Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism

(President Konaré of Mali, 1993)

“Radio pluralism is an essential component

in the deepening of the democratic process

now under way: it allows people greater

access to a diversity of information, and

guarantees increased popular participation for

sustainable human development...African states

must speed up the ending of the monopoly over of

the airwaves and give priority to national

proponents of independent radio when allocating

broadcasting frequencies...” 20

irrigated land, and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry. Originally, no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli. However, it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards. In effect, they needed todevelop a sense of community, aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices, health, andso on.

Community radio offered greatpotential for this, so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO, the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up. Itsfirst station covered about 20,000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte, but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area.

Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation, they used a truecommunity radio style. This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster.

One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio, in addition toproviding settlers with information,

was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities, which were laterincluded in programmes, orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air. Withsuch participation in the radio programming, and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues, theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity.

Community Radio Expanding at

a Fast Pace

Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980’s and1990’s, community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace. UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries, among them Ghana, Tonga,Haiti, Cape Verde, St Lucia,Trinidad and Tobago, Surinam,Jamaica, Guyana, the Philippines,and many others. However, UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio. A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world.

The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkable,and Mali provides an interestingexample. In 1991, after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship, severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally established.A transition government came topower pending democratic elections.

Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people. It wasfound that, after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions, and with government staffin rural areas equally distant, thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the government’simposed development programmes.They preferred to ignore them. 17

The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install, with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO), a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Mali’s development, thefirst country in the world to do so.Mali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa, notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called “Freedom for AfricanRadios.” 18 19 11

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Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio, which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French, a language only understoodby the country’s elite. And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent, the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information.

In the five years after Mali liberalized its media,more than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate, providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting. And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio. Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago. And as an endnote, Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene.

The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the ‘Voice of the

Miner’ linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of Potosí.In subsequent years, 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMiners’ Radios.

These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines, most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families, the ‘tin barons’,such as the Patiños, who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles. Meanwhile, theminers, who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export, were being inhu-manely exploited. Living in primitive mining camps, often inthe cold of very high altitudes,poorly paid and suffering fromtypical miners’ afflictions, such assilicosis, they were already oldmen by the age of 40. Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents. In 1952, the mineswere nationalized, but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience.

Unfortunately, historical factsabout the Miners’ Radios remainsomewhat vague, for the mainsource of information is the

memory of the people involved.However, it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families, civilwar and revolution.

The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle, and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream media.The importance of the Miners’Radios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed, or their equip-ment confiscated, by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country.

It was, in fact, the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia. As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authorities,one of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations, or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed, the right to start themup again with new equipment.The miners usually contributedmost of the cost, a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives.

Although the main role of theMiners’ Radios was the defence

and promotion of miners’ rights,they were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities. They promoted andbroadcast festivals of miners’poetry, discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms, and discus-sions about education issues,even including a discussion ofwhether miners’ children shouldlearn to play chess.

The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations, but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions. And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today. However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served, and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted.

Most Miners’ Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950s,but their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983.After that, world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree to‘relocate’ miners, throwing about20,000 of them out of miningwork forever. This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radios.Some were passed to peasantgroups, but today, less than tenare still operating.

BOX 1: The Miners’ Radio in Bolivia

BOX 2: Radio Sutatenza/Acción Cultural Popular in Colombia

This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest, JoaquínSalcedo, in an Andean

village called Sutatenza. It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three km,but from this, Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombia’s mostpowerful broadcasting network.

Salcedo, an atypical priest, wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombia’speasants than about conventionalChurch matters. Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop, herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia. Thus, theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born, and from thatAcción Cultural Popular (ACPO).

The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics, including literacy, numeracy,health, farm production, housingimprovements, family and personalrelationships, sport and leisure,and - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation.

People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect, small groupswho came together each evening.The groups were assisted by moni-tors, people with more knowledge

and experience than the group. Atany one time, there was usually anenrolment of some 200,000 peasants in about 20,000 RadioSchools.

To complement the radio programmes, ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a Peasant’sLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities. And a weeklymagazine, with an estimated readership of 600,000 people, waspublished. Furthermore, trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities.

The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning, mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe, butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it.

Ultimately, Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own success.W h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on ‘responsible procreation’, the Church begansystematically to undermine it.Salcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters, and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules. ACPO held no position on

chemical or physical methods ofbirth control. Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own, respon-sible decisions.

This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia, which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species. So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support. However,ACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government.

The operation struggled on, usingmainly borrowed funds, until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network. In 1987, after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds, knowledge and life skills, itfinally folded completely. Itsassets, which included a publi-shing house, a plant for pressingmusical records, a 14-storey officeblock in the capital, as well as peasant training centres, were soldto meet its debts.

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1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland,1988.

2 Quote: Louie Tabing, Manager of the UNESCO/DANIDATambuli Project, Philippines.

3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams. Bush Radio 89.5 FM. (See CaseStudy).

4 P. M. Lewis and J. Booth. The Invisible Medium: Public,Commercial, and Community Radio, MacMillan (London, 1989).

5 Jocelyn Josiah. Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment, Brazil (Bahia, 1998).

6 Carlos A. Arnaldo. Localism and the Displacement of Politics: Placebased Communication. Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place). Vol 41 No. 2, 1998. Sage Publications and SID (Rome, June 1998).

7 Louie N. Tabing. Programming Tips for a Community Radio Station.UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila, 1998).

8 Rafael Roncaglio lo, Public Service Broadcasting – Cultural andEducational Dimensions. UNESCO (Paris, 1995).

9 T. McCain and F. Lowe. Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting, Journal of Communication, Vol. 40-1 (1990).

10 Moncef M. Bouhafa, Child Survival and Broadcasting –Opportunities and Challenges, paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival, Voice ofAmerica/USAID (Washington, April 1998).

11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada. Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival. I.B. Tauris (London/New York, 1998).

12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media: Linking Global and Local.Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No. 107, UNESCO (Paris, 1993).

13 Mary Myers, The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots: The Example of Radio in Mali. Frank Cass Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2 (London, 1998).

14 Jake Mills of Ghana, the designer of the cheap, 6-channelaudio mixer (1990).

15 Martin Allard, designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter.

16 Interview: Sunil Wijesinghe, broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999).

17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada, op cit.

18 Moncef M. Bouhafa, Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa, paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics, CatholicUniversity of Brussels, Belgium, 1997 (revised 1998).

19 Mary Myers, op. cit.

20 Ibid.

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In Barbados, after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference, students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED.

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Chapter 2

Features and Functions of Community Radio

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This chapter describes the special features

and programming approach of community

radio in terms of public access and partici-

pation, ownership, management, funding,

editorial independence, and credibility, as well

as its representation of different groups and

interests in the community and its inclusion of

marginalized and minority groups.

The section on functions covers the role of

community radio in reflecting local identity and

culture, in providing a diversity of voices, opinions,

programmes and content on air, and in promoting

democratic process, social change, development,

civil society and good governance. Its function

as a ‘people’s telephone’ and its contribution to

the training of human resources for the broad-

casting industry are also touched on.

After absorbing the content, the reader will:

• Have a clear picture of the many features and

functions of community radio;

• Be able to act as a resource person/leader

during discussions in a community about

the possibility of setting up a radio station,

providing the necessary background informa-

tion for decisions on ownership, manage-

ment, programming policies, and the benefits

that can be expected from a community

radio.

� ESSENTIAL

FEATURES OF

COMMUNITY RADIO

The Audience as

Protagonists

While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting, it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting. Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists, by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme production,and by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community.

A Special Slant on News, Entertainment and Education

News on a community station, unlike that on the mains-tream media, is not an isolated story or event alone: rather,it aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community.

Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the children’s programme

and sings a song in Aklanon.

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Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression, rather than a featuringof refined performers. It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist.

Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking.

Principles of Public Access and

Participation

Citizens have a democratic right toreliable, accurate, and timely infor-mation. Based on this right, it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation.

Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizens;participation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement, and also providesproducers and performers.

In concrete terms, for communityradio these concepts mean that:

• A community radio’s broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve;

• The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives, its principles ofmanagement, and its program-ming;

• The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent, duration and schedules.People se lect the types ofprogrammes they want, ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers;

• The community is free to commentand criticize;

• There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages. The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction, but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the community,the programme producers, and themanagement of the radio station;

• There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity, as individuals or groups,to produce programmes, and behelped by the radio station staff,using the technical productionfacilities available;

• The community participates inthe establishment, management,administration and financing ofthe radio station.

Ownership

The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust, founda-tion, cooperative, or some similarvehicle. However, there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community, but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use.

Management

Irrespective of formal ownership,the station’s policies, management,and programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio. There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee, or Board of Directors, toset overall policies, while day-to-day

Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich, between rural and urban groups, between agricultural routine and city leisure. At Radyo Ibahay, one of the smallest Tambuli stations, film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme.

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administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity.

Funding

A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization. Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sources,which may include donations,grants , membersh ip fees , sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing . A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence. Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience. Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency.

Editorial Independence and

Credibility

Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment, of political parties,and of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming. Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee, but with day-to-day

operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager, his/her role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial.

Representation of Different

Groups and Interests in the

Community

Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests. Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air. Clearly,however, programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity, taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs.

Inclusion of

Minority and Marginalized

Groups

Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms, rather than giving them an

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Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the

Radio Ibahay Sunday children’sprogramme.

Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder

Community radio stations often organize community

events such as community fairs, cultural evenings,

and other fund-raising activities. One Tambuli

community radio station in the Philippines organized

door-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raise

funds to buy a new tape recorder.

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occasional voice, as in the case of many public broadcasters. Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups, such aswomen and youth, and it promotesand protects the interests, culture,and linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community.

� FUNCTIONS OF

COMMUNITY RADIO

Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions:

Reflect and Promote Local

Identity, Character, and Culture

Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits community’s identity and character. Thus it relies principallyon local content. It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience.

It also focuses on local culture.Culture is what a community saysto itself, and what it says to others.It is how the people, the individualmembers of a community, expresstheir dreams and hopes, and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture. It is what they care about.Like life itself, culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving. Itis the result of a process, not of

definitions. And that is why indemocracies, governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people. Governments mustnot get involved in content or style. 1

Community culture is also, of course,artistic expression through localmusic, dance, poetry, theatre, storytelling, and so on, and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios. Local performers areencouraged to go on air, uninhibitedby considerations of the ‘professionalstandards’ they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media. The valueof content and ‘localness’ usuallyoutweighs formal quality and ‘professionalism’, though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production.

Culture is also Language: Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios. They are the cement of cultural diversity, which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversity.There are some 6,700 languages inthe world, and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia. Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion, combined with other factorssuch as urban migration, threatenhalf of the world’s languages with extinction during the nextgeneration. And with them will go

their cultures. Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity. 2

Create a Diversity of Voices and

Opinions on the Air

Community radio, through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a community,creates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air.

Some discord is present in all communities; they are not the peaceful, harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine. Discord may be caused bydiffering interests, by differing ethnic, linguistic or religious backgrounds, or even by someancient feud. The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communities.Through an understanding of whyconflict exists, communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts. A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion, without itself taking sides.

Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulated

in South Africa

Community radio stations should:

• Promote and reflect local culture, character and

identity;

• Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinions

and encourage individual expression;

• Increase access to a diversity of voices on air;

• Assist in creating a diversity in broadcasting

ownership;

• Be responsive to the needs of their community;

• Contribute to human resources development for

broadcasting and where appropriate to job creation;

• Encourage members of the relevant community to

participate in programming and production matters;

• Encourage innovation and experimentation in

programming. 3

Preserving Linguistic Diversity in Industrialized

Countries too

Community radio stations in New York broadcast in

Wolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese

community. Two other stations broadcast in Korean,

while in France, the Arab population has demanded

the right to set up media channels that meet its

specific needs. 4

Provide a Diversity of

Programmes and Content

Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles. Forexample, roundtable discussions,reportage, interviews, talks, call-inprogrammes, live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community, etc.Audience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable.

Content also covers a wide rangeof topics, again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience. Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces. In ruralareas, themes such as health, farming, fishing, environment,credit, marketing of produce,small-scale enterprises, etc. usuallyfeature prominently, but always setin the context of the community’sactual situation.

News broadcasts may also focuson different types of content.They may cover only local eventsand issues, or they may includenational items that have local relevance, or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels.

Encourage Open Dialogue and

Democratic Process

The ancient Greeks, who inventeddemocracy, conducted their politi-cal debate in public. All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews. Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today, andfor this reason, democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens. Typically, once politiciansare elected, their contact withtheir electorates is limited, andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them.

It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community. This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries, a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned.

However, for social and economicprogress to take place, democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community. They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community, as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal, regional, and even nationallevel.

The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions, and theradio’s content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors. This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunity’s felt needs andpossibilities. In addition,recordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings, or even broadcast byother stations, to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level.

In sum, the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heard.Community radio provides theforum for that to happen.

Promote Development and

Social Change

People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situation.They will all have individual perceptions, but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese. What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving it.This can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the

Connections

“Local radio stations have the responsibility to

connect people with people, people with people’s

organizations, and people with officials and govern-

ment functionaries.” 5

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While group listening is not the norm among radio audience, radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areas.Problem-solving becomes easier when there is “commonness” in knowledge, perceptions, aspirations, goals, and processes.

20

community about its situation, thecauses, and possible actions forimprovement.

Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situation.Specific problems can be analyzed,remedies discussed, and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action.

Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes.

Promote Civil Society

Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence. It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour, rather thanhaving them imposed from above.

Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule, theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function.

Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society, raisingawareness about people’s rights,but also about their obligations.They work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress.

Promote Good Governance

In poor communit ies , loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizens,either individually or as a group, inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain. Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances. And through playing acommunity watchdog role, it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities.

Broadcasting of discussions, orquestions and answers, betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often used.Another technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings.

This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil. In veryremote communities, and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations, the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those families.And, equally, the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism.

Encourage Participation, Sharing

of Information and Innovation

Participation is a key word in development circles, but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin, for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving it,they are in effect participating. Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate. Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debate,analysis, and the exchange of ideasand opinions.

In addition, community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation. For example, onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople, such as obtaining farm

Some of the Social and Development Benefits of

Tambuli Community Radio Stations in the

Philippines:

• There is a new vibrancy and will to change in the

communities;

• Men gave up their passionate pastime of gambling

after a series of discussions over the radio clearly

showed its negative economic impact on their fami-

lies and on the community;

• Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-

mals to the market and slaughtering them there;

• A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce its

smell and pollution;

• Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding;

• A footbridge and extra lighting were installed;

• A day care centre for children was created by the

local authorities.

• Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a result

of community pressure. 6

A Statement by the Programme Director of the

Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali

“There are a lot of aspects of democracy that people

don’t know about, and we are obliged to raise awa-

reness, to explain that democracy is not anarchy,

that democracy involves rights and obligations. We

have the right to demand, but we also have obliga-

tions to the State.” 7

credit from a new bank in the

nearest city. A broadcast account

by them explaining how they went

about it and the procedures required

would be the stimulus for other

families to do the same. Another

example might be providing infor-

mation about a farmer in the area

who had multiplied seed of an

improved vegetable variety and

was willing to sell it.

Give Voices to the Voiceless

In many traditional societies,

women and youth and ethnic and

linguistic minorities are virtually

ignored in community affairs. But

no community can change and

develop equitably and satisfactori-

ly without the active and informed

participation of its women, youth,

and minority groups. (See Box 3 at

the end of this Chapter).

Therefore, community radio gives

voice to the voiceless in the

community. This, of course, is in

addition to giving the community

in general a voice after years of

having been inert recipients of

state or commercial broadcasts.

Provide a Social Service as

a Replacement for the

Telephone

In poor rural areas where

telephones hardly exist,

community radio replaces

them to an important extent

by broadcasting messages.

For example, a family living

in a remote part of the

community can be informed

that a relative living in the

main agglomeration has

been taken ill and would they

please come to visit. Or a

farmer with an animal he

wants to sell can have the

fact announced over the radio,

replacing the series of calls he

would make if telephones were

available. Again, a person looking

for temporary labour to help with

some farm task could alert those

people who were interested to

offer their services through a

broadcast announcement.

The efficiency of government ser-

vices, say in health, is improved by

broadcasting the schedule for field

visits ahead of time so that people

will be waiting for these on arrival.

Contribute to Diversity in

Broadcasting Ownership

Community, commercial, andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society, though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others. Community radio helpsto redress this, and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement.

In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air.

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In October 1992, Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy. Above, at thenew Punaka market, a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices, travelalong country roads, quality of the harvest and news of the village. This project was financed by DANIDA.

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Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Study

from the Philippines

The more remote the community, the more hesitant

people are to speak out. People rely on their leaders

for the smallest problems and they all owe a debt to

the few political families. To criticise them would

seem ungrateful.

The local council told the community radio to accept

calls from listeners with queries or comments during

live broadcasts of the weekly council sessions. But

when the calls began to come in, the council told

them to stop accepting them. The council also began

to chose which portions of the sessions could be

broadcast and told the radio team to leave the room

when budget discussions were under way. 8

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Contribute to the

Development of Human

Resources for the

Broadcasting Industry

Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcaster’sprofession by taking communitymembers as message producers.It is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters, where they, ofcourse, acquire valuable technicalskills.

But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable. They are broadcasterswho live among their listeners,share many of the same problems,and get constant feedback – positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulness.This gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster /audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development. It isnot uncommon, therefore, forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting.

‘The People’s Telephone’ in Haiti

“When the bandits sped off on their motorcycle, leaving a cloud of dust, a dead body, and a distressedvillage in their wake, they thought they were on theroad to freedom. They hadn’t heard about the village’s radio station, Radyo Flanbo. In Haiti, community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas ‘the people’s telephone’, and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village, Flanbo’s newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival. The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police station.” 10

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Radio Muye, the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbean,under the UNESCO specialproject ‘Women Speaking toWomen’.

One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community

radio station in Cuyo,Palawan, DYMC Radio.

1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau. GeneralIntroduction, Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century. Reports and Papers on Mass Communication, No. 111, UNESCO (Paris, 1997).

2 Sophie K. Ly, El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido. InteRadio, Vol. 9, No. 2, AMARC (Montreal, 1997).

3 Triple Enquiry Report. IndependentBroadcasting Authority. Republic ofSouth Africa (1995).

4 Ibid.

5 B. S. S. Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community Radio,Bangalore, India (1996).

6 Colin Fraser/Sonia Restrepo-Estrada, Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival. I.B. Tauris (London/New York), 1998.

7 Mary Myers, The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots: The Example of Radio in Mali, FrankCass Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2 (London, Summer 1998).

8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos. The Sounds of Silence, UNESCOSources No. 89. UNESCO(Paris, 1997).

9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power. Ed. Maslog, Navarro,Tabing, Teodoro. UNESCO/TambuliProject, Institute of DevelopmentCommunication, College of MassCommunication, UNESCO NationalCommission, Philippines (Manila, 1997).

10 David Shanks. Voices for the Voiceless.A feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) .(London, March 1999).

Information as a Commodity for Decisions

“...The appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs. In the processof doing so, people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisions.” 9

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Filipino women - particularly

those in the countryside

where socialization has been

limited by poverty and inadequate

educational attainment - are often

shy, reserved and timid. In addition,

rural families are often resistant to

changing the traditional position of

women as housekeepers, and

women would generally prefer that

their husbands participate in

community projects.

It is very evident that the issue of

collectively pursuing women's rights

and empowerment has been relegated

to the lowest priority among rural

people. So it often takes cajoling and

reassurances before women will

come out of their shells.

However, increased readiness to

participate in community projects

can be seen among those who have

been exposed to mass media culture,

and our initial talks in communities

regarding special radio programmes

for, about, and by women were met

with much eagerness. I attribute this

to the fact that some family and

social institutions that had been

trying to promote women’s activities

in the community felt threatened and

welcomed the support that radio

could provide.

Once involved, women are highly

dependable. They adhere to rules.

Compared to men, they are more

meticulous, They are less subject

to anomalous behaviour and

malfeasance. They are consistently

enthusiastic. And where the women

are mixed with men, the men also

become more enthusiastic, if not to

say better, performers.

Meriam Aranas, the president of

the Olutanga Islanders Media

Development Foundation, was a

strong-willed leader of an active

women's group promoting livelihood

and conservation projects. She

registered the association and led the

drive to erect a building for the radio

station.

A schoolteacher, Rosario Gozos was

appointed as station manager in

Partido Camarines Sur. She is

single-handedly running a family

because her husband works abroad.

She spearheaded the

successful drive against illegal

gambling in the district. Among

other things, she has initiated an

all-women Saturday programme.

Her infectious dedication

has inspired all the other

volunteers in her radio

station. In less than three

years, the station became

an institutional power in

the community. It has

contributed greatly to

the progress and well

being of Partido.

Lyn Villasis, a soft-

spoken beautician, has

been running a story-

telling program for

children for years and has become

one of the most popular personalities

in the station in Banga, Aklan.

Malou Angolluan, is a youthful

college graduate who has taken

voluntary activity as a vocation. Her

exemplary work and dedication to

service have earned her profuse

admiration from her listeners. She

has turned down several offers to

work in bigger commercial radio

stations.

BOX 3: Involvement of Women

In Ibahay, Aklan province, Philippines,Ate Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly children’sprogramme.

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In Pastapur, Hyderabad, India, women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio. They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna

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Chapter 3

Legal Aspects

This chapter gives an overview of the legis-

lation governing community radio in a

variety of countries world-wide. Special

attention is given to South Africa, where

broadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-

plary and could be used as a model by other

countries. The main common factors and the

main differences that exist in national commu-

nity radio legislation are described, as are typi-

cal requirements for obtaining a licence.

The reader will gain:

• An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-

tion and of the obstacles that community

radio may face in some parts of the world;

• An understanding of the need to examine clo-

sely the existing legislation before embarking

on a community radio project;

• Knowledge of the likely information and

conditions that the authorities will require

before issuing a community radio licence.

� UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD

LEGISLATION

The airwaves, or the frequencies for broadcasting,are a public asset. It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations, in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU), to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind, as well as with fairness andtransparency. And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria.

Unfortunately, this does not always happen, andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven. In several regions of the world, communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent, inconsistent, or basically hostile. Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-country,but a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation.

� MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA

Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio. This is particularlyinteresting because, at first sight, it would appearto be a paradox: on the one hand, communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide

ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries; but on the other hand,governments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity. It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984.

However, it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a country.This ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society. Indeed, even in industrializedcountries, the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups. They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity.

This is the case in many parts of Africa too. Sincethe early 1990s, countries such as Mali, BurkinaFaso, Namibia, and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum, backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases.

South Africa’s progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary. Some countries have already copied it,and many others could also find it a useful model.It is therefore outlined in the next section.

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Broadcasting Legislation in

South Africa – an Exemplary

Case

The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the country’s media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs, and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society. But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed.

An Independent Broadcasting

Authority

The first step, taken in 1993, wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA), ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy, plan the use of thefrequency spectrum, issue licences,adjudicate in the case of com-plaints, and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry. It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences. It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives.

The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President. They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy, media

law, marketing, journalism, enter-tainment and education. They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness, freedomof expression, the right of thepublic to be informed, opennessand accountability.

Overall Objectives of the

Broadcasting Legislation

Among the main objectives ofSouth Africa’s broadcasting legisla-tion are the following:

• Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national, regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment, education, andinformation;

• Promote the development ofpublic, private, and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic;

• Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity, culture, andcharacter;

• Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups;

• Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are

�

Western Media Models: a Disservice to

Development

“Broadcasting media have developed into a

one-way model in Third World countries,

with information, news, and massive doses

of entertainment flowing from large urban

centres... The uniform prescription designed by the

affluent minority at decision-making level does not

address the issues of development, which require a

local perspective for each county and each

community. The concepts and use of the media,

as developed in industrialized societies have not

proved conducive to the development needs

of our country.” 1

controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic;

• Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod;

• Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA.

Categories of Radio Broadcasting

The legislation foresees three categories of radio service:

• A public service – A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation, or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers.

• A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee.

• A community service - A broadcasting service which:

* Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes;

* Serves a particular commu-nity;

* Encourages members of thecommunity served by it, orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community, to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast.

* May be funded by dona-tions, grants, sponsorship,advertising or membershipfees, or by any combinationof these.

The term ‘community’ includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest.

South African Licencing

Arrangements

In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove, the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences. It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed. These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called for.Community radio licences areawarded for four-year periods,although shorter, temporarylicences can also be issued.

Licences are not granted to anyparty, movement, organization,body or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature.

Readers may wish to browse theIBA’s website (http://iba.org.za)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy, legislation,and licencing.

� ASIA AND INDIA’S

LENGTHY DEBATE ON

COMMUNITY RADIO

The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa, andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems. Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems.

All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel, the BBC. The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee report.Subsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet people’s fundamental rightto information. The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a ‘public good’ andstressing the importance of main- 27

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taining a balance in broadcastingbetween market (commercial)forces, government monopoly, andmeeting the people’s needs andrights to receive and impart infor-mation. This judgement openedthe door to the granting of licencesto local stations for public partici-pation and territorial/sectoralbroadcasts, but the legislationnecessary to allow this to happenhas still not been passed. It seems,however, that it is under prepara-tion at the time of writing.

The main results so far of thedecades of debate on the subjecthas been some decentralization byAIR to ‘local’ stations, and a recentand rapid expansion of commercialstations using FM frequenciesbelonging to AIR that have beenleased to private operators. Someof the AIR ‘local’ stations try to getcloser to the community and usecommunity radio styles. But for themost part, these ‘local’ stationsmerely relay urban-oriented pro-grammes from the national or fromregional capitals, rather than pro-ducing locally relevant materials.

Commercial broadcasting is onlyallowed to provide entertainment.News and current affairs, and evensex education, are banned. Thus,the private FM stations, which havebeen expanding in response to mar-

ket forces, have created a profile as‘electronic discos’ for urban youth. 1

A consultation session attended bymore than 60 broadcasters, legalspecialists, university staff, anddevelopment communicators metin Bangalore, India, in September1996 and signed the BangaloreDeclaration urging the governmentto take steps to legitimatize andpromote community radio. Sopressure has been building, andthere appears to be light at the endof the tunnel.

In Nepal, the Government-ownedradio service was the only onebroadcasting until May 1997, whenRadio Sagarmatha came on air. (SeeCase Study 2.) Present govern-ment policy on broadcasting, whichgoes back to legislation passed in1993, favours a mix of government,commercial, and communitybroadcasting, but even so, it tookfrom 1994 to 1997 before the firstcommunity radio licence was awar-ded to Radio Sagarmatha. Its successhas been such that community radiois now set to expand in the country.

In Sri Lanka, another country witha government-owned broadcastingservice, it was this service itself thatbegan community broadcasting in1983 with Mahaweli Radio, asdescribed in Chapter 1. It laterexpanded community radio to

cover other parts of Sri Lanka,mainly in support of rural develop-ment. However, in mid-1997, aSupreme Court ruling put an end tothe government monopoly of theairwaves, and a parliamentary committee was established to pre-pare a new broadcasting bill. Thiswill certainly recognize and promotecommunity radio, for it is a branchof broadcasting that has becomewell entrenched in Sri Lanka, basedon the long experience ofMahaweli Community Radio.

In Asian countries that have essen-tially followed the North Americanpattern of commercial broadcas-ting, such as the Philippines, com-munity radio stations often func-tion without licences.

� LEGISLATION IN SOME

LATIN AMERICAN

COUNTRIES

Despite Latin America’s pioneeringrole in community radio, today’slegislation leaves much to be desired.There are about 6,000 registeredradio stations on the Continent.About 85 per cent of these are private/commercial, about 7 percentare governmental, and the remain-der are in the hands of the Church.Some of the latter consider them-

Nepal’s National Broadcasting Act (1993): Priorities

for Programming Should Include These Themes!

• Development oriented programmes: agriculture,

education, industry, commerce, science and

technology, health, family planning, forest and

environmental protection;

• Harmony among all classes, languages, castes,

religions and religious groups; equality and

goodwill among all;

• Growth of different languages and cultures in

Nepal;

• Growth of national interests and unity;

• Growth of moral and national awakening;

• Awakening of social awareness;

• Non-detrimental influence on Nepal’s relation with

neighbouring and friendly countries;

• Foreign policy pursued by the nation;

• Growth of folksongs, folklore and culture;

• Important activities on national and international

levels.

Success Breeds Success in Nepal

In less than a year of operations, the value of Radio

Sagarmatha in improving information flow and

creating a forum for democratic dialogue among

stakeholders in development issues was so evident

that the government, which had initially restricted

hours of broadcast to only two per day, increased it

to 13, and then to 24 hours daily. The initial and

total ban on advertising was also lifted; the licence

was expanded to include mobile broadcasting; and its

frequency was reserved for its exclusive use

throughout the whole country.

selves to be community radios. In addition, there are very largenumbers of unregistered stationsthat have been in existence foryears, many of them communityradios, which are in formal senseillegal.

It was only in the mid-1990s thatsome Latin American countriesbegan to pass legislation on com-munity radio, and that legislationis often unfavourable.

For example, Brazil’s very recentlegislation limits the power ofcommunity stations to five watts,seldom enough to cover a typicalpoor peri-urban settlement of 10-20,000 people. It also makescommunity radio impossible inscattered rural communities, ofwhich there are many in Brazil’svast interior. Nor is any advertisingpermitted, which makes sustaininga community radio even more difficult than it is usually.

In Ecuador, community radio wasnot legally acknowledged until1996. Most community radios arelicenced as commercial or culturalstations. The law in 1996 finallyrecognized community radio as adistinct part of the broadcastingscene, but the legislation imposedrestrictions on the power of transmitters that could be used -500 watts at the antenna - andprior approval from the army was

required. Any commercial activitywas prohibited, as in Brazil.

T h e n a t i o n a l o rg a n i z a t i o nrepresenting community radio inEcuador brought a constitutionalchallenge to the law and managedto remove the clause requiring theprior approval of the army, but thelimits on transmitter power andcommercial activities remain inforce. As late as early 1999, therewere still no community radiostations operating under the newlegislation; they all had commercialor cultural licences.

After its leadership role in communi-ty radio, there is now a paradoxicalsituation in Bolivia. In 1995, a lawwas passed under which licenceswould be granted in future only toradio and television stations of acommercial nature that werepublic or private limited compa-nies in accordance with the coun-try’s commercial code. Among themore than 500 radio stations inBolivia, there are a number ofwell-established educational radioservices that will be allowed tocontinue operating for 20 yearsunder the new law, but scores ofcommunity and peasant radiosbecame illegal in 1996. If closeddown, their frequencies are sold tothe highest bidder.

The contradictory aspect of all ofthis is that it occurred shortly afterthe passing of another law, that on

Popular Participation.This, in effect, is part of adecentralization processwhich delegates deci-sions to the local leveland provides funds to implement them.Community radio couldevidently have enor-mous potential for assis-ting the decentralizationprocess by arousinginterest and participa-tion in local policy anddevelopment decisions.However, this will not bepossible under the newlegislation, which discri-minates against commu-nity radio.

In Argentina, a situa-tion somewhat similar tothat in Bolivia exists. De facto, there have beennumerous community, popular,cultural, and university radios stations in existence for manyyears. But in 1998, a governmentdecree on broadcasting frequen-cies was issued and a NationalFrequency Plan approved. Anarticle in the decree stipulated theimmediate closure of radio stations that were not officiallyrecognized. Furthermore, theNational Frequency Plan did nottake into account the frequenciesalready being used by many small

Radio Sagarmatha in Kathmandu, Nepal led a five year legal battle to obtain itsauthorisation to broadcast. It began in 1990 with a communication policy ‘whitepaper’ wich eventually led in 1994 to a new broadcasting act which opened the airwaves to non-governmental organisations or private individualsand organisations for the purposes of education and culture.

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radios that had been working foryears throughout the country.

Most serious of all, however, wasthe fact that the overall broadcast-ing legislation, the context for frequency applications, remainedunchanged; and this is legislationthat goes back to the days of thedictatorships that used to rule thecountry. The legislation excludesany form of social organizationfrom having a broadcasting frequency, and specifies that onlycommercial organizations canapply for them.

In 1996, a decree modified thato lder leg i s lat ion , for i t was recognized as unconstitutional anddiscriminatory. But this correctivedecree of 1996 was cancelledwithin days of its publication. Thus,by default, the old legislation fromthe days of the dictatorships wasleft in force.

This situation threatens the wholesector of community and popularradios in the country. At the time ofwriting, the community and not-for-profit broadcasting sectoris fighting tooth and nail for newlegislation that recognizes its rightto exist and its role in democraticsociety.

� SOME EXAMPLES FROM

WESTERN EUROPE

For the purposes of comparison,the situation in Europe is worthexamining. Western Europeancountries were all models of nationalpublic-service broadcasting untilsome of them began to allow inde-pendent and commercial radio andtelevision channels to operate inthe 1960s. However, even then,governments applied regulationsto the operations of those channels.Then, in the early 1980s, there wasa general deregulation of broadcast-ing in most of Western Europe,which resulted in a free-for-all inmany countries. Privately ownedcommercial radio expanded likewildfire, but so did communityradio in many countries.

The Scandinavian countries, parti-cularly Sweden, were among thelast in Europe to bow to pressurefrom the commercial media, firm intheir belief that their nationalpublic broadcasting systems werebest for their societies - societiesthat are world famous for theirdemocracy and strong civic sense.But even if it proved impossible toresist the commercialization andprivatization of the electronicmedia in Scandinavia, the door wasopened at the same time to a vastexpansion of community radio.

There are more than 2,000 commu-nity radios in Sweden, the majoritycatering to special-interest commu-nities.

In Denmark, the 300 or so com-munity radios provide access to 96percent of the population. Many ofthese community radios, even ifthey have been allowed to broad-cast commercials and receive sponsorship since the late 1980s,work in financially difficult circum-stances. Most also receive supportfrom various sources such as membership fees, bingo, listenerdonations, and contributions fromorganizations, such as trade unions,religious groups, or the local municipality. Community radio isseen as a cultural activity that iscomparable with other culturalactivities. It has even been suggestedthat a government fund be createdto subsidize community radio likeother cultural areas.

In Ireland, the 1988 Radio andTelevision Act included licencingprocedures for community radio,but the Act did not go into anygreat detail on the subject. In theearly 1990s, the issue of broadcas-ting policy attracted much attention,and in 1995, a Government PolicyPaper on Broadcasting was published.

Democracy without Communication?

“Without democratic communication, democracy

is not possible. The broadcasting spectrum must be

regulated and normalized [in Argentina] but this

cannot be done using criteria from the days of

dictatorship.” 3

As part of the general concernabout achieving suitable broadcast-ing policies for Ireland, theIndependent Radio and TelevisionCommission launched an 18-month community radio pilot pro-ject. It began operating in 1995,and it was designed to explore andevaluate the potential of commu-nity radio in the country. Animportant element favouring theproject was the surge in communi-ty and voluntary activity in Irelandthat had resulted from increasingnational and international concernabout issues such as poverty andunemployment.

Eleven community stations wereestablished under the project tooperate until the end of 1996. Thisexperience showed that communi-ty radio stations could developinto a viable and distinct strand inIrish broadcasting. Certain difficul-ties were encountered during theproject, and realizing the potentialof community radio will call for asubstantial level of ongoing com-mitment from support agenciesand from the communities served.However, there can be little doubtthat community radio will developand assume its appropriate role inthe Irish broadcasting scene in thefuture. 4

� CONVERGENCE AND

DIVERGENCE IN

LEGISLATION

National community radio legisla-tion, where it exists, usually sharessome common factors, but thereare also significant differences between countries.

Main Common Factors

• Community radio must beowned and controlled by a non-profit entity.

• It must be run as a non-profitoperation.

• It must serve the interests of aparticular community, whichmay be a geographical commu-nity or a community of peoplewith common interests.

• It should provide programmingthat promotes socio-economicand cultural development forthe different sectors in the community, at the same timefostering civic integration andsolidarity.

Factors that Vary in Community

Radio Legislation

Power of the Transmitter:

Some countries place an upperlimit on the power of the transmitter

that may be used by a communityradio, usually in the range of five to500 watts. Such limitations couldbe unrealistic in mountainousareas, where transmission over difficult terrain can require higherpower.

Creation of Networks: Somecountries specifically forbid thecreation of networks betweencommunity radios, even if theyallow occasional link-ups for special events of interest to thecommunities involved.

Advertising and/or Sponsorship:

Regulations about this vary consi-derably. Some countries forbid allcommercial advertising on orsponsorship of community radios,while others allow it but put a limiton the minutes in an hour that canbe devoted to it. This usuallyranges from six minutes to up to15 minutes per hour.

In some cases there are restrictionson the type of advertising that maybe broadcast. When this is case,the usual tendency is to limit thescope to matters directly linked tothe community served by theradio, for example, local workopportunities, events that are totake place, and business and services that are carried out in thatarea. Even when legislation doesnot specify such restrictions about

the type of advertising, some com-munity radios impose it them-selves. They may, for example,refuse to advertise items that aredamaging to health, such as alcoholand tobacco.

Some legislation specifies a ceilingon the proportion of total stationrevenue that can be derived fromadvertising, usually setting it at 50percent.

Other Sources of Funding:

Membership fees from listeners,contributions from individuals,organizations, or local authorities,and charges for personal announ-cements are other sources of funding, but in keeping with theCharter of the World Associationof Community Radio (AMARC),some legislation specifies that nosingle source should provide morethan 50 percent of a station’srevenue. Funding from politicalparties or from other special interestgroups is forbidden in some legislation.

Political Broadcasts: These areforbidden at all times in somelegislation, while in others they areallowed in designated pre-electionperiods. When they are allowed,the principle of ‘equal time andequal opportunity’ for all parties isusually stipulated. In some cases,community radios have to report

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to the nation’s independent broadcasting authority any politicalspeech that lasts for more thanthree minutes, providing the actual duration, date and time of broad-cast, and the name of the politicalparty concerned.

� APPLYING FOR A LICENCE

Anyone, anywhere, who hasserious intentions of starting acommunity radio should ascertainwhat existing legislation is in force,beginning with licence require-ments. Some countries apply quitesevere sanctions to punish illegalbroadcasters; heavy fines and/orconfiscation of the equipment arethe commonest.

The procedures for applying for alicence vary between countries, butin any event, entities that apply willusually be expected to provideinformation about the following,with supporting documentation asappropriate:

• The juridical and non-profit sta-tus of the entity making theapplication;

• The probity of the individualsmanaging the entity;

• The community to be served andthe size of the potential audience;

• An explanation of how the com-munity could benefit from aradio service;

• The demand in the communityfor such a service;

• The technical features of the proposed radio station and theheight and location of its antenna;

• The community managementstructures and the personnel thatwill be put in place to run the service;

• The type of programming thatwill be featured, the productionarrangements foreseen, and howcommunity participation will beensured.

Some countries that have recentlyintroduced legislation that coverscommunity radio have drawn uplists of available FM frequencies ineach of the smallest administrativeareas of the country, such as muni-cipalities, or counties. In somecountries, especially in LatinAmerica, periodic announcementsof the frequencies that are availablefor community radio are made bythe broadcasting authorities andrequests for their use are solicited.If there is an excess of requests forthe available frequencies, the win-ners are adjudicated on the basis ofthe quality of their proposals, theexperience of the applicant in

community development work, theradio programming planned, andthe size of the community.

Licencees normally pay a one-offfee for the frequency they are allocated and a much smallerannual fee thereafter. For example,in Colombia, which introduced itscommunity broadcasting legisla-tion in 1995, the typical one-off feefor the frequency ranges from theequivalent of about US$900 toUS$2,000 depending on the size ofthe potential audience. The annualfee averages about US$150.

1 Report of Consultation on Media Policy and Community Radioorganized by VOICES (Bangalore, India, 1996).

2 Ibid .(Intervention by Hasmukh Baradi).

3 From statement issued by the not-for-profit broadcasting sector in Argentina demanding new legislation (1999).

4 Independent Radio and Television Commission. IRTC Policyon Community Radio Broadcasting, IRTC (Dublin, 1998).

5 Personal communication from Alida Becerra, Director of the Social Development Department, Ministry ofCommunications (Colombia, 1999).

Community Misconceptions about Costs

“Quite a lot of the applicants who have been granted

community radio licences here in Colombia since 1995

could not find the funds to pay for the frequency.

Others thought that the Ministry of Communication

would provide them with the equipment. These are

some of the reasons why of the 560 licences we have

granted, only about 150 community radios are

actually functioning. Of course, we have had to

revoke many of the licences because they were not

put to use within the prescribed time period.” 5

Chapter 4

Technical Aspects

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This chapter opens with a brief explanation of the scientific principles underlying radio

broadcasting, including the differences between AM and FM propagation. It then describes

the range of equipment required for FM broadcasting under four categories: transmitters,

antennas, studio programme production equipment, and field programme production equipment.

It explains the role of each. The practical implications of the ‘line-of-sight’ characteristics of FM

broadcasting are discussed.

A section covers issues of reliability, maintenance and precautions to reduce the risk of damage.

The requirements for a community radio studio (size, layout, soundproofing, acoustical balance, etc.),

and suitable spatial arrangements for the various components of the radio station are described.

A section on future possibilities discusses the role of computers in programme production, merging

community radio with the Internet, and new technologies.

A box provides a basic list of equipment required for a community radio service and its cost.

In the main, the reader will:

• Learn about the basic technicalities of broadcasting, and the equipment needed for an FM service;

• Be able to make an initial assessment of the technical suitability of a specific area for setting

up a community radio service;

• Know about the technical requirements for the siting of the components of the broadcasting

system, and be able to consider how best to meet them in given circumstances;

• Know the approximate investment required for equipment.

Nevertheless, the knowledge gained will not necessarily eliminate the need for early advice from a

technical specialist, nor hands-on or formal training.

� TECHNICAL BACKGROUND

Radio broadcasting creates electro-magnetic waves that travel in anapproximately straight line and at thespeed of light, about 300,000 km persecond.

A radio wave that is being propagatedoscillates each side of the straight line.How far these oscillations go beforereturning to the centre line and movingout to the other side of it is known asthe amplitude of the wave. The distancefrom the crest of one wave to the crestof the next is known as the wavelength.

How long the cycle of each oscillationtakes is known as the frequency. It isexpressed in Hertz, named afterHeinrich Hertz, a German radio pioneer.A cycle time of one second is one Hertz(1Hz); a thousand cycles in a second isa kiloHertz (kHz), and a million cyclesin a second is a megaHertz (mHz).

Radio waves are propagated from thetransmitter’s antenna system like theripples in a pond when a stone is drop-ped into it. Waves from a broadcastingstation are known as carrier wavesbecause they are carrying information

34

that has been attached to them.The process of attaching informa-tion to the wave is achieved bymodulating, or varying, one of itscharacteristics, either its amplitudeor its frequency. Hence the termsAmplitude Modulation (AM) andFrequency Modulation (FM) for thetwo methods of wave transmission.

Radio broadcasting uses four frequency bands. Their names derive from whether their wavelengths are measured in kilometres, hundreds of metres,tens of metres, or metres.

• The kilometric band – long waves(Frequency 150-280 kHz);

• The hectometric band – mediumwaves (Frequency 525-1,600 kHz);

• The decametric band – short waves.(High Frequency 6-25 MHz);

• The metric band (Very HighFrequency 87.5 – 108 MHz).

AM Broadcasting

For the first three bands, the signalis attached to the wave by amplitudemodification (AM). AM signals travel great distances. For example,long waves can be propagated forup to about 1,000 km before fadingout, and medium waves travel several hundred kilometres.

Short waves, even if limited by thecurvature of the earth, can travelenormous distances because theybounce off the ionosphere, an invisible layer of electrically charged particles at the outer edgeof our atmosphere, from wherethey return to earth, far from thetransmitter.

The main layer of the ionosphereresponsible for long distance communications is the “F layer”.After dark, this layer is a singledense one about 250 km above theearth, and it reflects short wavesignals very effectively. But duringthe day, the “F layer” splits into twothin layers, “F1”, about 200 kmabove the earth, and “F2”, about350 km above the earth. Thesetwo layers are less effective inreflecting radio signals, and that iswhy reception of short wave broad-casts is better after dark.Worldwide radio services like RadioFrance Internationale, the BritishBroadcasting Corporation, or theVoice of America use short wave toobtain the geographic coveragethey require. It can also be particu-larly useful in mountainous countries.

AM broadcasting is subject tomuch atmospheric interferenceand distortion, and it is thereforeunsuitable for stereo services. It

also requires a considerable inputof electrical power and otherinvestments. For example, thewhole mast of the antenna of anAM medium wave station is chargedwith current, and therefore it has tobe insulated from the ground.

FM Broadcasting

The fourth frequency band, themetric band, uses FrequencyModulation (FM) to attach thesignal to the carrier wave. This system varies the frequency - speedof oscillations of the waves - butkeeps their amplitude or breadthconstant.

FM was invented in 1933 in theUSA, and the first station to use itwas built in 1939. It has advantagesover AM, especially in its freedomfrom distortion and interference. Itrequired different broadcastingtransmitters and radio receivers tothe ones in general use in the 1930sand 1940s, and so it was slow toexpand. Indeed, it really only beganto take off in the 1950s and 1960sin industrialized countries, and inthe 1970s and 1980s in developingcountries – and even as late as the1990s in some of these.

FM broadcasting requires muchless electrical power than AM anduses a very simple antenna. The

Frequency modulation (FM)

Amplitude modulation (AM)

wavelength

ampl

itud

e

The Inventor of Frequency Modulation

Edwin Armstrong, an American scientist

responsible for much of the earliest

technical development of radio

broadcasting in the first two decades of the

20th century, made the FM breakthrough

in 1933. Born in 1890, he was enthused as a boy

by the exploits of Guglielmo Marconi, who in 1901

had managed to send the first radio signal across

the Atlantic. At the age of 14, Armstrong decided

to become an inventor.

In 1939 he financed the first ever FM station from

his own pocket, at a cost of $300,000, to prove its

worth. Sadly, Armstrong was forced to spend much of

his life in litigation to protect his inventions, and in

fighting the established radio industry which did not

want to embark on his new FM system. Finally, in

1954, with most of his wealth gone in the battle for

FM, he took his own life.

quality of the signal is excellent,and it can be mono or stereo.

However, FM signals reach muchshorter distances than AM signalsbecause FM follows the line ofsight. In other words, the antennaand the radio receiver must beable to ‘see’ each other, with noobstructions in the path - such ashills or high buildings - whichinterrupt the signal in the sameway as they interrupt sight. Buteven with the transmitter andreceiver in line of sight, the distancebetween them is important becau-se with radio signals each time thedistance is doubled the signalstrength is reduced to a quarter ofwhat it was. Put another way, inorder to reach twice the distance,four times the power is needed.

� BROADCASTING

EQUIPMENT 1

In general terms, the equipmentrequired for broadcasting falls intofour categories:

• The transmitter that generatesthe signal to be broadcast;

• The antenna through which thetransmitter’s signal is radiated;

• The studio equipment used toproduce the programmes;

• The equipment required for programme production in thefield and for linking outside locations to the studio, e.g. forfield reporting.

A complete list of equipment, withcosts, for a typical UNESCO-

supported community radio

project is provided in Box 4 at the

end of this chapter. Reading the

following section in conjunction

with that equipment list and with

diagrams should provide an

appreciation of the role and

function of each part of the

system.

Transmission Equipment

The power output of a transmitter

is measured in watts. Community

radio relies mainly on low-power

FM transmitters with, typically, an

output of between 20 and 500

watts, usually in the range of

20-100 watts. However, a

distinction must be made between

the power of the transmitter itself

and the power that actually leaves

the antenna, which is known as the

Effective Radiated Power (ERP).

The design of the antenna affects

the ERP. So-called ‘high-gain’

antennas can result in considerably

more watts of ERP than the out-

put watts of the transmitter itself.

A low power FM transmitter.

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MH

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Hz

6 M

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1600

kH

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525

kHz

280

kHz

150

kHz

Frequency modulation A m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n

The four radio frequency

36

Several companies around theworld now produce cheap FMtransmitters for community radiousing frequencies between 87.5 and108 mHz, the usual band for FMbroadcasting. They range in pricefrom a little over US$ 500 to some$ 2,000, and they are about the sizeof a thick paperback novel. Not allof the models available, especiallythose from the US, are built withthe possible harsh conditions ofdeveloping countries in mind.

The technology of FM transmittersis now so simple and well knownthat it is not beyond the capacity ofcompetent engineers in developingcountries to build them. Usinglocally available materials, the DANIDA/UNESCO Tambuli community radio project in thePhilippines locally produced its firsttransmitter and successfully put itto work in 1998, though most ofTambuli’s stations still use British orChinese transmitters. The experi-ence of Cape Verde, where localtechnicians built their own transmitters, was mentioned in theIntroduction.

Low-power transmitters may alsohave an amplifier or booster atta-ched to them to increase theirpower output. Many of the UNESCO-supported communityradios have 20-watt transmitters

with a 100-watt booster. Thistransmission equipment, especiallythe booster, generates considerableheat, and so it is always accompan-ied by a cooling fan, and it needs tobe installed in a well-ventilatedplace.

Nearly all FM transmitters built forcommunity radio require a 12-voltDC power supply. Thus, they can berun either off an electrical mainsource with a transformer thatconverts this into a 12-volt DCoutput, or a vehicle battery or solarpanels.

It is important to keep the audiosignal from an FM transmitter atthe right level. If the signal is overmodulated, distortion will resultand possible interference withnearby stations. A device called alimiter/compressor is thereforeincluded in the audio chain to keepthe signal at its pre-set level.

In a few cases, community radiosuse AM broadcasting. Setting upand running costs are generallymuch higher than they are for FM.However, the ability of AM toextend over a wider broadcast area,even if one of lower sound quality,may make it desirable in certain circumstances. In some cases, particularly in large towns wherethe competition for FM frequen-cies is very high, obtaining one at

reasonable cost may be impossible,and therefore some communityradios have found it easier to rentor buy an existing AM frequency.This will probably have a commer-cial licence, but the communityradio management can lay down itsown policy in respect of advertising.

The Antenna

The height, position and adjust-ment of the antenna play a primor-dial role in achieving high qualityand the furthest possible reach ofan FM broadcast signal. This isbecause, as already noted, FMsignals travel in a more or lessstraight line and follow the line ofsight. The antenna that propagatesthe signal must therefore be as highas possible, and there should befew obstructions that will block thesignal. The higher the antenna is,the further its signal will reacharound the natural curvature of theearth.

FM Problems in Hilly Areas: FMhas limitations in hilly areas becau-se even if the antenna is placed ontop of a peak, there may be areas ofsignal shadow in the valleys. Theonly solution for using FM in hillyareas may be to install one or morerelay transmitters to cover theareas in shadow.

Martin Allard explains Broadcast Coverage Pattern

in Relation to Watts and Antenna Height

All of the differing figures given for the coverage

radius of FM are reasonable in their own way. It is far

from being an exact science, however, and opinions

vary considerably as to what is an acceptable signal

strength that is sufficient for a normal listener.

The basic facts to understand are these:

The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of an FM station

is approximately the power of the transmitter

multiplied by the number of elements in the antenna.

There are practical limits as to how big an antenna

can be, and above a certain size losses in the cables

become significant.

Of course, VHF signals do not go far beyond the

optical horizon. They do bend around hills to a small

extent, but otherwise they behave much like light.

The distance to the horizon depends on the height of

the antenna and must take into account any large

obstructions.

For an acceptable stereo signal you need 3-4 times

the power of a mono transmission. We have found

that upgrading some of the early low-power stations

with a modern high-gain antenna and low-loss feeder

cable produces a good stereo signal over the same

range without an increase in transmitter power.

Some typical range figures, based on stereo

transmission in a flat area with an antenna 25

metres high, would be:

20 watts ERP - 5 km

100 watts ERP - 12 km

1200 watts ERP - 30 km

But each case is different. We have one example of a

station running 1200 watts ERP with regular

listeners 80 km away. 2

The height of the antenna willdepend on the terrain and, on anyobstacles that the signal must pass.However, it is usually at least 20-30 metres above the ground, evenin flat terrain. The antenna may beplaced on a building or hilltop togain the necessary height, or amast may be constructed for it.

Constructing the Mast: Antennamasts can be built locally usingsteel uprights and lathes to createa lattice construction. However, asimpler and cheaper version canbe built using galvanized steelwater pipes. Steps are welded tothem so that the broadcastingantenna itself, fitted high on themast, can be reached for adjust-ments and repairs.

Both types of mast must be firmlyanchored in a concrete block in theground, and they must be heldvertical by guy wires, also anchoredin concrete.

The Two Categories of

Antenna: There are two broadcategories of antenna: omnidirec-tional, which as its name impliesradiates the signal in all directions,through 360 degrees around itself;and directional, which radiates thesignal towards one segment of thecircle around it. Almost all com-munity radio stations use an omni-directional antenna, but there are

situations where a directionalantenna is better. One example iswhere an antenna is placed on theside of a mountain overlookingthe community to be reached. Adirectional antenna beaming thesignal only over the communitywould give added power compar-ed to using an omnidirectionalantenna that wasted part of itssignal against the mountainsidebehind it.

Antenna Design, Manufacture,

and Tuning: FM antennas comein a variety of designs, and thechoice and tuning of the antennato get the best signal is the work ofa specialist. Antennas can bebought ready made, but for mostcommunity radios they are fabri-cated on the spot by a metal worker, using materials that canusually be bought in a local hard-ware shop, such as copper piping 37

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Typical Antenna Mast Made from Water Pipes

and aluminium or PVC piping, allheld together by hose-clamps and solder.

Fine-tuning of the antenna to getthe best signal is done with an instrument called a power metrewhich measures the StandingWave Ratio (SWR) . It costs lessthan US$ 100. This costs less thanUS$ 1,00. It is connected betweenthe transmitter and the antenna to

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measure the ratio between thepower coming from the transmitterand the power being reflected backfrom the antenna. If a lot of poweris being reflected back by theantenna, it is not properly tunedand broadcast power is being lost.The specialist adjusts the lengthand position of the moveableradiating elements on the antennauntil the SWR meter shows thatthere is little, or almost no powerbeing reflected back from theantenna. Many modern transmit-ters incorporate an SWR powermetre.

Studio Equipment

Recording and Playback: Mostof the equipment used in a radiostudio would be familiar to any onewho had ever used home musicalequipment. It consists in the mainof cassette recorders/players andother tape recorders, record turntables, and compact discplayers. However, the quality of thisequipment in a radio studio ishigher than that of the commonrange of home equipment. This isbecause, firstly, high-quality soundis needed so that, even after theinevitable degradation of thesound between the studio and thelistener’s ear, the quality will still beof an acceptable level. Secondly,

studio equipment must withstandmuch heavier and more constantuse than its equivalent in the home.

Some small community radios inindustrialized countries prefer tobuy cheap consumer electronicitems, such as CD players, and sim-ply replace them when they wearout. This is seldom a suitableapproach in developing countries,where it is usually easier to obtainfunding for initial costs than it is forrecurrent costs. Furthermore, suchcheap consumer electronic itemsmay be less available here than theyare in industrialized countries.

Control Console/Mixer: Themain unfamiliar item to mostpeople entering a radio studio forthe first time is the control consoleand mixer unit. This allows the programme producer or his techni-cian to select the sound sourceswanted during the programme, forexample a cassette or compact diskplayer, or one or more of themicrophones in the studio. It alsoallows him to raise and lower thevolume of each source gradually,and to superimpose one or moreover another, as in the case of avoice with background music orsound effects. This is called‘mixing’ the sound channels. Theconsole/mixer has sockets for head-phones through which the producer

can listen to the various channelshe has available or to the final mixedversion for broadcast. An output linefrom the console/mixer goes to thetransmitter.

All the studio equipment is power-ed from a local electricity source,which should pass through anautomatic voltage regulator. Thisreduces power fluctuations thatchange the speed of voices or music

Programme Production and

News Gathering/Editing in the

Field

Remote Microphone Mixer: Inthe simplest operations in the field,a single tape recorder can be usedto gather material, or a microphonecan be connected by a long line tothe studio console for nearbyoutside coverage. But any more elaborate programme productionoutside the studio, when severalmicrophones and sound inputs arerequired, needs a remote micro-phone mixer, sometimes alsoknown as an auxiliary microphonemixer. This functions in much thesame way as the studio mixer but itis smaller and usually runs off bat-teries. In the field, it is used toselect and/or mix the varioussound inputs required for the programme that is being recorded.

Linking Reporters and Others

to the Studio: A second aspect ofoutside broadcasting is linking thefield reporter to the studio for livelyand interesting eyewitness reportson events and for news in outlyingparts of the community.

In industrialized countries and inmajor towns in developing coun-tries, the telephone is the mostcommon way of making this link.All that is required is a device calleda telephone adaptor to patch theincoming phone call into the studioconsole from where it can bebroadcast or recorded for later use.

However, in rural areas of the devel-oping world, where telephones arescarce, other means must be usedto connect an outside reporter tothe studio. Very High Frequency(VHF) or Ultra High Frequency(UHF) transceivers (‘walkie-talkies’)are one method. Some countriesset aside certain frequencies in the200 mHz range - where the qualityof the sound is good - especially forconnections between outsidereporters and their studios. Thisrequires a base station in the studioand handsets for the reporters inthe field.

Cellular mobile phones for outsidereporters are another solutionwhen there are no fixed telephonelines.

Mobilizing People with VHF Transceivers

In some deprived areas, where there is no

telephone service, amateur VHF transceivers

are abundant; in fact they are a status

symbol. This is the case in a remote island

in the Philippines where a community radio

of the Tambuli project has managed to mobilize

numerous people with VHF transceivers to participate

personally as reporters in radio programmes and also

to lend their transceivers to others to do the same.

Thus, without any investment from the community

radio, a volunteer network of outside reporters has

been set up (See Case Study 1- Putting Community

People in Charge).

Telephone Call-Ins: Some com-munity radios, especially in townswhere telephones are available,install a special telephone mixersystem which allows them to receivemultiple and simultaneous calls,put them on hold in the order inwhich the calls came in, and thenpass them in turn to the consolemixer to go on air at the commandof the programme producer. Thissystem, which of course can alsobe used by outside reporters phoning in, is relatively expensiveand may not be justifiable in atypical rural area of a developingcountry. In some developingcountries, local technicians havedesigned their own telephonepatch system. The cheapest way ofputting a telephone call on air is tohave a telephone with a speaker inthe studio and put a microphonenext to it, but the quality of theresulting signal is not very good.

� RELIABILITY AND

MAINTENANCE

Most of the equipment outlinedabove is inherently robust andreliable and is generally quitesimple to maintain by someonewith appropriate knowledge andtraining. However, certain simpleprecautions need to be taken toprevent accidental damage.

Precautions against Lightning:

Experience has shown that light-ning striking the antenna duringthunderstorms is a common causeof damage to transmitters. It istherefore vital to weld a lightningconductor to the top of the antennamast. And if the antenna is fixed ona roof, an earthing wire of braidedcopper should be welded to it, rundown the side of the building, andfixed to an iron bar driven deepenough into the ground to findmoist soil.

Handling Precautions: Otherprecautions concern handling ofthe equipment. Any radio trans-mitter that is switched on withoutbeing connected to its antenna

or to an equivalent load will be permanently damaged. Thus,when a transmitter has been disconnected from the antenna,say for testing or repair, a dummyload of the same resistance as theantenna must be attached to it.Load resistors, as they are called,can be purchased ready-made andcome with a variety of resistances,or they can be rigged up by using anormal electrical light bulb of theappropriate watts.

Another handling issue of obviousimportance is always to take parti-cular care to respect the polarity -the positive and negative terminals -when connecting equipment. Amistake here can burn it out.

In Kothmale, Sri Lanka, the nationalgovernment providedland, tower and antennas. These madeit possible to set upmicrowave transception, telephone, twenty-fourhour link to Internetand FM transmission.

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� STUDIO PREMISES

Size: A simple radio studio can beset up in any existing house orroom having a minimum of ninesq.m. available. This is needed toinstall the equipment and to givespace for the operators to use it.However, it is much more practical toaim for premises of at least 25 sq.m.,with 50 sq.m. or more as the ideal.

The minimum practical size for anannouncer’s booth is about 12sq.m. If one can count on a total ofsome 50 sq.m., about half of thiscan be devoted to the announcer’sbooth which will then be bigenough for roundtable discussions,small groups of performing musi-cians, and the like. The remainingfloor space in the building can betaken up by a technician’s cubicle,and receiving and working areas.

Announcer’s Booth and

Technicians Cubicle: Theannouncer’s booth is often separa-ted from the technician’s cubicle bya window with carefully fitteddouble glass panes to prevent out-side noise reaching the micro-phones in the booth. This arrange-ment means that the announceronly has to worry about the micro-phone in front of him or her, whilethe technician works the consoleand the sound channels, such astape recorders and record players.

However, not all community radiosseparate the announcer’s booth

from the technician, and some-times the announcer likes to dohis/her own production, handlingthe equipment and talking into themicrophone as a ‘one-personshow’. So there can be flexibility indesigning the studio layout.

Soundproofing and Acoustical

Balance: The announcer’s boothmust be soundproof because themicrophones in it will pick up anyexternal noise that reaches them.Partitions made of light board, suchas plywood, usually need to be dou-bled, with a space in between thatcan be filled with sound-deadeningmaterial, and spaces around doorsneed to be sealed with rubberstrips.

The acoustical balance in theannouncer’s booth must be care-fully adjusted. Sound bounces andreverberates off hard walls and pro-duces an echo or ‘cathedral effect’when picked up by the micropho-ne. To avoid this, parts of the wallsshould be covered with soft mate-rials. While acoustic tiles are avai-lable commercially for this purpo-se, the same effects can be achie-ved with simpler and cheapermaterials such as egg trays, cur-tains, mats or cardboard. However,if too much of the wall space iscovered with these sound-absor-bing materials, the lack of resonan-ce will make all programmes soundas if they are coming from an openfield.

Air Conditioning: If air condition-ing is to be installed, it should be ofthe silent, split type, with the com-pressor in a place apart from therecording studio and where its humwill not be picked up by the micro-phones in the announcer’s booth.Cold air should be blown into theannouncer’s booth through a duct,and a silent extractor fan shouldalso be fitted in the booth.

� SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN COMPONENTS

OF THE RADIO STATION

The transmitter is connected to theantenna by a coaxial cable. Thiscable absorbs a considerableamount of the power coming fromthe transmitter, and therefore thelength of the cable should be asshort as possible. With the relative-ly cheap types of coaxial cable normally used for communityradio, the distance between thetransmitter and its antenna shouldnot exceed about 30 metres.

Ideally, the transmitter and studiowill be in the same building, withthe antenna close to it or on theroof. However, the transmitter isbest put in a room separate fromthe studio equipment because if itis too close, radio frequency emis-sions from the transmitter canaffect the studio equipment andcause noise and hum.

A commercialy available load resistor.

Typical studio layoutPh

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There will be occasions, however,when the site chosen for theantenna will be unsuitable for thestudio because of height consider-ations, it is possible in the circum-stances to place the antenna on ahilltop with the transmitter nextto it and have the studio some distance away in a more favourablelocation. All that is required is apower line up to the transmitter,and a second line that carries theoutput from the studio to thetransmitter. This programme line,as it is called, should not be longerthan 1,000 metres. The ideal material for this line is telephonecable which is designed to carryvoice communication and to resistexposure to weather. But evenhousehold electrical wire can beused, though this is not designedfor outdoor use, and will need tobe checked regularly.

� FUTURE POSSIBILITIES

A Studio in a Computer

Computers have long been used inradio studios for simple tasks, suchas word processing of scripts andindexing and cataloguing recor-dings. Radio studios accumulatelarge numbers of recordings overtime, and it becomes difficult tofind specific items, say parts ofpast coverage of a certain subject

required for a new programme, ifrelying on human memory alone.Computerized index and catalogueon the other hand can provide a listand short description of all thematerial on that subject, with thenumbers of the tapes and the location of each.

Computerized Programme

Production: In recent years, digi-tal technology has opened up newvistas for radio production. It isnow possible to store all of thematerial for radio programmes -talks, music, sound effects, jingles,etc. - on the hard disk of a compu-ter, whereas before these had to bestored on tape.

Computer software now existsthat allows programme producers- as many as 15 at a time workingat separate terminals simulta-neously - to select the materialthey want from the hard disk andmix and edit it into a programme.With the completed programmerecorded on its hard disk, the computer can then be instructed

to put the programme, or even aseries of programmes, on air atpredetermined times, without further intervention from studiostaff.

This type of computerized produc-tion can replace the function ofmuch of the equipment in a tradi-tional studio, and it is certainlyhighly efficient for programmeproduction. In practice, however,not all of the traditional equip-ment is likely to disappear in thenear future; for example, audioequipment for recording materialand transferring it to the hard diskof the computer later will certainlycontinue. And for outside programme production, the remotemicrophone mixer described earlieris cheap and convenient, even iffinal production in the studio iscomputerized.

In addition, it should be rememb-ered that good community radioalso relies on participation fromthe audience in live on-air sessionsin the studio, rather than on

The Pastapur community in India built their own radio studio using locally firedclay bricks. The tower is a professionally fitted self-standing mast with an omni-directional antenna crafted under the guidance of a profesional broadcasting technician. Adjacent are five school rooms for ‘learning withoutfrontiers’ also built from the same kind of bricks.

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Maximum Distance from the Studio to the Transmitter is 1000 M.

pre-recorded productions only. Forlive programmes in the studio,such traditional equipment is stillthe most practical.

Community Radio and the

Internet

The Internet holds enormouspotential for development, especial-ly in rural areas. For example, infor-mation about health, agriculture, or

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the environment can be down-loaded from it; it can be used toconnect health workers, agriculturalextensionists or ordinary villagerswith technical experts to discusssome particular problem; and it canbe used to put communities incontact with each other for on-linediscussions and debates aboutissues that affect them, or aboutproblems and their solutions.

The Village Trail and the

Information Superhighway:

Unfortunately, in most developingcountries up to now, Internetaccess and the valuable informationit can provide have been availableonly to a relatively small and privi-leged minority. For example, inAfrica less than 1.5 percent of thepopulation had Internet access atthe end of 1998. And nowhere arethe rural poor a part of that privile-ged Internet-using minority. Theproblem can be summed up in thequestion: How can poor ruralpeople living along the village trailbe connected to the informationsuperhighway?

Integrating community radio pro-gramming with the Internet is oneway to reach out to villagers. If theradio station has a computer withInternet access, programme produ-cers can call on an enormous spectrum of information on sub-

jects of general concern to theiraudience, as well as being able tolook for replies to specific queriesraised by members of the comm-unity. Broadcasting such informationcan effectively bring the Internetinto any home, even into thosewhere the family could never aspireto having a telephone, withoutmentioning the computer to gowith it.

The Internet and Programme

Production: The Internet can bevery useful for programme produc-tion. A station can obtain a vastquantity and range of informationfrom it. For example, material frommajor news agencies is available onthe Internet, as is information fromdevelopment agencies, non-governmental and governmentalorganizations, universities, and thelike. In addition, more and more

audio programmes can be down-loaded from the Internet for re-broadcast. The themes of theseproductions often cover issues ofgreat importance to communityradios, such as health, education,women’s rights, and so on.

The Internet is also a forum for the exchange of programmes.Services such as OneWorld,GlobalRadioService and A-Infosallow producers to deposit programmes for other producers to pick up and broadcast and vice-versa.

A community radio may also wantto offer information about itself toother Internet users. It can open asite on the World Wide Web todescribe its organization, program-ming, staff, etc., in as much detail asit wants. 3

Bringing the Internet to Rural People in Sri Lanka

Kothmale is a constituency covering a cluster of rural

communities with a total population of about

150,000. Its community radio station is the basis for

an innovative experiment to use radio as an effective

interface between local people and the Internet.

Each day, the radio station airs a programme called

‘Radiobrowsing the Internet’ during which community

broadcasters discuss and interpret the information

on selected Internet sites. The local language is used,

making the information easily accessible to people

who understand no English and would be unable to

use the Internet directly.

Listeners can request information on specific topics.

Of particular benefit is information on market

trends, agriculture, life skills for poverty alleviation,

formal and informal educational materials, health,

and medicine.

This UNESCO/Government of Sri Lanka pilot project

is also providing free Internet access through in an

Internet Café and two terminals in community libraries

for people who wish to browse in person.

In addition, the radio station is developing a

community database of the information frequently

requested by listeners. Much of this is in the local

language and is particularly suited to local develop-

ment interests and needs. This is important because

packaged information on the Internet is seldom

suitable.

Kothmale ‘radio browsing’:the on-air announcerbrowses the Internet inEnglish and simultaneouslyreports her findings inSinghala. She can alsorespond to questions in the studio or from livephone calls.

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Rural Multi-Purpose Telecentres

Speculation about the use ofmicrochips and satellite communi-cation as tools in rural develop-ment goes back to the early 1980s.One of the ideas that has beenmaturing since then is that of ruralmultipurpose telecentres, whichhave also been called ‘rural infor-mation shops’.

The basic principle is to create aplace where villagers can go forinformation - either free or for afee - on agriculture, health, familyplanning, and other developmentalor social topics. In its fullest andmost logical form, a communityradio station would form thenucleus for a rural telecentre, providing a variety of services.

This telecentre would, of course,have an Internet connection toprovide the services outlined inthe previous section related toaccessing databanks and sourcesof expertise, and connecting com-munities to each other. In addition,it could offer other functions, suchas public telephone and fax, as wellas building libraries of videos,audio-visual materials, books andpublications. In one of the formsproposed for India under a WorldBank programme, the centreswould sell records and cassettes,hire out videos and audio-visualequipment, and provide servicessuch as desktop publishing and

photocopying. These serviceswould aim to help the centresbecome self-sufficient.

In Bangladesh, it is highly signifi-cant that the Grameen Bank,famous for its imaginative micro-credit programmes for the ruralpoor, especially women, startedGrameen Telecom in 1996. Thisprovides loans for women to buycellular phones and set up a publicservice, and it also providesInternet connections in majorcities. It plans to put telephoneservices into all of Bangladesh’s50,000 villages and also to expandits Internet-access services. This isa first step along the path towardsrural multi-purpose telecentres.However, it is sad that broadcast-ing in Bangladesh is still a govern-ment monopoly, and there is nosign that community radio will beallowed to begin any time soon.

Digital Technology

Digital technology has steadilytransformed the way in which pro-grammes are made and distribu-ted in recent years. Many broad-casters have already invested indigital systems for contributionand production. Now the switchfrom analogue to digital is movingalong the broadcasting chain intotransmission. At the same time,the digital developments are draw-ing together the broadcasting,

telecommunications and compu-ter industries in a process ofconvergence. For all broadcasters,this is leading to a new and chal-lenging business environment inwhich they are searching for a clear‘multimedia’ role. The InternationalTelecommunications Union (ITU) isediting a publication on this subject.

� SPECIALIST ADVICE

This chapter has provided an over-all guide to the technical aspects ofsetting up a community radio ser-vice. Nevertheless, anyone embar-king on such a project should seekspecialist advice on the technical

In Kothmale, Sri Lanka, Buddhist monks surf the net for religious texts at the Kothmale Community Radio on the Internet and on the air.

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aspects of the particular circum-stances before going ahead withthe investment. Such advice canusually be obtained from the tech-nical staff in a nearby state or com-mercial radio station and it neednot be costly. 1 Much of the material in these sections is based on

Community Radio Station - A Technical Manual by staff ofthe UNESCO/DANIDA supported Tambuli CommunityMedia Project, Philippines. That manual provides moretechnical detail than can be included in this more general handbook.

2 Martin Allard in a personal communication (1999).

3 Philippe Béchamp. The ABCs of ICTs. InteRadio,Vol.10/No. 2 (Montreal, December 1998).

4 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada. Communicatingfor Development - Human Change for Survival. 1B. Tauris(London/New York, 1998).

5 Laurie Hallett provided the following information onDAB in a personal communication (1999).

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BOX 4: Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station (Prices in US Dollars)

Item No. Description Unit price Total

TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT

1. 2 FM Stereo Transmitters, 100 Watt

Note: one as a standby transmitter 800 1,600

2. 1 Wide-band Omni-directional Antenna (four layer with splitter, set for the allotted FM Frequency of the station) 1,200 1,200

3. 1 Heliax antenna cable (50 Meter) and connectors 550 550

4. 1 A1000 Two channel compressor and limiter 545 545

5. 1 Locally fabricated antenna mast and anchors 1,200 1,200

Transmission equipment total US$ 5,095

STUDIO AND FIELD EQUIPMENT

6. 1 Professional Studio Console with built in telephone hybrid, 10+10 watt amplifier for studio monitors, stereo monitor output for cue, talkback microphone, VCA feeders with a total of 7 mono inputs/9 stereo inputs, 3 mono outputs/8 stereo outputs 2,000 2,000

7. 2 PMC Studio Monitor Speakers ( Power ouput 150 watts) 515 1,030

8. 2 Dual Auto Reverse Cassette Deck 570 1,140

9. 1 CD Changer 900 900

10. 4 Headphones 100 400

11. 5 Dynamic Microphones with Windshields 390 1950

12. 2 Utility Mixer with XLR input 400 800

13. 3 Microphone stand with swinging arm 55 165

14. 2 Microphone desk stand (flexible) 115 230

15. 5 Portable cassette recorders with XLR mic inputs and carrying case 515 2575

16. 5 Dynamic Microphones for portable casette recorders 170 850

17. 2 Quartz Clock, Diameter 25 cm hours/mins/seconds 25 50

18. 40 XLRMF Canon connectors (20 Male and 20 Female) 10 400

19. 20 Phono connectors Male 3 60

20. 20 Phono connectors Female 3 60

21. 25 RCA connectors 1 25

Item No. Description Unit price Total

22. 1 MIC cable (100 m role) 2.60 260

23. 1 Audio cable (100 m role) 1.50 150

24. 4 Automatic voltage regulators 50 200

25. 1 Multi-tester + assorted repair equipment set 50 50

Total Studio and Field Equipment US$ 13,295

COMMUNITY RADIO BASIC EQUIPMENT TOTAL US$ 18,390

Additional Costs: Support to community fo building remuneration and studiofabrication - US$ 2,500;(Consumables and costs for energy source not included:)

Item No. Description Unit price Total

OPTIONAL (Computer based Audio and news processing)

1 2 Digital Audio Computer Workstation PIII-700 with 20 GBHDD,CD-R Drive (SCSI), USB port, Speakers and a Sound Card (Sound Blaster) with Windows 98/2000 1,500 3,000

2. 2 USB Interface controller, with two XLR inputs, two balanced 1/4” TRS inputs,two unbalanced 1/4” inputs and S/PDIF I/O. Four channels of audio in and two out simultaneously via USB. 600 1,200

3. 1 Editing software package 400 400

4. 100 CD-R Media (CD re-writeble) 3 300

5. 1 Internet ready Computer withWindows 98 + MS-WORD 1,100 1,100

6. 1 Laser Printer 750 750

Total Optional Computer Equipment US$ 6,750

Chapter 5

Getting Started

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This chapter sets out the various practical steps involved in setting up a community radio service,

beginning with ascertaining the legislative context and conducting a proper consultation and

analysis process in the community. A qualitative research method based on Focus Group

Discussions is outlined for this process.

The value of drawing up a Mission Statement for the radio station is explained, and the involvement

of religious authorities, local educational institutions, and politicians is discussed.

The technical and social criteria for choosing the site in the community for the studio and the

transmitter and antenna are outlined. Alternative models, including loudspeaker systems, are

described, as are the main factors governing the choice of power of the transmitter.

Later sections deal with ownership and management, staff, sustainability, and looking for outside

funding. The issue of advertising, and its implications where permitted, are discussed in some

detail.

Box 6 at the end of the Chapter provides a checklist of questions to which answers are required for

the successful setting up of a community radio.

Reading this Chapter will enable the reader to:

• Obtain a good grasp of the various steps involved in setting up a community radio service;

• Appreciate the need for the careful consideration of social factors and relationships in the

community, as well as for a full analysis and consultation in the community of its needs and

expectations in respect of a community radio;

• Assume a leadership role or participate in ensuring that all of the necessary preparations are

properly conducted and that informed decisions are taken by the community.

Proper research and planning areessential for starting a communityradio service. The process should beginwith the gathering of information fromvarious sources, but in particular fromthe community itself.

A series of questions that need answersis provided in Box 6 at the end of theChapter. The sections that follow hereexpand on those questions and areintended as guidance for in-countrypeople, groups, or organizations thatare planning a community radio.

� LEGAL CONTEXT

A first step for setting up a communityradio is to find out what the nationalbroadcasting legislation sets out for thelicencing of independent radio stations.If there is no mention of non-profitcommunity broadcasting, there may beother avenues to explore. For example,the provisions for commercial radiomay also apply to a community service,and in some countries many communityradios have commercial licenses. Thisshould not, however, lead to a situationwhere profit is the main or sole motiva-

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tion of the station. There may alsobe licences for cultural radio. Insome cases, people simply proceedwithout a licence. However, care isneeded because this can have penalconsequences. (See Chapter 3 forthis and for more informationabout applying for licences). Wherecommunity radio is still forbidden,there may be other options that donot involve radio transmission. (Seethe section below on models).

� PREPARATORY WORK IN

THE COMMUNITY

Answering the questions laid out inBox 6 will call for much ground-work in the community. Thisgroundwork consists of consulta-tion processes within the commu-nity to analyze its situation, existingmedia access, how a communityradio might usefully serve theinterests of the community, in whatways, and so on.

Clearly, the leaders of the commu-nity - which include the elected andthe religious authorities, as well theinformal but also influential opin-ion leaders - must be part of theconsultation process.

But equally, if not more importantis a consultation process thatinvolves the community at large.Group discussions with the various

sectors in the community areessential. These could include, forexample, farmers, fishermen, shopowners, teachers, artisans, etc. It isalso crucial to consult women andyouth, who are traditionally margi-nalized in many rural societies. Norshould any minority, cultural andlinguistic groups be left out.People’s attitudes towards the exist-ing situation, towards the desirabi-lity and possibility of change anddevelopment, and towards the pos-sible role of a community radio ser-vice must be ascertained and hope-fully confirmed. This is the realbasis of community radio: socialwill, not technical equipment.

Experience has shown that in some

cases merely holding participatoryworkshops to discuss the situationof the community and exploreways of improving access to basicservices may lead spontaneously tothe idea that better communica-tion within the community couldbe a first prerequisite for changeand development. A communityradio may then emerge naturally asthe most appropriate communica-tion medium.

Preliminary Results: The initialconsultation process should indicate:

• The level of enthusiasm for, andcommitment to, the notion ofhaving a community radio service;

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“It must be decided what the station will be and for

whom. Will it be a tool to be used by a selected few

or by only one sector of the community talking down

to the many? Will it be monopolised by disc jockeys?

Or will its main function be to empower the

community as a whole to learn more about issues

that directly affect its members, such as primary

health care, religious tolerance, basic education,

teenage pregnancy, etc.?” 1

Before doing the technical work of setting up radio in Western Nepal, it is essential to encourage the community to discusstheir idea of radio and their aspirations in focus group discussions.

Faith in the capacity of all people

“Communication is a vital process for everyone concernedwith development. It is a process, not an end. It is a meansto sustainable development. The role of communication in the development process is to make people consciousof the reality of their situation and make them aware thatthey have the power to change their social realities. It assumes that people are equal, that they have a right toknowledge and culture, and that they can criticize theirsituation and act on it. It also implies having faith in thecapacity of all people, including the illiterate, to discusssocial issues intelligently.”

Ed Moyo

• What its overall objectivesshould be, especially in terms ofchange and development;

• How in general terms it shouldoperate.

If no broad consensus on theseissues can be reached, the future ofthe idea may be compromised, orthere could be a need for more andbroader discussion.

As the consultation processescontinue, answers to the moredetailed issues laid out in Box 6should be sought.

Contacts will also need to be madewith people and institutions outsidethe community who could have abearing on the project. These willinclude, among others, any state orcommercial radio channels thatalso reach into the community,development institutions, NGOsconcerned with communitydevelopment, and local officials ofgovernment services in health,agriculture, education, and thelike.

A Method for Conducting the

Consultations

Among the most powerfulmethods for researching people’sopinions and ideas are FocusGroup Discussions (FGDs), and

this technique can be successfullyused for the community consulta-tions being described here.Originally used for market research,FGDs have more recently beenapplied with outstanding results indevelopment work when qualitativeinformation about people’s opinions, perceptions, ideas, andaspirations is required. 2

What is an FGD? An FGD bringstogether from six to12 people whoare homogeneous in terms of theireducation, life-style, and economicstatus, and who therefore sharesimilar problems. They need to behomogeneous to reduce the chancethat one or more persons of a levelthat the rest perceive as beingsuperior dominate the discussion.There should not be less than sixpeople in the group, or it will bedifficult to get a dynamic discus-sion going and to gain a meaning-ful consensus; and there shouldnot be more than twelve so thateveryone will have a chance to speak, but also to avoid the formation of sub-groups and sub-discussions.

These community consultationscould also include groups of, say,unemployed youths, or motherswith small children, or small farmers.

The Facilitator: The group discussion is run by a facilitatorwhose principal task is toget members of the grouptalking among themselvesabout the subject in ques-tion. This might, for example,be what types of radioprogrammes would beuseful to help youngmothers safeguard andimprove their infants’health.

The facilitator adopts a lowprofile and a very informal stan-ce so that the group feels relaxed.He/she also uses special tech-niques to encourage members ofthe group to talk among them-selves and not to respond tohim/her directly. The facilitatorguides the discussions with pre-pared open-ended questions thatbegin with words such as, ‘Whatdo you think about...?’ or ‘Howwould you suggest that we...?’ i.e.questions that cannot be answeredwith a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

Stimulating In-depth Analysis:

A further key function of the facili-tator is to stimulate the group intodeeper analysis of the issues beingdiscussed. For example, he/shemust never let a statement ofopinion by a member of the grouppass without probing it to find out

what lies behind that statement. A group member might say some-thing like, ‘I really like that pro-gramme and I never miss it’. Or agroup member might say the exactopposite, to the effect that he/shethoroughly disliked the program-me. In either case, the facilitatorshould immediately say - but in amild manner – something like,‘That’s an interesting opinion. Tellus why you think that?’ In fact,questions using ‘Why?’ are the keyfor provoking deeper analysis andreaching a fuller understanding ofthe issues at stake, as the groupsees them.

The Observer: While the FGD isin progress, an observer is sitting

The participation oflocal institutions, whether government or nongovernment,contributes to makingthe station’s programming relevantand dynamic.

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quietly taking notes of the mainpoints that are being made. Whenthe discussion is finished, it is agood idea for the observer to takeover the proceedings and to readthe main points back to the group.It is very important that he/sheseeks their confirmation of eachpoint in order to ensure that it hasbeen correctly noted. This leadsmore easily to a broad consensus.

Effectiveness of FGDs: Especiallywith people of low educational sta-tus, FGDs are remarkably effective.The group feels at ease becausethey are talking with their peersand because the facilitator deliber-ately creates a totally informalatmosphere. Once the members ofthe group start discussing among

themselves, they spark reactions,ideas, and opinions off each otherin a way that provides true insightsinto what is in their minds andhearts. FGDs are generally far moreeffective for gaining these insightsthan are one-on-one interviews, forall too often the interviewee herewill say what he or she thinks theinterviewer wants to hear. At theother extreme, general and mixedgroup discussions can easily bedominated by a few people - not tomention that women and youthhardly ever speak out freely at suchgatherings. The facilitator shouldbe aware of this, guard against it,and encourage the less outspokento air their feelings without embar-rassing them.

Some FGDs with different sectorsof the community, backed up withkey informant interviews withopinion leaders, local authoritiesand the like, will normally providethe desired information with whichto plan a community radio service.But whatever methods are used forthe consultation within the com-munity and with other interestedparties, the process should neverbe rushed. Mistakes or misunder-standings that are not put right orclarified in the early stages maycome back to haunt the communi-ty radio operation later on.

Furthermore, during the planningphases, and indeed at all stages,one must be very alert to the possi-

bility that special interest groupsmight have hidden agendas that, inthe end, could result in their high-jacking the radio service for theirown interests.

� IMPORTANCE OF A

MISSION STATEMENT

It is important to begin drafting a short and concise mission

statement about the objectives ofthe planned community radio ser-vice at an early stage. This providesa basis for discussion, and it can bemodified and refined during theconsultation phase.

Once a final version of the missionstatement is agreed by the variousstakeholders, this constitutes abasis for common understandingand a platform on which to build.This is not to say that the missionstatement is carved in stone; it mayneed modification in the light ofexperience, but any changes shouldalways be the result of a communi-ty consultation process.

What the station does once opera-ting to adhere to its mission state-ment will depend largely on theindividuals chosen to direct andmanage it. There must be regularassessments, perhaps by a specialcommittee within the community,of how the operations are fulfillingthe station’s mission.

In Senegal, women are very active in disussing issues of the day;they make for anatural forum face-to-face or on the air.

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On the Mission Statement

“The mission [statement] of a radio station defines

its aims; it is the map that provides direction

towards the achievements of its objectives; it is the

instrument to measure its success; it is the

foundation on which everything else is built;

it is the star that guides us...

The entire programming must be based on the

principles established by the mission.” 3

� ROLE OF THE RELIGIOUS

ESTABLISHMENT

Special consideration should begiven to the role of the religiousauthorities in the community. Innumerous communities, they havebeen crucial in helping to start andrun a radio service. Their commit-ment to genuine community parti-cipation and to ensuring that theradio is run in the best interests ofthe people is often outstanding.

However, it should not necessarilybe assumed that all religiousauthorities are free from influencepeddling or political interests. Soeven if the religious establishmentcan often be of pivotal importancein starting and running a commu-nity radio service, detailed discus-sions are necessary to establish itsposition and its perceptions beforeautomatically seeking a partner-ship with it.

� ROLE OF LOCAL

EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTIONS

The staff of local schools may havea particular interest in communityradio and help to get it started. For example, they may see it as away of increasing the involvementof parents in the education of theirchildren.

In addition, schoolteachers canplay a major role as volunteerbroadcasters. They often broad-cast a daily programme to remindchildren about their homeworkand assist them with it. And insome communities, the operationof the radio station is handed overto schoolchildren once a week.

� INVOLVEMENT OF

POLITICIANS

There are varying points of viewabout the role of politicians incommunity radio, or whether theyshould have one at all. (See Box 5for the opinion of an experiencedcommunity radio broadcaster.)

� CHOOSING A LOCATION

IN THE COMMUNITY

Technical and social considerationsdetermine the appropriate loca-tion of the radio infrastructure in acommunity.

Technical Criteria

Position of the antenna and transmitter

• Given the line of sight character-istics of FM radio waves, theantenna should be as high aspossible, on an elevated site oron a mast not less than 30metres high, and not obstructedby tall buildings.

• The transmitter and antennashould not be close to high-tension power lines.

• There should be an availablepower source.

• The transmitter and antennashould be as close as possible toeach other, and not more than30 metres apart.

Position of the antenna and transmitter relative to the studio

• The studio may be up to 1,000m. from the antenna and trans-mitter, but it must be connectedto them by a cable – the pro-gramme line. Alternatively, theprogramme could be fed fromthe studio to the transmitter sitevia a small power link VHF trans-mitter.

Position of the studio

• The studio must have an available power source.

• It should be away from uncon-trollable sources of noise.

Social Criteria

• The studio should be as close aspossible to the centre of popula-tion.

• It should be in a site easily accessibleto members of the community.

• It should have low or no rentalcharges.

• It should be in a site that is freeof vested interests.

• It should be secure from vandalsand pilferers. 49

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A Comment on the Religious

Establishment and Community Radio in

the Philippines

“The religious establishments are not

expected to have political or business

interests. A majority of them are genuinely dedicated

missionaries who have a deep understanding of the

problems of the poor... It is a shame, however, that

some individual members of the clergy overtly carry

their own personal idiosyncrasies and social biases,

and in some cases political partiality, into the com-

munity...

In [a] community where we actually set up a radio

station, the priest happened to be named

chairperson of the Community Media Council.

Unfortunately, he had never shown fondness

in getting the people to participate in decision

making. He distrusted local leadership motives...

He ran the station management by himself and

conferred involvement to his minions.

When the election campaign period came,

the priest threw his support behind the candidate

whom he deemed the people’s favourite.

As the station was conveniently located in the

convent, the priest took the occasion to use

the programmes to build up the favoured candidate

and downsize the opponent.” 4

“After 22 years as a broadcast journalist, I have a

generally sceptical attitude towards politicians.

Whenever I listen to a politician speaking,

I try to figure out what is at the back of his mind, but

often in vain.

The question in the project was whether we should deal

with politicians or leave them out totally. After numer-

ous discussions in our team as well as consultations

with professional sociologists, the conclusion was that

politicians needed to participate in operating the radio

station. After all, politicians are inescapable elements

of community life. They could be influential cogs in the

development of the community.

The project cannot totally do away with politicians,

even if the opportunist ones are quick to see the poten-

tial of a community-wide medium to get them votes

and public admiration. Our approach is to place the

politicians' role in logical perspective. If, for instance,

partisan politicians agree to be involved in the

Community Media Council, all the important political

parties must be represented.

Certain politicians may publicly manifest a desire to

keep their hands off the project, while some may

volunteer resources and heavy personal involvement.

However, even among those who ostentatiously adopt a

hands-off policy, they could have lackeys in key

positions in the station - perhaps either as a generous

benefactor, an intellectual, or a domineering station

manager. Thus, the extension of his personality and

interests could creep into sensitive station decision-

making.

Some politicians’ pronouncements may indicate

unconditional concern for the masses, and they may

well include a candid pledge of non-interference in the

station’s affairs. However, few make good their

promises. Some will ostensibly adhere to their public

commitment, particularly when the project manage-

ment makes its presence felt. But the shrewd politician

may intervene surreptitiously.

Quite often, the saying, ‘He who has honey in his

mouth, has a sting in his tail’ is confirmed. This may

apply not only to the typical impassioned politician,

but also to certain other eloquent members of the

community.

However, I grant that these are general observations,

and there are certainly exceptions to them.

The way programmers and broadcasters respond to

political manoeuvres will be determined by their

ethical foundation and training.”

Louie Tabing, Manager of the UNESCO/DANIDATambuli Project, Philippines.

BOX 5: Involvement of Politicians in Community Radio

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� CHOOSING A MODEL

Most community radios aspire tohaving their own broadcasting facilities and frequency, but this isnot always possible due to the prevailing legislation or to a lack ofeconomic resources. The alterna-tives, at least initially, are:

• To obtain airtime for communityprogrammes from an existinggovernment or commercial sta-tion that covers the area;

• Rent an existing frequency, butthis solution is normally confinedto urban areas;

• To install a ‘community radio’ sys-tem that uses loudspeakersconnected to the studio and situa-ted to cover the community,rather than broadcasting by atransmitter.

Whatever model is used, it is generally a good idea to start withonly a limited number of hours aweek of broadcasting and then tobuild up slowly. In this way, therewill be time to plan and prepare thebroadcasts properly. As experienceis gained, and as the programmeproducers and other staff becomeaccustomed to their roles, thehours of broadcasting can beexpanded.

Loudspeaker Systems

Community radios often begin by using

loudspeakers, and some even remain with

that system because of unfavourable

legislation. Loudspeaker systems have two

drawbacks: firstly the sound quality is not

good, and secondly, people are compelled to listen

whether they want to or not. This can produce

tensions in the community.

Part-Time Broadcasting

“It is usually thought that radio must operate on a

daily basis, but this is purely a presumption derived

from mainstream media. Given the usual staffing

and resource problems of daily operations in a rural

community, it could be more effective for its radio

service to operate on a limited but regular basis.

Historically, the socio-political programming of

alternative media has not been continuous.

Regular intervals between programming increase

audience loyalty and attention. They also give

broadcasters the time they need to plan and produce

more relevant programmes.” 5

One good strategy for the start-upperiod is to broadcast at weekendsonly. This will make it easier to findvolunteers who have weekendtime available. However, theaudience must be informed andreminded that the station will beon air only each weekend. Thisshould be done through weeklypublicity efforts using means suchas a mobile loudspeaker, announce-ments by the religious establish-ment, posters, etc.

� POWER OF THE

TRANSMITTER

A broadcast pattern that coverstoo wide a physical area compli-cates the operations of a commu-nity radio and may make it difficultto concentrate on the immediatecommunity that is to be served.Given that community radiodepends to a large extent onvolunteer participation, a largetarget area may result in workloads that are difficult to maintain.‘Small is beautiful’ in communityradio too, and it is often better tohave more small transmitterscovering specific communitiesthan one more powerful one thatspreads its signal widely.

In rural areas, a 20-watt transmit-ter should normally provide suffi-

cient power, but there may be jus-tification for an amplifier to boostthe output to 100 watts. In a city,where there is competition fromother stations, transmitters maygo up to 300-500 watts.

It is important to ensure that thebroadcast pattern covers a com-munity having between 5,000 and25,000 potential listeners. To besuccessful, a community radiomust be able to rely on variousforms of support from its listeners:less than 5,000 may not providethe critical mass that will allow theradio to sustain itself; and muchmore than 25,000 means that theradio begins to become imperson-al and difficult to manage, with aresultant loss in the communitycharacter of the service.

� OWNERSHIP AND

MANAGEMENT

These are crucial issues that needcareful thought. Even if the overallconcept is that the communityowns the radio, there usuallyneeds to be some body, such as afoundation or association, whichrepresents the community’s inter-ests and also provides the juridicalentity to apply for the licence andto hold it. In some cases, it may bepossible to plan for a community

media cooperative. This couldallow each member of the com-munity to buy a share.

With regard to management, theconcept of community radio isthat the community itself shouldbe in overall control. Obviously,however the whole communitycannot be involved all the time,and therefore some sort of manage-ment body needs to be formedthat represents the different sec-tors in the community. In manycases, a community media com-mittee is created to assume themanagement role. Whatever thebody is called, its members mustrealize that they are accountableto the community at large and tothe particular sector they repre-sent. Their decisions regarding therunning of the station and its programming must be democraticand transparent.

� PROGRAMMING

Programming policies are coveredin the next chapter. However,anyone planning a communityradio should give early thought toprogramming issues, especiallywith regard to mechanisms that willensure the maximum possible com-munity access and participation. 51

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Reach of the Station

“How far the station reaches is less important

than where the station reaches. A station with a

transmitter that has a long reach may be situated in

a sparsely populated region, whereas a station

situated in a densely populated region may have a

transmitter that doesn't reach very far.” 6

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As a tactic for starting communityradio programming, it is useful tofind out what people enjoy andappreciate about other radio pro-grammes they listen to, and whythey like them. Focus GroupDiscussions would be an idealmethod for obtaining this qualitativeinformation.

� STAFF

Few if any community radio sta-tions can afford to pay staff,beyond perhaps the station mana-ger if they are lucky. Thus, mostcommunity radios rely extensivelyon volunteers as programme pro-ducers, reporters, and studio tech-nicians. However, the use of volun-teers is not simply to get cheaplabour for a poorly funded opera-tion. On the contrary, volunteersgive a special and positive characterto community radio, creating animage of goodwill, commitment,and service for the common good.Those same characteristics arerequired in the community at largefor it to change and develop alongdemocratic lines.

� SUSTAINABILITY

Generating Income

While many community radios indeveloping countries are launched

with support fromsome outside donor -national or interna-tional - anyone plan-ning and promoting acommunity radioshould bear in mind,from the very begin-ning, how to sustainthe service once it isup and running.

There are severaloptions for raisingrevenue to cover run-ning costs, as follows:

• Commercial adverti-sing, when this is allowed underexisting national legislation;

• Sponsorship, which may also bedebarred by national legislation;

• Donations;

• Fees for private announcementsmade over the radio as ‘the people’s telephone’;

• Membership fees paid by listeners.

The Advertising Issue: In manycountries that have recently intro-duced legislation for non-profitcommunity radio, the commercialmedia are so strong and influentialthat they have succeeded in ensur-ing that community radio is prohi-bited from accepting advertising,thus preventing it from infringing

on their lucrative domain. But des-pite the revenue problem that thismay present, it may have someadvantages for the image and cre-dibility of community radio; forcommunity radio is essentiallypublic-service broadcasting, and itshould be seen to be free fromcommercial interests andinfluences.

Thus, even where advertising isallowed, careful thought should begiven to the type of advertisers thatwould be acceptable within thecharacter of a community radioservice. These would normally onlybe local providers of goods and ser-vices: the multinational soft drinksindustry and goods that are dama-ging to health, such as tobacco andalcohol, should be avoided.

A Conversation with the Manager of a Community

Radio about Sustainability

During the preparation of this handbook, the

authors telephoned the manager of a successful

community radio station in one of the poorest parts

of Colombia. Towards the end of a long conversation

about the radio’s character and operations, the

authors asked, ‘How do you sustain the radio?

How does it survive?'

The lady burst out laughing, and then said cheerfully

‘By miracle, or rather by one miracle after another!’

This same manager had the clever idea, when the

radio was started, to organize a party to which

people were asked to bring cassette tapes or records

of their favourite music. These were played at the

party. She then asked to borrow then so that she

could make copies for use by the radio. In this way,

she started the station’s collection of popular music.7

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On the Government of Ecuador’s Ban on Advertising

by Community Radio

“We are not for profit, but we are not for bankruptcy

either!” 8

The carabo, or water buffalo as it is known in most parts of Southeat Asia, is a preciousanimal. It ploughs the field, it transports goods, it provides music and community

programmes through the radio strapped to its horns. Some people call this ‘car-abao stereo!’

On Keeping Staff - the Case of Crispin

Zarate, a Liability Turned to an Asset in the

Philippines

“Crispin was a farmer’s son, an unem-

ployed school dropout. Pinny, as he was

familiarly called, could usually be seen

hanging around in his neighbourhood bar. He would

invariably go home drunk. His lifestyle and drinking

habits hardly made him an eligible bachelor. Nor

could anyone consider him handsome. The only talent

that Pinny exhibited was playing the guitar well.

When the training for volunteers for the radio sta-

tion was announced, Pinny was among those to sign

up. Since he was jobless, he fitted the criterion that

trainees should be available for a three-week crash

course.

Pinny was an ardent trainee and became a dedicated

volunteer broadcaster. People expressed admiration

for his voice. Indeed he had a knack for radio, and his

innate good nature came to the surface.

His friends would tease him, alluding to his looks.

‘You sound like a real human being when you go on

the air, Pinny’ He would take the teasing with a

proud smile.

Everybody was struck dumb when they heard that

Pinny was getting married, and even more so when

they learned that it was to one of the most amiable

teachers on the island.

I was delighted about Pinny. Radio work had turned

a derelict into one of the most appreciated and loved

persons in the community.

Then I received the bad news: he had left the non-

paying job in the station to find work in a construc-

tion project on the mainland. His wife was expecting

a child, so he could not afford to be jobless.

But perhaps the loss to the station was a gain to the

community. We had converted a liability into a useful

family man.” 9

Conflicts of Interest: Sponsorshipcan also be plagued by problemsrelated to conflicts of interests,especially when the sponsors arecommercial organizations.

On the other hand, sponsorshipfrom community-based associa-tions, say of women, farmers, orfishermen, can be extremelyimportant, and so can sponsorshipfrom development organizationsand NGOs. The same applies todonations from similar associa-tions or organizations.

In the long term, however, relianceon outsiders will always put sustain-ability at risk. Thus, sustainabilityshould be seen as the ultimate res-ponsibility of the communityitself, and the challenge to themanager of the station and to histeam of producers, reporters, andtechnicians is to make the serviceso enjoyable, useful and valuableto its listeners that they will bewilling to support it through sub-scription fees, voluntary donationsin cash or kind, and the like.

Keeping Staff

Sustainability is not only related tofunding; the sustainability of staffis equally important. Most person-nel working with a communityradio are volunteers, and the men

volunteers are usually unemployedand looking for a paid job. Thus,high staff turnover is a constantconcern. Training, which givespeople job satisfaction and careerprospects, is one inducement. (Forvolunteer work on a communityradio, see Chapter 7 on training.)Having women on staff may alsohelp reduce turnover because theyare less likely to be looking for jobsoutside the community.

An innovative idea used in theUNESCO/DANIDA-supportedTambuli project in the Philippineswas to include livelihood-genera-ting activities for the staff of theradio stations. The principle was to

provide small credits that wouldallow staff to start some commer-cial activity to support themselveswhile they continued to work asvolunteers with the radio. In somestations, this idea has worked well,but in others it has been more dif-ficult to put into practice.

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The radio station is excepted to address, withintegrity and fairness, the main issues andproblems in the community. Sponsors and

donors, with vested interests, may potentially draw away the

station from its avowed directions or undulysway its programming decisions.

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� LOOKING FOR OUTSIDE

FUNDING FOR START-UP

COSTS

Community radios often manageto obtain funding from outsidedonors - such as national or inter-national NGOs, or bilateral or multilateral development agencies- for the investment required forthe initial purchase of equipmentand to train staff. The mission statement of the proposed com-munity radio is an essential ele-ment in any request for externalfunding. It is also useful to puttogether a brief dossier that detailsall the important points about theproposed station in order toencourage a donor to invest in it.Care is needed, however, not toproduce an over-glossy presenta-tion that could give the wrongimpression.

Donors do not part easily withtheir funds, and they will scrutinizethe proposed community radioproject with care. They will want tosee how the points raised in Box 6have been answered, and they willcertainly conduct their own on-siteenquiries.

It should by now be clear that starting a community radio station,though not particularly complica-ted, does require a considerableamount of preparation and hardwork. For the initiative to succeed,it is vital not to skimp any of it.

1. Legislation

• What is the current legal situation for non-profit com-munity radio?

• If it is provided for in the legislation, what are the termsfor obtaining a licence and the necessary qualificationsof the applicant?

• Is the cost of the licence affordable, how long will ittake to obtain, and what will be the terms for renewal?

• Can the transmitter be purchased and installed withouta licence, or will prior approval of the telecommunica-tion authorities be needed?

• If community radio is not allowed for in the legislation,what other avenues exist? For example, are the sameconditions for private commercial radio stations appli-cable to non-profit community stations? Are there pro-visions for cultural/educational channels?

• If it is not possible to set up a proper radio station, coulda community loudspeaker system be used instead?

2. Location Criteria

• Does the area planned for the broadcast pattern - 10-15km in radius - have a large enough population to sustaina community radio, say from 5,000 to 25,000 people?

• Is the terrain suitable for low-power, line-of-sight FMbroadcasting or is it too hilly?

• What mainstream commercial or state radios reach thecommunity? If many do, it may be difficult to sustain acommunity radio service. Alternatively, are there anymainstream media that could support or be linked intothe proposed community radio service?

• What cooperation and support can be mobilized fromlocal institutions and organizations, e.g. local councils,governmental and non-governmental organizations?

• Is the site selected for the station centrally placed andeasily accessible to the community?

3. Characteristics and Capabilities of Promoters ofCommunity Radio

• What is the credibility level and the previous experienceof the people promoting the project?

• Are they generally acceptable to the stakeholders in theproject?

• What is their capacity to mobilize human and financialresources to sustain the operations of a communityradio?

• What is the level of democracy in their decision-making processes?

• Have they been accepted as credible and non-partisanactivists in the community with a reputation for integrityand transparency in their dealings?

• What are the constraints and opportunities for organizinga representative community radio council (Board ofDirectors), or a cooperative society for communitycommunication?

4. Context for Setting the Objectives and Drafting a Mission Statement

• How does the community perceive its situation and theneed for change and development? Are people unhappywith the present circumstances, and if so, to what extentdo they see change as good, and also as possible?

• What are the principle obstacles to those changes inattitude and behaviour that could help to promotedevelopment?

• What are the traditional decision-making processes inthe community and how might these be affected byopening a democratic forum for discussion in the shapeof a community radio?

• Who are the formal and informal opinion-leaders in thecommunity, and are there any that hold explicit orimplicit leadership roles in relation to the proposedcommunity radio?

BOX 6: Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio

1 Quote: Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams. Bush Radio 89.5 FM(See Case Study 4).

2 Colin Fraser/Sonia Restrepo-Estrada. Focus Group Discussions inDevelopment Work: Some Field Experiences and Lessons Learned. Journal of Development Communication, Number One; Volume Nine(Kuala Lumpur, June 1998). This article provides details of this subjectand technique for which there is only space for an outline here.

3 Quote: Bill Siemering. US public radio activist (1997).

4 Quote: Louie Tabing, Manager of the UNESCO/DANIDA TambuliProject, Philippines (1999).

5 Based on a written statement by W. Jayaweera, UNESCO Project Officer.(1999)

6 Comment: Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams. Radio by Bush Radio, South Africa(See Case Study 4).

7 Personal communication: Cilia Mosquera, Manager of Radio Canalete,Istmina, Colombia (1999).

8 Comment: community broadcaster in Ecuador (See Case Study 5).

9 Quote: Louie Tabing. Manager of UNESCO/DANIDA Tambuli Project,Philippines (1999). 55

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• What points of resistance - either from individuals orgroups - might the community radio be expected toencounter in pursuing its declared objectives?

• Why and how could a community radio service help tobring about change and development? In particular,what impact could it have in mobilizing local resourcesfor development and in increasing community partici-pation for good governance?

5. Technical Aspects

• What is the situation regarding an electricity source forthe studio and for the transmitter?

• What transmission power is likely to be needed to coverthe community ?

• Can the antenna be installed at least 30 m above theground, firmly anchored to prevent wind damage, andwith a lightning conductor?

• Can the antenna and transmitter be installed next toeach other - not more than 30 m apart?

• Can the studio and transmitter be installed far enoughapart to prevent radio frequency emissions from gettinginto the studio equipment?

• Is the place selected for the studio - as well as beingcentrally located and easily accessible to the population -free of uncontrollable noise, and free of vested interests?

6. Ownership and Management

• What type of ownership structure can be envisaged?

• How is the community to be involved in managementand programming?

• To what extent do the plans for the community radiointegrate the traditionally vulnerable and marginalizedgroups - i.e. women, youth, and ethnic/linguistic minorities - in the management and operations of theproposed community radio?

7. Programming for the Community Radio Service

• As an initial guide, what programmes do people listento now, which do they like most, and why?

• What mechanisms can be set up to ensure regularconsultation and feedback with the community to ensurethat programmes meet their likes and needs?

• What special measures will be necessary to ensure thatprogramme producers respect the desires of theiraudience?

• Are there any particular programme formats that arelikely to be especially favourable or unfavourable inhelping to meet the objectives of the radio service?

• What mechanisms can be set up to identify individualsor groups that could produce their own programmes forbroadcast, and how will they need to be encouraged andhelped?

8. Staffing and other Resources

• Is there enough interest and enthusiasm to be able tomobilize human and material resources to start and runthe station?

• Who can assume the task of the day-to-day manage-ment of the radio station?

• Is the proposed manager of the station acceptable to allsegments of the community, and does he/she have thenecessary managerial and interpersonal communicationskills?

• What will the role of volunteers be in running the operation?

• What resources can be mobilized to ensure the start upof the community radio?

• What resources can be mobilized to sustain the com-munity radio over time?

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The church as a major institution of society has a major role to play.

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Programme Policies

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This chapter stresses the need for participation of the audience in establishing programming

needs and preferences, in programme production (as presenters and performers) and in

evaluation.

It describes the crucial role of community news as part of an ongoing process of change and

development, discusses the ethical standards required by journalists, and goes on to emphasize the

importance of balancing views in all programming.

Later sections deal with policies for coverage of religious/cultural events, local election broadcasts,

and educational broadcasts.

The final section is on the importance of audience surveys and outlines how to conduct them.

After absorbing the Chapter, the reader will:

• Be able to establish programming policies and operations that will achieve maximum partici-

pation of the community and its various sectors at all stages;

• Be able to set up mechanisms to ensure that programming meets audience needs and wishes;

• Know the ethical principles for news gathering and reporting and for maintaining a balance of

views in a programme;

• Be aware of the possible legal conditions surrounding coverage of local elections and know

how to handle coverage fairly and objectively;

• Gain insights into the use of radio as an educational medium and know the requirements to

make it effective.

� PARTICIPATORY

PROGRAMMES

Any successful radio station mustappeal to the interests, tastes, anddesires of its audience. What makesprogrammes for a community radiodifferent is that, in addition to pleasing,entertaining, and perhaps providingsome general enlightenment for itsaudience, they also seek to facilitatechange, social progress, and betterliving conditions in the community thatthe radio serves.

It needs high numbers of listeners andaudience loyalty to achieve this, but theunique advantage that communityradio has over any other type of broad-casting in winning audience is its abilityto be specifically relevant to the particular needs, interests, and desiresof its relatively small audience.However, it can only reach this level ofrelevance through the constant invol-vement and participation of thataudience in the planning, operation,and evaluation of its programming.

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Participation in Ascertaining

Needs and Preferences

A consultation process is requiredto establish certain things abouteach of the main audience sectors(e.g. women, men, youth, farmers,cooperative members, etc.). Themain points to be ascertained are:

• Listeners’ needs;

• Listeners’ preferences;

• Listening habits (i.e. times of daywhen people mainly tune in).

This information is the basis fordeciding on programme content,format, and the scheduling of pro-grammes at times that best suit thevarious segments of the audience.

Participation in Producing

Programmes

Everything possible should be doneto encourage individuals andgroups to participate in program-me production. In this context,groups might also be NGOs working in the community, or staffof government services. The principle role of the station staff,apart from encouragement, shouldbe to provide technical support andfacilities to the producers.

In the Philippines, an interestingp ro g ra m m e fo r m a t c a l l e dBaranggayan sa Himpapawid ,

roughly ‘Village on the Air’, hasbeen developed by the UNESCO-DANIDA supported Tambuli Project.The programme is produced in adifferent village each week in thearea covered by the communityradio’s broadcast pattern.

In essence, it is a variety show inwhich the villagers take the lead assingers, musicians, humorists, poets,interviewers and interviewees, panelmembers, and so on. Althoughmost of the programme consists oflocal culture and entertainment, italso contains a section that givesthe community the chance to discuss relevant issues and villageconcerns in public, with local leaderscalled on to respond and maketheir opinions and position clear.This often gives rise to a debate onthe subject.

A k a r a o k e s y s t e m - t h erecorder/playback ‘sing-along’machine which is very well knowneven in Philippine villages - usuallyserves as the outside recording studio. Its familiarity to the villagershelps to reduce possible inhibitions.

The programme is normally broad-cast the day after it is recorded, andit is enormously popular, even if thevillagers who produced it had noprevious experience of talking orsinging in front of a microphone.

Participation of Individuals and

Groups as Presenters or

Performers

Obviously, programme formats like ‘Village on the Air’ in thePhilippines provide occasions forordinary people to present and perform in front of a microphone.But even without such a program-me format, it is important to solicitand support performances thatinvolve ordinary people. These cantake a variety of forms, includingfor example, musical presentations,readings of poetry, comic skits, orquite simply interviews, round-tables, or discussions in whichpeople present their ideas and opinions about any issue that is ofinterest to the community.Programme formats that inviteparticipation from people in thecommunity should be a regular feature of the station’s broadcasts.

Every effort should also be made tohave the radio station seen as afocal point in the communitywhere people are free to come andtalk to the staff and discuss ideasfor programmes in which theycould be involved.

An Overview of Programming

Programming decisions are among the most sensitive

and challenging tasks in a station. This activity is

necessary when starting a radio station or when

modifications are called for. Periodic evaluation

exercises usually trigger a programming revamp...

Long hours of consultation and brainstorming

sessions are devoted to programme planning.

A cunning programme manager serves to facilitate a

participatory deliberation – rather than dictate

ideas - to determine the thrust, format, content, and

philosophies. By participating, the staff [too] become

enthusiastic implementers of the programme plan...

Indeed, participation makes the station a genuine

community radio. 1

This graph shows the time avilability of various target groups for radio listening. Different localities may show slightly varying trends from this

hypothetical illustration. To determine the time slots of programmes designed for specific groups, the programmers must at least figure

out, if not make a formal research, on the habits of their target listeners.

Time Availability Chart

BROADCAST TIME

Participation in Evaluation of

Programming

Community radio stations normallyreceive considerable numbers ofletters and/or telephone callsfrom listeners. These often providefeedback from the audience aboutthe station’s programmes. Thisprocess is very useful to the stationpersonnel, and the audience shouldtherefore be encouraged by theannouncers and presenters towrite or call with their comments orsuggestions.

However, in addition to this routinefeedback, a community radioshould conduct periodic evalua-tions of its programming with theparticipation of members of itsvarious audience sectors. TheFocus Group Discussion techniqueoutlined earlier is an excellentmethod for eliciting people’s opin-ions about existing programmes,their effects on community life,and their ideas as to how programmes could be improved.

Individual programmes may alsobe evaluated in conjunction withthe audience. Programmes arenormally analyzed from two basicviewpoints:

• The formal structure of the programme, including its technicalquality (the sound effects used,

performance of the announcersand other participants, controlof extraneous noise, etc.).

• The content of the programmewith specific relation to:

* Information sources - were theywell selected, credible, and suffi-cient in number?

* Context - were the themes of theprogramme pertinent to the specific situation and needs of theaudience ?

* Timeliness - were the themes ofthe programme pertinent in thesense of covering an actual orongoing situation?

* Actors and roles - did the physicalactors (persons) and the non-physical actors (institutions) eachplay their appropriate role in theprogramme?

* Communication approach – wasthe programme one-way or participatory? Did it lead to anycritical analysis by the audience?

• Message formulation - did thecentral message come out clearly?Was there a good balance bet-ween rational, emotional, andaffective elements? Was the format suitably matched withthe content?

It is vital that a community radiomanager and his or her staff realize from the beginning thatprogramming decisions must bepart of a dynamic process.Feedback and evaluations shouldbe constantly driving the processof improving and adapting theprogramming to meet the needsand preferences of the listeners.And it must be remembered thatthese are not necessarily constant.To fall into a programming routineand to assume that listeners aresatisfied with what is on offer isthe short road to listeners desert-ing the frequency. And that in turnis the short road to the death ofthe community radio.

People’s views and opinions are important for strenghtheningdemocratic practice and for arriving at a cooperative approach tocommunity development. Hence in Olutanga, a small island in thesouthern part of Zamboanga, Philippines, the Village on the Airprogramme is the most popular of all. It exemplifies the key themeof community radio- participation of the people.

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� COMMUNITY NEWS

Community news is a unique feature, and a prime strength, thatgives a community radio station theinside track in competing againstlarger commercial or government stations. However, it must beremembered that the news provided by community radio, incontrast to that of the mainstreammedia, is not an isolated story orevent alone: rather, it should bepart of an ongoing and future process that is supporting progressand development in the community.Regular local news broadcasts inthe context of a process are thereforethe lifeblood of a community radio.Programming policies and opera-tions need to give them maximumimportance.

Gathering local news is not alwayseasy, especially when limitedresources make transportation andmobility for station personnel diffi-cult. The idea of ‘popular reporters’- essentially a few volunteers scat-tered in the community - whoreport in to the studio by telephone,cellular phone, or VHF radio isalways worth pursuing.

However, journalistic ethics are justas important in community newsgathering and reporting as they arefor any major news organization.

Indeed, these ethics can be evenmore important in a communityradio. For given the more intimaterelationship that exists betweenthe radio and its audience, and thefact that the audience is also inter-related because it is part of a com-munity, incorrect or tendentiousreporting, or misrepresentation ofan event or issue, can have moreimmediate and damaging effectsthan they would in a larger and lessinvolved audience.

Thus, a community radio’s programming policy with regard tocommunity news needs to be basedon having personnel and outsidereporters who have been properlyinitiated into the ethics of journa-lism. These cover such aspects ashonesty, fairness and objectivity,and verification of sources beforeissuing a news item. It is difficultnot to make the occasional mistake,but if it does happen, an immediateacknowledgement and correctionshould be broadcast. (See also the Code of Conduct in the next chapter.)

Many community radios also pre-sent news bulletins that includeregional, national, and internationalitems. The source for these is usuallythe mainstream media – newspapers,radio and TV. It is sometimes possible to arrange a link up with a

state or commercial radio stationand re-broadcast its news bulletinto the community. Some communityradios make a point of having newsitems discussed on air by listeners,either through telephone calls orby 2-3 member panels in the studio.

Whatever approach is used for out-side news, the overall policy shouldbe to present or comment on it in away that makes it accessible andmeaningful to the communityaudience.

� BALANCING VIEWS

The main thrust of a communityradio should be to try to promotefair discussion and debate that canlead to resolution of conflictingviewpoints and to democraticconsensus. The personnel of thestation and the way they work arefundamental in achieving this. (Theterm ‘personnel’ of course includesvolunteers.)

The staff of the radio station mustof course appear to be neutral. Thisis not to say that they will not havetheir own personal points of view,but they must on no account lettheir opinions influence the waythey stimulate and conduct any dis-cussions or make presentations onair. A station manager should bewatchful for any manifestations of

DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES ON THE CONDUCT

OF JOURNALISTS

Adopted by the Second World Congress of the

International Federation of Journalists at Bordeaux,

25-28 April 1954 and amended by the 18th IFJ World

Congress in Helsingör, 2-6 June 1986. This interna-

tional declaration is proclaimed as a standard of pro-

fessional conduct for journalists engaged in gathe-

ring, transmitting, disseminating, and commenting

on news and information and in describing events.

1. Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truthis the first duty of the journalist.

2. In pursuance of this duty, the journalist shall at all timesdefend the principles of freedom in the honest collectionand publication of news, and of the right of fair commentand criticism.

3. The journalist shall report only in accordance with factsof which he/she knows the origin. The journalist shallnot suppress essential information or falsify documents.

4. The journalist shall use only fair methods to obtainnews, photographs, and documents.

5. The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any publishedinformation which is found to be harmfully inaccurate.

6. The journalist shall observe professional secrecy regardingthe source of information obtained in confidence.

7. The journalist shall be aware of the danger of discrimination being furthered by the media, and shalldo the utmost to avoid facilitating such discriminationbased on, among other things, race, sex, sexual orientation,language, religion, political or other opinions, and national or social origins.

8. The journalist shall regard as grave professional offencesthe following: plagiarism; malicious misrepresentation;calumny, slander, libel, unfounded accusations; theacceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration ofeither publication or suppression.

9. Journalists worthy of that name shall deem it their dutyto observe faithfully the principles stated above. Withinthe general law of each country, the journalist shall recognize in professional matters the jurisdiction of colleagues only, to the exclusion of every kind of interference by government or others.

bias by his staff while on air, as wellas in his/her normal socialcontacts; for if any staff are knownto have a strong position on somesubject, and express it openly insocial conversations, it will bemore difficult for them to presenta position of neutrality while onair. Furthermore, station managersshould take seriously, and lookinto, any complaints from listenersabout bias or manipulation ofinformation in the work of the station’s personnel.

The balancing of views also callsfor equal opportunity and time toallow different viewpoints to beexpressed on air. The managementshould have a rigid policy thatensures this.

It must always be rememberedthat the credibility and integrity ofthe service and of the personnelwho run it are crucial to its successand sustainability.

� COVERAGE OF RELIGIOUS

AND CULTURAL EVENTS

Religious functions in a communi-ty are often cultural events as well.Adequate coverage of these occa-sions has to be included in theradio station’s programme. In amulti-religious community, theradio station should take the

necessary steps to ensure reason-able access to all the different reli-gious institutions and denomina-tions. To achieve this, it is oftengood to have a committee of differ-ent religious leaders to agree onand advise the station on airtimeallocation for different religiousprogrammes. The basic thrust ofreligious programming should betowards promoting religious harmony in the community; deni-gration of other people’s religiousbeliefs must be avoided at all costs.

� LOCAL ELECTION

BROADCASTS

Some countries’ legislation specifi-cally forbids community radio tobecome involved in any way withpolitical campaigning. Othersallow campaigning under strictlycontrolled conditions only duringspecified election periods. Themanagement of a communityradio should examine carefully theparticular legal situation withregard to electioneering.

If a community radio is involved inpolitical campaigns, it is essentialthat no party or candidate derivesundue advantage or suffers unduedisadvantage. A transparent sys-tem of providing equal opportuni-ty and equal time to duly register-ed political parties and candidates

must be established. The conceptof equality in opportunity andtime must take into account thelength of the broadcast, the qualityof presentation, and any advantagesthat might accrue from the timeand day of the broadcast. If noagreement can be reached betweenthose concerned, drawing of lotsor some similar system may beused.

Any programme of a politicalnature which is sponsored or paidfor with the intention of influen-cing voters in a certain directionmust be properly identified as suchat the beginning, at regular intervalsduring the programme, and againat the end. (See also the section onpolitical broadcasts in the Code ofConduct in Chapter 7.)

Community radio can effectivelymonitor and ensure good conductof elections and thus support thisvital democratic process.

� EDUCATIONAL

BROADCASTS

(School on the Air)

In the 1960s and 1970s, when ruralbroadcasting was being widelypromoted by development agen-cies, there was much emphasisgiven to the educational possibilitiesoffered by radio, a strategy

Everywhere religion plays a major role in the lives of people. Community radiobroadcasters must also learn to appreciate this role while keeping radio free

from undue religious influences.

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pioneered by Radio Sutatenza inColombia. However, experienceshows that as an educationmedium, radio alone is weak; itneeds to be supported by othermedia, such as printed materials, aswell as by inter-personal contactsto form a complete educationalpackage.

A community radio may well decidethat part of its programmingshould consist of educationalbroadcasts, for example for farmerson agricultural techniques or formothers on childcare and nutrition.If such a policy decision is taken,the best results will be achievedwhen it is based on proper adulteducation methodology. Thisbegins with careful structuring of

the educational content of thebroadcasts in accordance with thetrainees’ circumstances, needs, andcapacities. It should also involvesome sort of enrolment and recog-nition award for successful comple-tion of a course in order to enhancepeople’s sense of commitment.And the radio programmes shouldbe supported by other materials,group discussions and inter-personalfollow-up.

Setting up a programme of educa-tional broadcasts can be a veryworthwhile objective for a commu-nity radio, but it needs to be care-fully thought out, planned, andwork in conjunction with theappropriate services in, say, healthor agriculture. Advice and support

from an adult education specialist

can help to ensure successful

programmes.

Whether or not a community radio

decides to broadcast educational

programmes per se, its policy

should take into account that edu-

cation in the broad sense of the

word, and in the context of helping

people to improve their lives, is one

of the fundamental objectives of

community radio. Thus, educa-

tional content will always be present,

though it may be built into a variety

of formats, including reportage,

interviews, panel question/answer

sessions or discussions, entertaining

drama, etc.

School on the Air – Girandurukotte Community

Radio, Sri Lanka

“The School on the Air was an action-oriented programme whose primary objective was to provideinstructional education in a manner that would leadto action. It also attempted to develop a coordinatedapproach in which all those concerned with thedevelopment of the area could work together. We

believed that such an approach would pave the wayfor our listeners to put into practice the instructionsthey received through radio and other channels ofcommunication.

The radio producer in charge of agricultural pro-grammes worked with the agricultural extension officers in the area, and with the committee thatadvised on the farming programme of the School onthe Air, to develop an agricultural calendar and toidentify on-farm activities and their technicalcontent for the coming season.

The calendar with the relevant technical informationwas produced and circulated among 115 farmers whoenrolled in the agricultural programme of the Schoolon the Air. These farmers were asked to listen to theradio programme and to make notes in the blankspace provided in the calendar itself.

A question was asked at the end of each programme,to which the farmers sent in their reply, either bymail or during a visit to the radio station.The programme received an average of 200-250replies, many of which were from farmers not enrolled in the programme.

The correct answers were discussed in the follow- upprogramme and those who had provided correct answers received marks.

A seasonal course usually lasted 2-3 months and atthe end of the course, farmers who had collected anaggregate of pass marks were awarded a School onthe Air certificate.” 3

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Some stations like Radio Voice of Manduyog in Banga, Aklan Province are fortunate tobe linked to an educational institution. In this instance, the Aklan State College ofAgriculture serves its community with agricultural and technical programmes as well aspublic service, women’s programmes, children stories, good behaviour. Students volunteerfor station duty as researchers or announcers.

� AUDIENCE SURVEYS

A community radio that has goodfeedback from its audiencethrough letters, telephone calls,and visits to the studio, and whichregularly conducts participatoryevaluations of its work as describedearlier, will have access to muchqualitative information. However,this may not be enough to providea full picture of a radio station’sperformance and standing. Theindependence of an outside surveyteam is required to obtain reliableanswers to questions such as:

• Does the station have credibilityamong its listeners?

• Is the station seen as a reliablesource of information?

• What image and status do thestaff have in the eyes of the community?

• To what extent does the com-munity depend on the stationfor information and develop-ment materials?

• What do listeners do with theinformation they gain? Do theyuse it, store it, pass it on toothers, or look for additionalinformation?

• What impact is the radio havingin the community? Whatchanges can be essentially attributed to the radio?

In addition, some quantitativedata may be needed about howmany people listen to the station

and when, compared to other stations, and how many listen toparticular programmes. This infor-mation provides a picture of howthe community radio stands inrelation to other media channelsavailable to the audience.

The type of information mentionedabove is often difficult to obtain.There are specialized companiesthat conduct audience research,usually for large commercial stations. They have a natural tendency to inflate the listeningfigures so that the radio stationthat contracted the survey can usehigh ratings as a basis for chargingmore for advertising time. In addition, the experience of thesecompanies is mainly urban.

Unfortunately, the gadgetry usedby mainstream media to electronic-ally record the number of receiverstuned into a programme, and evenwhen the channel is changed, isbeyond the reach of communityradio stations. So other methodsneed to be used to obtain thequantitative data.

The commonest method is to takea sample of the audience - specialsampling techniques exist for theselection - and have them answer aquestionnaire either by mail orduring an interview. The resultsare extrapolated to give a picturefor the whole community.

The radio station itself canuse certain techniques totry to determine listeningpatterns. One of these isto invite the audience tosend in entries to acontest or to make contri-butions to a communitycampaign. The announce-ment is systematicallyrepeated throughout theday’s programming andthe respondents are askedto say at what time, ortimes, they heard theannouncement.

In most countries one candiscard the use of com-mercial media research organiza-tions for community radio. It isbetter to enlist the help of NGOs,university students, or volunteerswho are unknown in the commu-nity to conduct surveys and inter-views. (If interviewers are knownin the community, respondentsmay feel conditioned in the waythey answer.) What is ideal is toget help from the staff of anothercommunity radio station for suchan outsider view. They also learnfrom the experience.

However difficult it may be toarrange, surveys by outsiders fromtime to time are important to beable to gauge the way a communi-ty radio is functioning and thestanding it enjoys among itsaudience.

Bus stops provide unique opportunities to gain feedback from audience and conduct interestinginterviews. In Punka, the Chief of Programmes of Bhutan Radio interviews an expectant passenger. While waiting for the bus, his handy radio helps pass the time.

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1 Louie Tabing. Programming Tips for a Community Radio Station. UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila, 1998).

2 Louie Tabing et al. Neighbourhood Radio Production. UNESCO-DANIDATambuli Project, Manila, undated.

3 Based on M.J.R David, Mahaweli Community Radio: A Field Producer’sNotebook, Institute of Development Communication, Laguna(Philippines, 1993).

Interviewing for Agricultural School on the Air, Sri Lanka. Recordingtraditional songs for transplanting rice.

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Homa Bay Radio Station.

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Chapter 7

The Community Broadcaster

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This chapter provides a prototype code of conduct for community broadcasters. A community

radio service could use it as it stands, or it could modify it according to any special local needs

or conditions. It includes sections on programme production and on ethics, conduct and

teamwork during operations and in the studio, on the care of equipment, and on the general conduct of

broadcasters in their normal life in the community.

Other sections deal with conduct related to financial matters and provide details of how these can

be handled. Appropriate policies and conduct for political broadcasts and for advertising

and sponsorship are also covered.

Sections on the selection and training of community broadcasters give advice on selection criteria,

on the content and categories of training required, and describe various types of training modalities.

There is a discussion of the pros and cons of on-site, in-country, and overseas training and a final

section on the financing of training.

The reader can expect to:

• Gain an understanding of the need for, and content of, a code of conduct for community

broadcasters;

• Have a model code of conduct to apply as it stands or to modify to suit local circumstances;

• Learn about the different types and content of training needed by community broadcasters

and have guidelines for the general planning and organizing of training activities.

� CODE OF CONDUCT

The conduct of the personnel whowork with a community radio is centralto achieving the levels of efficiency,integrity and positive image requiredfor its success. Some national broadcasting legislations that includecommunity radio also provide a codeof conduct for broadcasters. In addition,the UNESCO/DANIDA supportedTambuli Project in the Philippines hasdrawn up a code of its own. 1

Although most codes of conduct arealmost identical in their generalapproach, there may also be a need forspecial points to cover aspects that arespecific to a certain country. For exam-ple, where community radios areallowed to accept advertising, or becomeinvolved in political campaigns, theproper ethical conduct of these willneed to be included in the code.

It is a useful idea, therefore, for community broadcasters in a countryto form associations and agree on acommon code of conduct appropriateto their circumstances. In essence, the 65

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code of conduct should be a professional instrument for self-regulation, and not a law or regula-tion enforced by government. Thecommunity being served by thestation should also be informed ofthe code being applied.

The code of conduct which followsbelow brings together elementsfrom several sources, but it is basedon the structure of the Tambulidocument. It is provided as a proto-type which community radios mayuse or modify as they wish.

� A PROTOTYPE CODE

OF CONDUCT

Preparing and Conducting

Broadcasts

General

• Programmes should be well pre-pared in order to present newideas, new information, and newpoints of view.

• Broadcasters should obtain infor-mation from reliable sources andorganize their programmesproperly before going on air.

• A good balance should be main-tained between news, entertain-ment, and public-service programmes.

• Programming should maintain abalance that properly reflects the

differing interests of the variousmajority and minority sectors inthe community.

Research

• Broadcasters should actively andconstantly be researching new,interesting, and comprehensiveinformation. The most persistentresearchers and enquirers willultimately be the most reliablesources of information for otherpeople.

Decency and Good Taste

• Programmes should excludematerial that is indecent, obscene,or offensive to public morals orto the religious convictions of anysector of the community.

• Programmes should promotegood relationships between differ-ent sectors of the community andshould most certainly avoid pre-judicing them.

• Justifiable material that relates tobrutality, violence, atrocities,drug abuse and obscenity shouldbe presented with due care andsensitivity and always in context,not gratuitously. Special care isnecessary when children are likelyto hear the programme.

• Broadcasters should rememberthat listeners, especially children

and youth, may make radioannouncers and presenters theirrole model, and therefore theyshould behave accordingly.

Respect for Privacy

• Broadcasters should use care andconsideration in matters involv-ing the private lives and concernsof individuals. The interest, andeven the right to know, of a com-munity is not a licence to invade aperson’s privacy. But there can becases of exceptional, overridingand legitimate public interestthat waive the right to privacy.

• Information provided by an inter-viewee as off-the-record shouldbe treated as such by a reporter.

Preference for a Positive and

Constructive Approach

• Broadcasters should stronglyavoid the temptation to includerumours, gossip, slurs, criticisms,conflicts, and indirect propagan-da in their programmes.

• Where the public interest is atstake and a controversy must bediscussed on air, the broadcastersshould do everything in theirpower to present all sides of thestory.

Responsibilities

“Like every bestowed opportunity, the privilege to

use radio carries with it responsibilities - towards the

institution and, more than this, towards society. It is

the responsibility of anyone using the power of

communication to uphold the dignity of the station

and his co-workers. Radio is a powerful tool with

which one person can manifest care for the

community dependent on him for fair, honest, and

truthful communication rather than serve selfish

motives. It is easy to detect whether a broadcaster is

representing his interest or that of the community

where he belongs.” 2

‘Hate Radio’: A Warning

The former Director-General of UNESCO, Amadou

Mahtar M’Bow, stated: “Because radio can be very

powerful, it may sometimes be detrimental to the

people it aims to serve. We saw in Rwanda that a

radio station, Radio Mille Collines, contributed

greatly and criminally to the tragedy that hit that

country. To avoid... human rights abuses, even minor

ones, community media practitioners and human

rights activists are trying to rally, internationally,

around a People's Communication Charter that pro-

vides guiding principles to prevent such potential

abuses". Inter alia, the Charter states that

“restrictions on access to information should be

permissible only for good and compelling reasons,

as when prescribed by international human rights

standards, or necessary for the protection of

a democratic society, or the basic rights of others.”

A Real Emergency is the Only Valid Excuse

“It is only in emergency cases that an announcer may

be allowed to absent himself without previous notice.

This would need to be on the level of a death

of a member of his household or the need to

bring to the hospital a member of the family

who is running a fever of 40 degrees.” 3

• Broadcasters should emphasizeinteresting and useful informa-tion rather than dwell onunsavoury conflicts.

• When dealing with a problem,rather than bemoaning it, thestress should be placed on dis-cussing it in the positive light ofwhat possible actions could betaken, and by whom, to solve it.

Conduct During Operations

Teamwork

• The personnel of a communityradio are all part of a team andshould act and work as such. Thismeans, among other things,being willing to help a colleaguewho is in difficulty for any reasonand co-operating by providinginformation, contacts, andmaterials to colleagues who mayneed them.

• Individuals should participate inevaluations and discussions andencourage their colleagues toassess and criticize their work.

• Individuals should be willing toaccept and act upon evaluationcritiques.

• Broadcasters should be willing tomake announcements that promote other programmes inthe station’s schedule.

• In live programmes, it should benormal practice for a broadcasterto stand in for the programmefollowing his/hers if the nextbroadcaster should be delayed.The broadcast should never beleft unattended.

Respect for Management

• Personnel should respect themanagement and comply fullywith the administrative andoperational procedures it hasput in place.

• Any disagreements betweenstaff member(s) and the man-agement should be first discussed with the station manager. If the problem cannotbe resolved at that level, thematter should be referred to themanagement body of the community radio, whose decisionshould be final. Respect fromboth sides and a democraticprocess should be observed inthese discussions, with the inter-ests of the radio station and thecommunity it serves as the dominating criterion.

Punctuality and Reliability

• Personnel who are to go on airmust be punctual, leaving suffi-cient lead-time to prepare them-selves and their materials and to

confer with the station manager,or with guests or interviewees asnecessary. An absolute mini-mum of ten minutes beforebroadcast time should beobserved, though consider-ably longer lead-time isusually advisable.

• If an individual anticipates notbeing able to fulfil a broadcastcommitment, he/she shouldinform the station manager atleast one day before so that areplacement can be appointedand have time to prepare properly.

Conduct in the Studio Premises

• No personnel should be allowedto bring firearms into the studio,even if they are members of thepolice or military.

• Drinking or taking of illicit drugsin the studio premises should betreated as a violation of the sta-tion’s standing and integrity. Soshould coming to the stationintoxicated or under the influenceof drugs.

• Broadcasters should not inviteguests and relatives to the studiopremises without briefing themon proper behaviour, especiallywith regard to orderliness andsilence. 67

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Broadcasters mustbecome a reliablesource of information for people.

In no case should the announcer cometo the sudio less than10 minutes

before broadcast time

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• Guests should not be allowed todistract broadcasters, disruptactivities, or tamper with or pilferstation equipment and property.

• Children visiting the stationshould always be accompanied by aparent or other responsible adult.

Care of Studio Equipment

• Every member of the station’s staffshould participate in preserving itsequipment and property.

• The operation of studio equip-ment should only be by peoplewho have been trained, qualified,and authorized to use it.

• All equipment not in use shouldbe switched off. All personnelshould be obliged to clean, recap,cover, and store equipment theyhave used in their proper place.

• No piece of equipment should betaken out of the studio premiseswithout the prior approval of thestation manager or the person towhom he/she has delegated con-trol of such matters. Ideally, thisapproval should be in writing.

• Any equipment taken out of thestudio premises should bereturned promptly after use.

• Systems of usage and borrowingshould be set up. A user’s log anda borrower’s log should be kept.

• Broadcasters should immediatelyreport to the station manager orothers in authority any malfunc-tion, loss, or damage to equip-ment they were using, noting thetime and circumstances in whichit happened.

• Based on the points outlinedabove, the station manager, inconjunction with the rest of themanagement body of the com-munity radio, should establishregulations for the use of itsequipment and ensure that allpersonnel are aware of them.

Conduct of Personnel Outside

the Radio Station

• Community broadcasters arereformers and agents of positivechange and development. Theircomportment in their social andfamily life, and in their life in gen-eral in the community, shouldmatch the image they project asstaff of the community radio.

• Any member of the staff shouldbe automatically dismissed iffound guilty of any criminal orillicit activity. The managementof a community radio shouldhave the constitutional right tosuspend or dismiss any such person, especially when it isdeemed that keeping him/her

would prejudice the image andstanding of the station.

• No member of the staff shoulddivulge classified information.

Solicitation of Funds,

Advertising, or Sponsorship

• Only personnel who have beenspecifically designated to do soby the management should beallowed to solicit or receive donations, grants, sponsorship orany other form of financial support for the community radioor for specific programmes. Theauthorization to solicit or collectfunds should be in writing.

• No radio station should acceptfunds from any illegal source orfrom any source whose activitieshave a negative effect on thecommunity, society, or the countrye.g. gambling rings, smugglers,drug traffickers, producers orpurveyors of tobacco and alcohol,concerns that are damaging orpolluting the environment, etc.

• No funds should be acceptedfrom political parties or otherinterest groups that could latercompromise the station’s editorialindependence.

Caution with Record Companies

“Community stations can end up playing

music all day. The music industry makes it

easy to ‘spin discs’ instead of providing the

community with the programming it needs.

When a record company gives a station free

music, the station becomes a record sales outlet,

for the only place people hear new music is on radio.

In South Africa, record sales increased dramatically

when community radio began. Another problem is

the gifts and unsolicited attention that many record

companies lavish on the individual who is responsible

for the ‘play list’ of tunes that are broadcast to give

the station its identity.” 4

Management of Financial

Resources

• The community radio shoulddesignate a treasurer whoshould open a bank account forthe safekeeping and disbursementof its financial resources. Thechoice of bank should be madein conjunction with the manage-ment body of the radio.

• Two signatures should berequired for withdrawal of fundsfrom the bank account.

• All funds, grants, earnings, collections, and other incomeshould be remitted to the desig-nated treasurer as soon as possibleand never later than 24 hoursafter being received. Any personnel who keep funds forlonger should be considered tohave misappropriated them andbe disciplined accordingly.

• The treasurer should keep arecord of all receipts and payments. This should be avail-able for inspection at any timeby any member of the manage-ment or by the authorities.

• Only after income has beengiven to the treasurer, and itsreceipt duly recorded, should itbecome expendable. No staffshould be permitted to use

unrecorded income,even to reim-burse legitimateexpenses theym a y h a v ei n c u r r e d .

• The stationm a n a g e rshould haveaccess to ap e t t y c a s hf u n d . T h i ss h o u l d b ereplenished bythe treasurer whenever it fallsbelow a predetermined amount.Full records of the petty cashexpenditures and replenish-ments should be kept.

• The community should be keptinformed, at regular intervals, ofthe financial state of their radiostation, and also have the rightto ask for related information atany time.

Political Broadcasts (where allowed)

• The community radio manage-ment should ascertain in detailany provisions in the nationalbroadcasting legislation con-cerning radio coverage duringpolitical campaigns and abide bythem scrupulously.

• •

• Broadcasters should not giveundue advantage, or disadvan-tage, to any political party orcandidate.

• Equal opportunity and equaltime should be accorded to dulyregistered political parties andcandidates. Equality in this con-text takes into account thelength of the broadcast, thequality of presentation, and anypossible advantages from thetime and day of the broadcast.

• If no agreement on such equalitycan be reached between thoseconcerned, drawing of lots orsome similar system may beused.

• News and other informationprogrammes should be edited 69

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for strictly factual informationand should avoid bias in favour oragainst any political party or candidate.

• Any personnel of a communi-ty radio, including the man-agement body, should resigntheir post and refrain fromany regular activity as a broad-caster before or at the time ofdeclaring their intention ofbecoming involved in any politicalor partisan activity.

Advertising and Sponsorship

(where allowed)

• The management body shoulddecide whether advertising,when allowed under the existinglegislation, is compatible with the aims and objectives of the community radio.

• If it is decided to accept advertising,the management body shouldestablish criteria for the types ofcommercial interests whose publicity will be broadcast.

• Preference should be given toevents, goods, and services beingorganized or offered by commer-cial concerns within the area inwhich the community radio is situated.

• Advertising should not be accepted

from concerns offering goods thatare harmful to individuals, to thecommunity, or to society, especiallyin terms of health or behaviour(e.g. tobacco and alcohol). Norshould advertising be accepted foritems that are generally detrimentalto the socio-economic welfare ofthe poor (e.g. junk food, carbonat-ed drinks and other items that are low in nutritional value and relatively high in cost).

• In respect of sponsorship - whereallowed - and advertising, careshould be taken to ensure thatthere is no potential conflict ofinterest between the sponsor oradvertiser and the change anddevelopment objectives of theradio station.

Advertisements by Political

Parties and Candidates

Advertising by political interestsduring election campaigns - asdistinct from party politicalbroadcasts - presents a specialproblem. The communityradio management body

should take one of three possible decisions:

• Apply the principle of equaltime and opportunity to politicaladvertisements, as in the caseof party political broadcasts;

• Allow each party the freedom tobuy as much air time as it wantsand can afford;

• Not accept advertisements frompolitical parties or candidates.

Some community radios chargehigher rates for political advertise-ments than they do for commercialones, and it is tempting to solvemany of the sustainability problemsthat afflict all community radios byselling air time willy-nilly to all thepolitical interests that want it andcan pay for it. Nevertheless, it isdubious whether a communityradio should help the alreadystrong parties to get strongeragainst the weaker alternative par-ties that might bring greater socialprogress. From an ethical view-point, it is probably better to apply

Some Typical Examples of Potential Conflicts of

Interest between Advertising Revenue and the

General Good

• Revenue from infant formula producers or retailers

versus promoting the healthier practice of

breast-feeding.

• Revenue from farm pesticide manufacturers versus

the need to promote integrated pest management.

• Revenue from international bottlers of carbonated

drinks versus promoting the use of locally grown

fruit-based drinks.

• Sponsorship for a farming programme from

commercial dealers or outlets of farm produce ver-

sus support to farmers to obtain better prices.

• Sponsorship from a mining company with local

operations versus the need to reduce its negative

environmental impact.

The Commercial Radio Viewpoint

After a series of elections in Ecuador, spread

over a short time, the owner of a commercial station

in Cuenca said, only half joking, "These politically

unstable times have saved half of us from

bankruptcy!" 5

Training Experience at Radio Sagarmatha, Nepal

Two types of training have been conducted: the first,

focusing on broad concepts and techniques has

successfully upgraded general skills and brought

people into the fold; the second has been integrated

into the station's specific needs and context, working

with producers and developing new programmes.

The first type has been done with foreign resources,

generally the training centres of international

broadcasters. This training was important for

identifying and developing human resources.

While Nepal has excellent media resources of its own,

the expertise of these international broadcasters has

been extremely beneficial.

The second type has used local resources and

integrated the needs of the station and of the

trainees into the planning and conducting of training

courses using a more hands-on, on-the-job approach.

This has proved appropriate to the overall

development of the station and to existing

and available technologies. This training has been

conducted by station personnel and international

technical advisers working locally. It has concentrat-

ed on existing station staff rather than new recruits.

the equality principle, or not toaccept any political advertising,even if this means loss of revenue.

� SELECTION OF

COMMUNITY

BROADCASTERS

Some community radios arestaffed by people chosen mainlyfor their commitment to the wel-fare and improvement of theirown community and for theirinterest in radio as an instrumentfor social progress. Other commu-nity radios are able to draw onpeople who have some experienceor training in the area of commu-nication or journalism, but whomay be outsiders to the communi-ty. Although they may have a bet-ter education and more skills thanordinary members of a communi-ty, they may well be at an initialdisadvantage until they havegained full insight into how thecommunity functions.

When selecting people from thecommunity, it is usual to apply certain other criteria, besidesthese people’s sense of commit-ment. They should be residents ofthe community, with no immediateintention of migrating away fromit; they should have good oralcommunication skills; they shouldbe of good moral standing and

have leadership potential; theyshould be representative of anyethnic and religious groupings andof political affiliations in the com-munity; and they should have timeavailable for the initial training andfor a volunteer job.

The balance between women andmen is particularly important. Inmany countries, it is usually mainlymen who come forward whentraining is being offered, but it isessential that women be integratedinto the operation in balance withmen. Quite apart from fundamentalissues of gender equity, most com-munity radios have high numbersof listeners among women, whoneed information that is best supplied by other women. Womenon the air will also help others toassume an equitable and respectedrole in the affairs of the communi-ty and its development. Staff sustainability will usually beimproved by having womenbecause they are less likely to leavethe community in search of work.

In one community radio in SouthAfrica, which provides training forbroadcasters, no training course isallowed to go ahead unless at leasthalf of the participants arewomen. (See Case Study 4.) Insome countries it may be difficultfor cultural reasons to insist on this

condition immediately, but itshould certainly be a target every-where.

� TRAINING OF

COMMUNITY

BROADCASTERS

Community radio stations veryoften begin with people who havenever been inside a radio studio,never held a microphone, andnever had any involvement withthe world of media or journalism.Training such people presents anoteworthy challenge, but experi-ence has shown that it is not as difficult as one might expect.

Content of Training

Many skills are involved in broad-casting. The principal ones thatstaff collectively of a station needto have fall into three main types:

Technical - use of equipment andsimple repairs.

Programme production - coveringelements such as radio talk; voiceperformance; script writing; inter-view techniques; news gathering,writing and delivery; magazineprogramme production; produc-tion of radio spots, jingles andpublic-service announcements;production of participatory pro-grammes in the community; basic

Martin Allard on Technical Training“I think that the future of community radio is theelimination of the role of the technician as aseparate activity and the inclusion of a limitedamount of technical training in the functions ofstation managers and programme producers.” 6

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c o m m u n i c a t i o ntheory and practice.

Management andOperations –including manage-ment skills, overallprogramming for acommunity radio,marketing the station, audienceresearch methods,radio laws andethics.

In addition, every-one working with acommunity radiomust be well

versed in the Code of Conductbeing applied.

Categories and Phases of

Training

The training required for broad-casters falls into two broad categories:

• Introductory training needed forthem to able to function at theminimum level of competencerequired;

• Refinement of their skills untilthey become fully competent inone or more broadcasting rolee.g. programme producer,announcer, reporter, studio

technician, etc. In many smallcommunity radio stations, peoplehave to learn to function in any orall of these roles.

Introductory Training

This should cover three basic typesof content:

• The philosophy of communityradio and its role in news, enter-tainment, and education, andparticularly in change and development;

• The principle factors in the codeof conduct for community broadcasters;

• The use of broadcasting equip-ment and basic programme production.

Some community radios manage toprovide this basic training in anintensive introductory course lasting about three weeks and heldin the community. The courseshould include a large amount ofhands-on training, as indeed shouldall types of broadcaster training.

The introductory training providedwhen starting a community radioservice will, of course, need outsidesupport both in terms of trainersand funding. The trainers can comefrom other well-established com-munity or public-service broadcast-ing stations in the country.

The introductory training can be

used to help the selection process

for staff. It is useful to include more

trainees than the staff actually

needed and to select the best of

them at the end of the course.

Once a community station is up

and running, new personnel can

often be given their basic training

by working with the already

competent staff, learning by doing,

supplemented with sessions to

cover aspects such as the philosophy,

code of conduct, and other

conceptual issues of community

radio.

Refinement of Skills

Community broadcasters need to

take part in a continuous process of

learning. Even veterans often learn

something new from others, from

reading, or from some reaction in

the community to a programme

they have produced. In addition,

new technology is being intro-

duced all the time.

Refinement of skills to a certain

extent comes naturally through

learning-by-doing, but this is not

enough. There are several ways that

broadcasters can be helped to

improve their performance.

Listening is all important, listening to feedback, listening to opinions, listening togood music and to one’s own singing! At the Children’s Center in Olongapo,

Philippines, Shirley listens to a recording for the morning show.

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Formal Training Courses Either

On-site or In-country: Usingnational or international trainers,short training workshops can beorganized on specific aspects ofbroadcasting and programme pro-duction.

This type of training is most effec-tive and economical if traineesfrom several different communityradio stations can be broughttogether. This has the additionalbenefit of opening doors forfuture contacts, cooperation andinterchange between various stations. For example, it is veryuseful to have staff from one community radio help to evaluatethe programming and work of another. Their outsider percep-tions can be invaluable, and at thesame time they learn from theexperience.

Training Attachments to

Other Radio Stations: It is oftenpossible to come to an arrange-ment with another, more experi-enced, community radio or public-service station to send trainees fora period of work with them. Insome countries, notably SouthAfrica, the station that pioneeredcommunity radio has become atraining centre for other stationswith less experience. This has several advantages, particularly in

terms of low costs and sharing ofexperience. If the attachment is toanother community radio, and toa successful one, the trainees mayalso learn how certain problemshave been solved and how innova-tive and creative ideas are beingapplied in programming.

Care should be taken aboutattachments to commercial stations. Their philosophy is so different from that of communityradio, that even if a trainee learnssome technical aspects of programme production, he/shewill learn nothing about using radioas part of social development.

Overseas Fellowships: Many ofthe world’s major broadcastingorganizations run training coursesin their home country. Amongthese are Radio Netherlands, theB B C , a n d D e u t s ch e We l l e .Governments and developmentagencies are sometimes willing toprovide fellowships for communitybroadcasters to follow a course atone of these training centres. Thiswill certainly give the trainees avaluable learning experience in allaspects of radio production, butthere may be certain disadvantagesas explained in the next section.

On-Site, In-Country, or Overseas

Training?

There are pros and cons to each ofthe above.

On-site training in the communitywhere the radio station operatesprovides the most realistic possibletraining venue: the group oftrainees work with the equipment,with the people, and in the circumstances of their futureactivities. It also saves the cost oftravel and subsistence for thetrainees.

The main disadvantage of on-sitetraining is that the trainees, part ofwhose motivation may well becareer prospects, may feel that thisis “second-class” training compared to going, say, to thecapital city for a course, or to acourse in another country. Thus,they may feel less motivated.

In-country training in a courserun in a location other than theirown community has more prestigevalue to the trainees, as does atraining attachment with anotherradio station. Other advantagesare the contacts and interchangethat can develop for the futurefrom a period of working withother professionals in the samefield.

“Most people think of radio as a ‘one-to-one’

medium, reaching out to a single anonymous

mass public. This concept is reflected in early

communication research on air-dropping

leaflets, ‘injecting’ information into what is

considered a population basically characterized

by its sameness.

And yet, at the other end of radio transmission, at each

listening set, there are usually only two or three individual

people, real persons. And sometimes our ears are captured

by the natural talent of interpersonal communication,

voices addressing each individual in a large audience –

politicians, religious leaders, a person-oriented

disc-jockey, or even an outstanding news announcer.

They speak with natural charm, a built-in capacity

to hold an audience, a charisma to catch even

non-believers in their spell. They speak from a inner core

of conviction and draw others to them by appealing to

their inner core of questioning, of doubt, and of hesitation.

One might say that theses broadcasters are successful

because they defy the conventional rules of media.

They do not read scripts, they read meaning, the script

acting only as a prompt to the deeper significance of their

messages. The microphone is only an electronic

intermediary between them and the persons in the

mass audience.

They speak not to the microphone, but through the

microphone to people, with people. They use media,

despite media, to reach people. This is a very particular

sense of interpersonal media that seems to have

been lost today.”

Carlos A. Arnaldo

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Overseas Training is the mostprestigious and expensive of all,and, it will almost certainly opencareer opportunities beyond theradio station of the trainee’s community. This is precisely one ofthe disadvantages of overseastraining in terms of staff stability.But there are other disadvantagestoo, notably that the technical andworking conditions of an overseassituation may cause the trainee tobecome dissatisfied when he/shereturns to the simpler community

station at home, increasing theprobability that he/she will acceptan offer from a mainstream station.Finally, overseas training, howevertechnically rewarding, is outsidethe trainee’s normal cultural context, and this may reduce itsapplied value.

Financing of Training

There are a variety of sources offunding for training of communitybroadcasters. When internationaldevelopment agencies or NGOshelp to finance the initial equip-ment for a station, they usuallyinclude a training component inthe project. This will normallycover at the very least the introduc-tory training for the start-up phase,but it may also include refinementof skills over a longer period oftime.

Development agencies and NGOsmay also grant fellowships to com-munity broadcasters. Some ofthese may be for overseas training,but many are also for in-countrytraining courses or for assignmentsthat are part of a training experi-ence.

Specific development projectswithin a country may be anothersource. For example, when a pro-ject - say one for environmentalprotection or health - wants support from radio programmes,the funding agency may wellfinance the training of broadcastersso they will make the best possibleprogrammes on that project.

Whatever the sources and types oftraining in a given country, themanagement of a community radio

should be constantly alert to thetraining needs of the staff. On theone hand, increased competenceleads to increased job satisfactionand tends to enhance staff stability.On the other hand, there willalmost inevitably be high staffturnover in a situation where mostof the staff are unemployed volun-teers. The management musttherefore be ready to arrange forthe fairly constant training ofreplacements.

1 Tambuli Project Management. Community Broadcasters -Code of Conduct. UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project(Manila, 1998).

2 Op. cit.

3 Op. cit.

4 Quote: Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams, Bush Radio 98.5 FM,South Africa (See Case Study 4).

5 Quote: Bruce Girard. Radio Chaguarurco.(See Case Study 5).

6 Martin Allard. Technología Adaptada, InteRadio, Volume 9,No.1, 1997, AMARC (Montreal, 1997).

7 See the Case Study 4, Bush Radio 89.5 FM

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Homa Bay UNESCO project fixing the transmitter.

Chapter 8

Case Studies

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The following section contains five case

studies of community radio stations in

Asia (Philippines and Nepal), Africa,

(Ghana and South Africa) and Latin America

(Ecuador). Their authors are all intimately

connected with the stations and provide inter-

esting insights into how they set up their oper-

ations, how they handled the problems they

encountered, and what the results have been.

For this reason, they are important to anyone

involved - or who wants to become involved - in

community radio.

The case studies were edited by the authors of

the main body of the handbook. They were for-

ced to reduce their length considerably, while

maintaining their original structure. They hope

to have left the essential information intact.

Certain parts, especially of an anecdotal nature,

were taken out of the original case studies and

put into the main body of the handbook.

Olutanga, an Unlikely Community for a Radio

Station?

In the 1970s, the island of Olutanga, in MindanaoProvince, was the scene of frequent, heavy fightingbetween warring Muslims and Christians. Towncentres were razed to the ground following onesuch encounter.

However, two decades after the bloody conflicts,Muslims and Christians now live peacefullytogether on the island. The minority Muslims areconcentrated in the north-east and southern sec-tions. The island has a sparse population ofapproximately 35,000 people, mainly concentra-ted in three towns.

Despite today’s relative calm, however, a heritageof past instability and danger still shows: mosthouses are built of light materials as if no one isreally happy to settle permanently on the island.The 18-kilometre dusty or muddy road, dependingon the season of the year, stretches the length of theisland and is used only by a few four-wheelvehicles. Carabao-drawn sleds, tricycles, horsesand travellers on-foot share the thoroughfare.

Most of the residents of Olutanga eke out a livingfrom non-irrigated agriculture and marginal fishcapture in the over-exploited marine grounds.

A few traders have established businesses by catering to what the majority of poor people canproduce or buy.

There are two high schools, both run by religiousmissionaries. The one that serves the northerntowns of Mabuhay and Talusan is attended by lessthan 300 students. Another high school in thetown of Suba-Nipa at the southern end of theisland also has limited enrolment. There are no tertiary or vocational schools. Very few parentscan afford the high cost of sending their childrenfor tertiary to metropolitan centres on the largersurrounding islands.

Government services in education, health, lawenforcement, etc. are minimal. No bank operateson the island, and there are very poor communica-tion facilities, except for numerous hand-held veryhigh frequency (VHF) transceivers.

Visitors to the island are therefore astonished tofind that this island, eight hours away by boat fromthe city of Zamboanga, operates a radio station.The islanders themselves were incredulous whenthe facility was proposed to them in 1993 by theTambuli Project. They became even more doubtfulwhen full control of the station were also offeredto them.

RADIO IN, FOR, ABOUT, AND BY THE COMMUNITY IN THE PHILIPPINES

by Louie N. Tabing

Olutanga - a Perfect Location for a Tambuli Radio

Station

The first community radio station in Mindanao wasinitially recommended by some local Catholic leadersto be in Ipil, not in Olutanga. But Ipil did not meetTambuli’s criteria; it was too prosperous, and it wasalready a centre of economic growth.

Tambuli was looking for communities that were infor-mation-poor, economically depressed, conducive toFM signal propagation, with good prospective coope-rators, and where a community radio station wouldmake the most impact. Olutanga, 40 kilometres outto sea, met those criteria perfectly. It was certainlyimpoverished and isolated. It was also relatively flat,so signal propagation for a low-power FM transmitterwould not be a problem. One thing, however, wouldbe missing - a local cooperating institution. Onewould have to be developed.

Initial Visit and First Meetings

A first consultative conference, held at the Catholicconvent, was a hurriedly arranged by VHF radio. Lessthan ten leaders attended. Several of them weremunicipal officials, including the vice-mayor of thetown, the parish priest and others who expressedtheir suspicions of the project. They were quick topoint out that only a month before somebody fromManila had collected money from people, allegedlyfor theatre training. The stranger had then left withthe money and was never heard of again. I had to assurethem that no person, equipment or money would leaveOlutanga during the proposed radio project.

What is really your objective then? They asked. Areyou selling the equipment? Will you be selling radio

sets? If you are really from UNESCO,why don't you build schools for us?Where is the catch?

Such questions were freely aired after we told thelocals that Tambuli would like to help them set up acommunity radio station. Nevertheless, the prospectof having the facility and operating it was inviting tocommunity leaders. The municipality could use it fordissemination of information. The station could be aconvenient vehicle for public service. The youngpeople could use it for "requests and dedications."

During the one-and-a-half-hour meeting, somecopies of our Tambuli Primer, an illustrated comic-likepublication explaining the project, were passedaround, and the radio idea was discussed further. Wemanaged to arouse the interest of the locals, and atthe same time we heard some salient information onthe political and social dynamics of the area. I was notworried by the people who questioned the genuine-ness of our intentions. It is understandable for animpoverished community to be wary and suspiciouswhen something is offered for nothing.

It was agreed that before the next meeting, each ofthe sectors represented at the first would consult witha wider number of people. And they might submit aresolution reflecting the views and feelings of theirsectors. The interim period would give them time toconsult with their constituencies. It would give themtime to check on our true identity and objectives as well.

Some 25 key sectoral leaders attended the secondmeeting a few weeks later. Educators, farmers, fisher-men, women, people from different religious groups,tricycle operators and motorcycle drivers came.Contending political parties were also present.Surprisingly, the early doubts about the project haddisappeared. Many leaders brought resolutions welcoming the setting up of the radio station.

Succeeding meetings established a core group of leaders who would handle the affairs of the project.

An interim body was constituted from among thosepresent. The leaders elected a set of officers, andthese were eventually registered as the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation (OIMDF). A dynamic municipal councilwoman, Meriam Aranasheaded it.

One of the first decisions to be made by theFoundation was the location of the station. Followingthe recommendation that a community radio stationshould be free from the control of political parties andreligious groups, the local leaders decided that thestation should not be housed in the convent. Norshould it be located in the municipal building, whichwas perceived as a political place. The offer by muni-cipal officials to accommodate the station would onlybe accepted if a building or a lot were donatedwithout strings attached. In order to accept dona-tions, enter into agreements, employ personnel andadminister the station, the organization needed to bea juridical entity. It was therefore decided that OIMDFwould need to be registered with the Securities andExchange Commission.

Soon a new group emerged from among theFoundation members. It was pointed out that theTambuli Primer states that there can be a CommunityMedia Council (CMC) - separate from the formallyregistered organization - to make decisions about theradio and its operations. They contended that theFoundation members were permanent, whether theywere performing well or not, whereas the Councilmembers could be replaced yearly if they did not per-form well. Hence, a CMC of about 11 members wasalso formed. It was headed by Napoleon Aboc, a businessman, who was also a retired policeman.

It soon became evident that the CMC and theFoundation were contending factions polarizedtowards either Aboc or Aranas, who were each identi-fied with a distinct political grouping. Tambuli Project76

Management recognized that, instead of workingharmoniously together, frictions would divide the leaders as a result. Re-uniting the leadership thusbecame a long and delicate process.

Locating and Setting up the Technical Facility

During the initial stage of the project, there was someobvious lobbying from certain leaders of Suba-Nipato have the station placed in that southern town. Theycontended that Suba-Nipa had the biggest populationof the three towns.

The Tambuli Project Management provided criteriafor the selection of the studio site including: accessi-bility to participants and community members; secu-rity of the equipment; low rental or expenses e.g. forrenovation; technical factors related to signal propa-gation; availability of power; proximity to an elevatedsite for the antenna; and neutrality, such that no particular groups could monopolize or dominate, nordeter the participation of other groups.

Long and agitated discussions took place on wherethe station should be located. Since the majority ofthe participants were from Mabuhay and Talusan,these prevailed. The station would be in the northernpart of the island. A 20-watt transmitter in Mabuhaywould provide the best coverage of the island. Anauxiliary station might later be considered for Suba-Nipa.

With the leaders of the Catholic Church as the project's initial contacts, our main host in the islandbecame the parish priest of Mabuhay. He consentedto our using the convent as a temporary project site.The parish priest, and later his successor, both took anactive role in the project, while at the same timeadopting an unassuming stance. The involvement ofthe clergy added status and dignity to the project and

helped to dissipate speculations that it was politicallymotivated.

The station became operational in June 1993, its provisional studio being located in the convent. Someof the leaders close to the Catholic Church hoped thatthe convent would become the permanent studiosite. Others, contending that there were certain publicissues on which the Church held manifest positions,expressed reservations on using the convent perma-nently. Religious leaders of other denominations, theysaid, would have second thoughts about participatingin broadcasts.

After drawn-out discussions, it was decided that thestation would temporarily be operated at the premises of the Catholic Church. However, it wouldeventually relocate to a "neutral", permanent site.

Installation of Equipment

The Project engineer, Romy Carballo, personally installed the equipment. About five local technicians,to whom he gave orientation and training, assistedhim. The equipment was basically the same as that listed in Box 4 in Chapter 4.

The radio station was operating on a test-broadcastbasis in time for a training course on community radioprogramming and production to be held. It coveredapproximately a 10-kilometre radius, reaching all corners of the island, although the signal reaching thetown of Suba-Nipa was rather weak. The engineerassured the residents that the signal would reach further when the station was transferred to a newbuilding where the antenna could be raised to about100 feet.

Training Islanders to be Broadcasters

It was agreed that some 15 broadcast volunteerswould be trained for three weeks. A set of criteriafor the selection of trainees was agreed betweenthe CMC, the Foundation and Tambuli. The localleaders - the Foundation and the CMC - wouldscreen the applicants. If possible, there would a bereasonable balance between women and men,ethnic groupings, religious denominations, andpolitical affiliations.

Of the 35 people who applied for the trainingcourse, only 15 were selected. Three of those notchosen offered to attend the course as observers.Farmers, fishermen, women, Muslims and youngpeople were represented. Two elementary schoolteachers, a para-military soldier and the electionregistrar were also in the group.

Two of the participants had to walk seven kilo-metres daily to the training site and sometimesthey had to be at the radio station at five a.m. inorder to start the programme of test-broadcasts.Most of the other trainees walked at least a fewkilometres.

The training team was led by an instructor fromthe University of the Philippines' Institute ofDevelopment Communication who works withradio DZLB of Los Baños, Laguna. He was supportedby the Project staff. The course consisted of lectures, practical work, evaluation and actualbroadcasts. The training subjects included: radiotalks; voice performance; scriptwriting; newsgathering, writing and delivery; magazine programme production; production of radiospots, jingles; public-service announce-ments; participatory productions in the community; radio laws and ethics; basic

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communication theories and practices; and program-ming for a community radio station. A one-day exposure visit was made to existing radio stations inPagadian City.

The trainees were given the chance to recommendprogramming formats and broadcast hours for theradio station, as well as to choose their leader. ValToto Samonte, who was elected station manager, wasa seemingly unlikely choice as a member of the para-military unit in the area. We in the TambuliManagement could not see that a soldier would besuitable to run a community radio station. But it turned out that Toto was the right choice, for he hadleadership qualities, with a balanced social outlook.He proved dedicated volunteer.

Building the Studio

Recognizing the potential importance of the stationin the community, the local government of Mabuhaydonated a 400 sq. m. plot to the Foundation for a proper studio to be built.

A drive to raise money for the construction of the stu-dio building was launched. The fact that the radio sta-tion was already going on air helped to convince com-munity members to contribute. Initially, a "Piso-piso"(one peso per person) campaign was conducted.Many were happy to give not one but five or tenpesos each.

A raffle was also organized. Tickets were distributedto local residents and visitors as well as to the nearbytowns. Each ticket, in booklets of twenty tickets, wassold for 100 pesos (US$ 3.50). Among the prizes werea cow, sacks of rice, and home appliances. In spite of

hopes for bigger proceeds, the drawnetted only around P50,000 (US$1,500) for the Foundation.

With contributions from the provincial governmentand from the Tambuli Project, a 25-square meter studio building and 100-foot antenna tower wereerected in May 1994. Carpenters, as well as volunteerstaff and other residents, helped construct the bungalow-type concrete building.

This was partitioned into an announcer's booth, technician's post and receiving-working area. Withoutadequate ventilation, the announcer's booth becametoo hot during the day and particularly in the summermonths. So a local politician pledged an air-conditioningunit. It took more than two years, however, for thepromise to materialize.

As well as providing a new home for the studio, thebuilding accorded the radio station an independentstatus. It also served as testimony to the community’senthusiastic participation in the project . Moreover, itgave every Olutangan a rightful claim to ownership ofthe station.

Eventually, a 20-watt relay station had to be installedto cover the portion of Suba-Nipa that was not recei-ving the Mabuhay transmissions properly. But therewere also occasions when the second station genera-ted its own programmes, using a karaoke player-recorder to cater to the people of Suba-Nipa. Thetransmitter was installed in the house of the localyouth leader.

An Island that Survives on Radio

One astonishing discovery was that despite thepoverty of the island many people owned portableVHF amateur transceivers. In the coverage area of theOlutanga station, there were about 100 of thesetransceivers, known generically as Icoms, thecommonest brand name. Some had been distributedby the government to Barangay leaders but, amazingly,

many were privately owned. Many of them were not properly licenced, and is not clear where they all camefrom. Some may have been illegally smuggled in,while others may belong to informers for rebel orMuslim secessionist groups in the region.

Regardless of whether or not they were covered bygovernment permit, the VHF receivers were soon putto a good purpose, Toto Samonte seizing the oppor-tunity to organize a radio club among VHF radioowners. More than 50 people attended the first callfor an organizational meeting where officers wereelected. In 1995, I conducted a two-day workshop onhow the radio club members could participate in thebroadcasts.

Today, the Icom owners make up a wide network ofnews gatherers, information feeders and regular participants in the programmes of the station(Tambuli supplied the radio station with a VHF base unit).

These VHF radio owners have multiplied the capacityof ordinary citizens to access the station, by makingtheir equipment available to everybody in the neigh-bourhood either for serious information or for simplesocializing purposes, such as song dedications andgreetings. The radio station has served as the nervecentre for this regular and dynamic interaction.

By incorporating the VHF transceivers, the station hasstimulated the participation of hundreds of people onthe island, in a similar way to using the telephone inthe big cities. The portable transceivers allow a variety of people from all corners of the communityto discuss individual and community problems on air,covering everything from romance to politics or theeconomy.78

Programming the Voice of Olutanga

Tingog sa Olutanga (The Voice of Olutanga) goes on theair daily, on broken schedule: from 05.00 to 07.00 h;11.00 to a 13.00; and 18.00 to 20.00 hours.

The station runs mainly news and public-affairs pro-grammes anchored by a main personality. Other pro-ducers and reporters join in with features, news, tipsand regular programme segments.

Field reports coming from residents who own VHFtransceivers make up most of the news and public-affairs programmes. The volunteer reporters havebeen instrumental in bringing more timely informa-tion, news, and public service to the islanders.Credited to the radio reporters are: news of delaysand cancellations of ferry services; information on theavailability of fruit tree seedlings, piglets, or otherfarm inputs for farmers; information about agricultu-ral meetings; details on lost items, and help for thesick. On one occasion, a jail escapee was quickly recap-tured thanks to the radio.

A popular programme is the weekly Baranggayan saKahanginan. This features items produced in the vil-lages using the karaoke or song playback/recordingmachine. Thus, ordinary people with absolutely notraining in radio organize programmes in their ownneighbourhood, the taped programme consisting ofsongs, panel discussions, interviews, homemakingtips, poetry, etc. While programme elements aremainly entertainment and cultural, community pro-blems are also discussed openly. The taped program-me is then sent to the station for immediate airing.Freely ventilated, opinions and criticisms keep leadersand government officials constantly on the alert. Andthey find an opportunity to respond to people'sviews.

Since people have been conditioned by commercialradio to want entertainment, listeners demand that

the station air music programmes. Some evening slotsare therefore devoted to music requests and dedica-tions, which include valuable life thoughts for reflection.Religious programmes find their place at weekendswhen the various denominations are given air time.The Sunday Mass is broadcast live for the predomi-nantly Catholic community, as are services by otherreligious leaders, whether Muslims or Protestants. As in other Tambuli stations, the programming is proposed by the staff and approved by theCommunity Media Council.

Volunteer Staff

There are some six people who regularly anchor thedaily programmes, with about a dozen others contri-buting portions and materials. All the anchors, inclu-ding the station manager, work on volunteer basis.They have other sources of livelihood, such as fishing,teaching, farming, tending a store, or working in themunicipal government. The main anchors receive asmall allowance to cover their transportation to andfrom the studio.

Seven volunteer technicians, who have received training both on production and equipment opera-tion, take daily turns at the station. One of them is alicenced radio communication operator. Others areeither electricians or electronics repairmen.Announcers and technicians who participate regularlyare given a small honorarium from the regular contri-butions received by the station from the community.

In addition, however, most announcers and techni-cians are the beneficiaries of a livelihood loan grantedby Tambuli and administered by the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation. This liveli-hood project aims to help them become engaged in achosen livelihood project with a cost, on average, of

approximately P5,000 (US$120). For this purpose,a workshop on entrepreneurship and micro-projectswas conducted by an expert from the University ofthe Philippines' Institute for Small Scale Industries.

Most of the recipient volunteers chose an activitywith which they were familiar and which wasappropriate to their situation, such as duck raising,rice trading, upholstery making, operating amechanical repair shop, fish farming, pig raising,etc. Ninety percent of the staff livelihood projectparticipants were successful in their endeavourand have expressed readiness to pay back theirloans.

The rest of the participants in the radio project,including members of the Community MediaCouncil, work on a purely voluntary basis. Indeedas at most other Tambuli sites, staff members donot receive any honorarium or allowance.

Olutanga Dreaming

"Olutanga will be the best island in the Philippines!"Great optimism is present in Toto Val Samonte’svoice every time he makes this statement over theradio. But for some islanders, the hope thatOlutanga will be able to extricate itself from economic and geographic disadvantage is still a dream.

However, Toto exudes confidence as he discusseshow self-help projects and perseverance can putthe islanders forward on the air. The probability ofOlutanga becoming the most highly developed ofthe region’s islands may still be small,but I for one am an admirer of Toto forhis selfless dedication and tirelessefforts.

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Political and Legislative Context

In 1990, Nepal changed from a monarchical non-partysystem to a parliamentary model. A new constitutionenshrined the right to freedom of expression, specifi-cally the right for citizens to demand and receiveinformation on any matter of public importance. Thiswas followed by policy and practical guidelines: in1992, a National Communications Policy; in 1993, aNational Broadcasting Act; and in 1995, BroadcastRegulations.

Prior to 1995, radio broadcasting was the exclusivedomain of Radio Nepal, the state broadcaster establi-shed in 1951. An attempt in 1984 to establish an independent station with support from UNESCO andGermany was not approved. Even after 1990, theauthorities were slow to relinquish monopoly controlof broadcasting. The first licence was granted in 1997,four-and-a-half years after the initial application, toRadio Sagarmatha, Nepal’s first independent, community-based public-interest radio.

The Media Environment in Nepal

The mountainous nature of Nepal is ill suited to cover-age by electronic media or to the mass circulation ofprint media. Access to all types of media is also limited bywidespread poverty, low literacy levels - especially amongrural women - and a very low level of electrification.

Until the coming of a democratic system in 1990, theelectronic media - Nepal Radio, Nepal Television(established in 1984), and the official print media -two daily newspapers - were controlled by thegovernment. Programmes and content, mainly gene-rated in Kathmandu, are considered largely irrelevantto the rural population who make up some 80% ofthe total. Private media have increased in number butgenerally suffer the same limitations.

The liberation of the airwaves from state controlbrought commercial radio to Nepal. Initially, RadioNepal established a FM frequency designed to generate revenue to subsidize its national AM service.The channel was sub-let to five commercial operatorsbroadcasting mainly pop music aimed at young,affluent urban dwellers.

Given the limitations and constraints of nationalmedia and the commercialized and non-indigenouscharacter of the new FM ventures, many journalists,independent media organizations and developmentagencies now envision small community-basedpublic-interest radios throughout the country as analternative. Radio Sagarmatha is a start in this direc-tion. (Sagarmatha is the Nepali name for Mt. Everest.)

The Long Battle for a Licence to Broadcast

The battle for the licence was long and hard. The mainorganization in the campaign was the Nepal Forum ofEnvironmental Journalists (NEFEJ), joined later byother organizations committed to seeing some inno-

vation in the country’s communication system toaddress the needs of the new democracy. Theirstrategy was local FM radio and their goal becameRadio Sagarmatha (RS).

The main obstacles were an unstable political environment, conservative politicians, bureaucratsdisinclined to change and the monolithic presence ofRadio Nepal. Drawn into the fight were figures ofnational prominence, professional associations,NGOs, the print media - including the government-owned dailies - foreign embassies, and UN organiza-tions. There were four changes of government duringthe struggle, and with each new one, the lobbying andpersuasion had to begin again.

In 1993, there was an international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu. The then Minister of Communicationswas a principle guest. He was positively impressed andengaged NEFEJ in discussions about the next steps forlegislative guidelines and regulations. But then theGovernment fell, and his successor was less receptive.

NEFEJ wrote an open letter concerning the situationand appealing for support from local groups as well asfrom foreign delegations to Nepal. The strategy yielded results, but just as the Minister seemed to becoming around, the government again fell.

While the struggle was in progress, practical prepara-tions were being made to set up the radio station.Using the resources and radio production experienceof NEFEJ, and with financial support from UNESCOand others, training and equipment acquisition was80

RADIO SAGARMATHA: A CASE STUDY FROM NEPAL

by Ian Pringle

begun. By the end of 1996, the foundations for a radiostation were soundly placed. Only a licence was missing; it was still not forthcoming, despite the legislation in its favour.

By early 1997, the battle had been carried into theinternational media. The station had equipment andtrained staff, but almost five years of struggle, waitingand playing by the rules had brought no licence. The key players were emboldened to take risks ofpunishment for unlicenced broadcasting: one year injail and a heavy fine.

In early April 1997, NEFEJ requested a temporarylicence to test its set-up. The request was met withsilence. Acting on legal advice, NEFEJ decided tobegin five days of test broadcasts anyway. The govern-ment was confused as to who was transmitting, untilon the third day, RS’s programme director deliberate-ly informed the authorities. After a few hours a letterarrived from the Ministry of Communicationsdemanding who had provided permission for thebroadcasts. The government threatened strongaction, reminding the station that their transmissionswere illegal.

These events made news. Local and internationalmedia publicized the confrontation. The two govern-ment-owned dailies even published sympathetic stories on their front page. With the offer of free legalcosts, NEFEJ was prepared to take the case to court.

During the controversial test broadcasts, the stationannounced that it would begin full broadcasting, withor without a licence, on 22 May, 1997, the LordBuddha’s birthday, a day of peace. The governmentwas informed that if legal action was taken against thestation, public and media support would be usedagainst it in the upcoming local elections.

Three days later, four-and-a-half years after the appli-cation, the licence finally came. As the Government

official handed it over, he said, ‘You have won thewar’. To which the RS programme director replied,‘Lately, you have obeyed the law!’

The licence that had taken so long to come had 14conditions and restrictions, including: no commercialprogrammes; no political commentary or news onpolitical events; broadcasting for only two hours perday; and submission of a weekly report to theMinistry. Nevertheless, Radio Sagarmatha beganbroadcasting as promised on 22 May, 1997, the firstindependent station in South Asia.

Organizational Establishment

NEFEJ, the driving force behind RS, focuses onenvironmental, development and human rightsissues, working in a variety of media. In the late 1980s,NEFEJ began producing a weekly radio programmeon environment and development that was aired onRadio Nepal. Space for a radio studio was includedwhen NEFEJ moved to a new location in the early1990s, but there was almost no equipment and thebulk of radio programme production was done at thestudios of Radio Nepal.

In 1993, after the international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu, a UNESCO mission to Nepal conducteda one-week course for journalists from NEFEJ andparallel organizations in basic radio production skills.Though operating with a minimum of equipment, thetraining was successful in focusing skills and promo-ting the idea of the station.

Both the symposium and the UNESCO mission solidi-fied local and regional support for the project, drawing in other media organizations and producing a

more detailed proposal for the station than thatcontained in the application submitted the pre-vious year.

The studio equipment for RS began to arrive in1994. For the first time, NEFEJ was able to produceprogrammes in their own studio. Though consideredto be without a licence, RS was producing programmes. In early 1997, when the transmissionequipment arrived, it began moving its operationsto a more technically suitable and clandestine site,the house of one of the key players.

Relations with the Government Since the

Licence

Despite the innumerable difficulties in obtaining alicence, subsequent official relations have beennon-interventionist and productive.

By late 1998, the Minister of Communications wassympathetic to community radio and many pen-ding and new applications had been approved. RShad its licence extended to 13 and then to 24hours per day; it was granted permission to acceptcommercial advertising and to rebroadcast theBBC Nepali Service and BBC World Service inEnglish; and it was licenced to provide a mobileservice to be broadcast anywhere in the country.

Training and Recruitment

These have been integrated in the sense that per-formance during training courses and fellowshipshas been used to select staff. Most ofthe current staff and volunteers comefrom a journalistic background.

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Following the first UNESCO-supported training course (1)

in 1993, further courses and fellowships were organizedin 1994 and 1995. NEFEJ and the Nepal Press Instituteworked with UNESCO, Panos (London), DANICOM,and Worldview International Foundation for theseactivities. The fellowships provided opportunities fortrainees to produce radio programmes on specifictopics. Thus, there was an integrated plan for training/fellowships, programme production, andselection for employment.

Further training in 1996 and 1997 was supported byODA (Great Britain) and Deutsche Welle (Germany).The former required programmes on communityforestry. The partnership included training in inter-viewing skills, producing issue-based radio, programmeassemblage and production. Deutsche Welle supporteda training course for less experienced staff from RSand from other FM stations on basic radio production.

In October 1997, a small, focused, on-the-job trainingprogramme was organized for RS production staffwith the assistance of a Danish journalist working inNepal. The three weeks of training honed trainees'practical all-round skills. The programme was moreindividually-oriented than previous courses had beenand it involved instruction, assignment of tasks andcritique.

A second such course, which included more women,was conducted six months later for ten new recruits.In addition, another group of Panos fellowships wasprovided to produce programmes on AIDS/HIV.

Other support comes from Radio Netherlands whoprovided a fellowship in 1998 for a person to go totheir training centre in Holland for four months. The

Centre for International Studies andCooperation, a Canadian NGO, supports RS with a general adviser.

Future Training and Recruitment: The station hasyet to implement systematic training for volunteers,but, it has prioritized this in plans for 1999. DeutscheWelle has confirmed its support for an in-house, on-the-job workshop. There will also be regular, locally-driven training courses, with or without external fund-ing or resources. Developing RS as a training resourcefor Nepal and for other countries in the region is astated objective.

Organizational Structure

NEFEJ is the organizational umbrella for RS, thoughthe station has officially become a partnership of fourNepali NGOs: NEFEJ, Himal Association, WorldviewNepal and the Nepal Press Institute.

The station is headed by a seven-member autono-mous Board of Directors constituted by NEFEJ. TheBoard has representation from all four partner NGOsand meets monthly to review and plan activities, setpolicy and provide broad direction for the station.

RS is headed by a station manager/programme director.He sits on the Board of Directors as a member/secre-tary and is responsible for all day-to-day operations.

Staff

RS has the following staff: station manager/programmedirector; six full-time producers; two technicians; amusic librarian; an engineer (on retainer); an accountsofficer; and a station helper. There are some 26 volun-teers who are an increasingly important part of RS'sprogramming and operations. A significant number ofthem are reimbursed for expenses or paid a smallhonorarium.

Women's Participation

RS's informal policy is to develop the capacity andconfidence of women within the organization, provideopportunities to women and, through broadcasts, toinfluence change in the orientation of women's roles.But despite this policy, the cultural bias in Nepal haskept women’s participation low, though there havebeen recent improvements. Women make up about afifth of the production staff and a third of volunteers.

Audience

There has been much audience feedback in the formof letters, phone calls and drop-in visits, from whichsome picture of the station's listening audience can bedrawn. There are listeners among society's decision-making elite as well as in the shops of small mer-chants. There are listeners in rural sectors of the Valleyas well as in urbanized households of the capital. Itappears that listeners are mostly in the over 25 agerange and that they possess some higher education,interest in events and issues in the public domain, orin local music and culture.

Some programmes on RS have targeted specificaudiences, including children and parents, as well asthe Tamang (a minority language) community andwomen working in the home.

Listenership and audience are difficult if not impos-sible to estimate without a comprehensive survey. Butwhat is already clear is that RS has a strong profile asa serious broadcaster and one whose programming isall-Nepali and in the public interest - the thinking person's radio.82

Community Access and Participation

Community participation has been limited comparedto community stations in other parts of the world.The mainstays of production are paid journalists andprogramming is centrally planned, organized anddirected. In many respects, RS sees itself as a publicrather than community broadcaster, a responsiblepublic spokesperson and facilitator as opposed to avehicle for open community participation.

Nevertheless, RS's programming has given hundreds,perhaps thousands, the opportunity to have theirvoices and opinions heard in a public forum. On adaily basis, the station takes its listeners to the streetsand into locations of everyday life as lived by realpeople.

The station's daily public-affairs magazine alsoincludes two regular access spots: the first featuringcomments from listeners who phone in and recordtheir feedback onto an answering machine; thesecond is a vox-pop segment in which producersrecord opinions on a particular topic from people inthe streets.

In a daily segment called It's My Turn Now, differentmembers of the community speak their mind on atopic of their choice. The segment is pre-recorded andbroadcast without editing. To date the platform hasbeen shared by people from a variety of backgroundsand occupations.

Interactive phone-in programming has been delayedby the lack of a hybrid system to interface phone lineswith the studio. RS expected to introduce this in 1999.

Community access exists in co-productions with localgroups. Community groups and local NGOs produceweekly/monthly programmes with technical and production assistance from the station. This is animportant source of programmes as well as a link todifferent segments of the community.

Technical Considerations

The Kathmandu Valley, an almost level basin of some25 by 30 kilometres framed by hills, is an ideal loca-tion for FM broadcasting. The historical, economicand political capital and centre of the country, is hometo the largest concentration of people, 1.5-2 million.

The test broadcasts in April 1997 used a locally madeantenna and were from a low elevation, as were thefirst proper broadcasts beginning a month later. InNovember 1997, the station began looking for a newsite which, at a higher elevation, could improve recep-tion. The one selected after several tests is on the sideof a hill overlooking Kathmandu; it has line of sight tomost areas of the 25 x 30-kilometre basin. A housewas rented and a new studio built.

Since it first went on air officially, the station hasbroadcast daily, even during moves to new sites,except in early 1998 when the transmitter, a 500-wattAllard model caught fire and was damaged. The sta-tion went off the air for 40 days until a 20-wattChinese-made transmitter and a 100-watt amplifierarrived through UNESCO from the Tambuli project inthe Philippines.

The studio and its equipment are essentially the sameas when RS began, apart from some small items and asatellite dish with a tuner/decoder. Upgrading thebroadcast studio and establishing a production facilitywith digital components is now a priority.

Programming

From the outset, Radio Sagarmatha has worked topresent listeners with a combination of issues andentertainment, social discussions and music, as well asbeing a conduit for the variety of voices and opinionspreviously unheard on Nepal's radio channels.

For the daily two hours initially accorded under itslicence, the new station chose 0700-0900 hours.RS introduced itself to the valley's listeners withtwo hours of Nepali music, from rare folk recordings to contemporary popular selections,interspersed with short messages and stationannouncements.

Public Interest: Public-affairs broadcasting iscentral to RS’s mission for a more responsiblemedia and a more pluralistic society. Using fellow-ships, RS early on produced a series of programmes about environmental conditions, cultural and social aspects of different regions ofthe country, AIDS/HIV, community forestry, drinking water, democracy in Nepal, etc. Sinceautumn 1997, RS has been broadcasting a dailymagazine programme called Haamro Khaldo (OurValley), which covers topical issues and brings invoices from a broad cross-section of society. Someof the issues covered have been: meter tamperingby taxi drivers; thieves and pickpockets; prostitu-tion; AIDS, leprosy, TB; increasingly declining airand water quality; child labour; abortion; andchanging gender roles.

In addition, there is a weekly discussion of social,cultural and development issues called Dabali(Community Meeting Place), a blend of the tradition-al Nepali medium and space for public dialogue anddiscussion and the modern medium of radio.

Recently, RS has begun Safa Radio (Clean AirCampaign). Five days a week it broadcasts theresults of air pollution measurements in differentparts of the city. Once a week, the cumulativeresults are discussed on air.

Music and Culture: RS provides a clearalternative to commercial stationsplaying largely pop music; it broadcasts

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almost entirely Nepali traditional, folk and modernmusic with some classical music from other parts ofthe world. It presents one daily and four weekly pro-grammes devoted exclusively to music. A Tamangcommunity group also co-produces a programme inboth languages with Tamang music.

The station has an impressive music collection withmany rare recordings and pieces of authentic national,cultural and historical significance. The collection hasbeen obtained free of cost, with about half of itrecorded from the library of Radio Nepal and theother half from donors.

Nepal has a long tradition of oral folk media. Untilsome 50 years ago, one source of news for communi-ties were artists who spread the word about events,entertained, and educated through specially com-posed songs. RS utilizes these traditions in a dailyserial. The station once invited a musical group from avillage to record some of their music in the studio.They recorded ten songs in the traditional style adaptedto contemporary issues. While in Kathmandu, theyrecorded a new song about an alarming aspect oftheir capital city... the pollution.

Co-productions: Local interest groups produce programmes for a particular audience on a particulartopic. The editorial responsibility for the programmeusually lies with the community group, with RS provi-ding technical support and airtime. In addition to helping to fill the station’s broadcast schedule, theseprogrammes are also an important element of community participation.

Children's Programming: Sponsored by UNICEF,RS commissioned and broadcast a ten-minute serial,

an educational soap opera involving agrandfather tree and a baby parrot.They interact with children who play

and listen at the base of the tree. It is produced by afamed Nepali comedy troupe. The serial is presentedtogether with 20 minutes produced in-house of stories, poetry, discussion and participation by children themselves.

Mobile Radio: On the Road

In November 1998, RS received permission to run amobile radio service anywhere in Nepal using the sta-tion's Kathmandu frequency, 102.4 FM. The idea wasnot to extend RS's Kathmandu service, but rather tobring the idea of local radio to some of the 80% ofNepal's people who live in rural areas and in smallcommunities.

In 1999, a vehicle with a small studio, transmitter anda team of facilitators began to visit rural communitiesto do basic training and demystify radio so that localpeople could become interested in starting their ownstations. RS has always been seen as a starting pointfor wider community-based radio services in Nepal.Indeed, momentum is now building fast, with severalcommunities outside the Kathmandu Valley alreadyon the way to starting stations.

Funding and Costs

The facility set-up, initial operations, training and fel-lowships were financed with international support.UNESCO provided about US$ 65,000. About half ofthis was for equipment. DANIDA provided operatingfunds in the second year, and as already noted, manyother organizations have provided fellowships andtraining. Self-reliance is a priority, and after two yearson air, RS was beginning to operate on locally earnedrevenues. The main strategy for achieving sustainability

is building partnerships with local organizations thatwill provide support as sponsors and co-producers ofprogrammes. The recent lifting of the initial restrictionon commercial advertising has also opened a potentialsource of revenue.

In 1999, the operational budget was US$ 2,750, permonth, of which salaries absorbed about US$1,300.Revenue was estimated at US$ 1,075, mainly from co-productions and sponsorship. The balance of US$1,675 was provided by an operating grant from DANIDA.

1 For a complete view of this basic training and preparation for broadcast, see Carlos A. Arnaldo and Kjell Linder, Establishment of a FM Community Radio (Nepal, IPPC – 352 –NEP 01 Technical report), UNESCO (Paris, 1994).

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“Sagarmatha is the old Nepali name for Mount

Everest and literally means ‘head in the heavens’.

This is what Radio Sagarmatha intends to be, an

intelligence permeating community thinking on

issues of health, environment, education, social

well-being and development of the community by

sharing ideas with all through the radio waves.”

Carlos A. Arnaldo

Introduction and Origins

Radio Ada is a rural community radio station in eastern Ghana. The station started broadcasting on 1 February 1998, and it has won a loyal followingamong its predominantly illiterate audience.

The origins of the station can be traced back to the1950s and 1960s, when the founders got their start inbroadcasting: one with a small radio station inMonrovia, Liberia, that has since been washed awayby the sea, and the other with one of the very firstcommunity radio stations in the Philippines, DZJO,that continues to operate today from its base inInfanta, Quezon. In 1982, one of the founders was instrumental in starting the first community radio inAfrica, the ill-fated Homa Bay station in Kenya, on theshores of Lake Victoria, an experience that drovehome the risks of such a venture in a continent hostileto independent information.

Indeed, there had been an earlier brush with this hostility in 1974, when broadcasting in Ghana was agovernment monopoly. Encouraged by private discussions with key officials in the Government, thefounders of Radio Ada submitted a formal applicationfor what, if approved, would have preceded HomaBay as the first community radio in Africa. The appli-cation was turned down.

Legal Context

It took nearly two decades following this event toopen the way for independent media in Ghana. In1992, constitutional government was restored and,with it, the possibility of a new communicationsscene. The new Constitution, which came into effectin January 1993, states that: “There shall be no impediments to the establishment of private press or media; and in particular, there shall be no law requiring any person to obtain a licence as a prerequisiteto the establishment or operation of a newspaper,journal or other media for mass communication orinformation.”

The process of establishing private broadcasting didnot, however, start until February 1995. That waswhen the Ghana Frequency Registration and ControlBoard (GFRCB) issued guidelines for the submissionof applications to operate private broadcasting stations.

Frequency Allocation

The application for Radio Ada’s frequency was submitted on 17 March 1995 by its legal entity, GhanaCommunity Broadcasting Services, previously registeredas a non-profit company. However, it was not until 16 April 1996 that the application for Radio Ada wasaccepted.

A positive aspect of the delay was that, in the interimperiod, private broadcasting companies had negotiatedmajor reductions in the fees levied for the allocationof a frequency, originally set at the equivalent of

about US$ 13,000 for all stations. In the eventRadio Ada, as a community radio, only had to paya tenth of this, and on 3 May 1996, it was allocatedthe frequency 93.7 FM for a period of five years.This was later changed to 93.3 for reasons that willbe explained later.

Main Factors Considered when Starting Radio Ada

The information in Radio Ada's application to theGFRCB reflected the station’s very specific sense ofidentity, in accordance with the following elements.

Objectives: The key elements that make upRadio Ada’s sense of identity are embodied in itsmission statement. This was crystallized from theexpressed objectives and expectations of the station’s volunteers and from other members ofthe community. The mission statement includesthe following items:

• To support the development aspirations andobjectives of the Dangme people in every sphereof life;

• To give a voice to the voiceless in every contextand at all levels;

• To sustain the dynamic growth of Dangme culture within the national and the global polity;

• In all of this, to encourage, promoteand contribute to informed dialogueand reflective action.

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RADIO ADA, GHANA - A BLESSING ON THE DANGME PEOPLE

by Alex and Wilna Quarmyne

Coverage area and target audience: The primarytarget audience of Radio Ada resides in the fourDangme-speaking districts of Ghana. These are in theeastern sector of the country, within 100 km of Accra.Large parts of them still lack, or have only recentlyreceived, such basic infrastructure as piped water andelectricity. The estimated total population of thecoverage area is 600,000, over 60% of whom areilliterate. Poverty is widespread.

Language: Radio Ada broadcasts exclusively in thevernacular of its audience, Dangme. Dangme comprises five mutually intelligible languages - Ada,Gbugbla, Klo, Ningo and Se. There are marked culturaldistinctions between the speakers of these languages.However, the linguistic interface, and the marginaliza-tion hitherto of the language in the national discourse,give them a special bond as a people. In recent years,there has been an effort in the educational and reli-gious institutions to develop “standard Dangme”, auniform version of the languages. The policy at RadioAda, however, is to use Dangme in its various, originaland native spoken forms.

Location - base area: The station is in Ada in theDangme East District. Theoretically, it could havebeen based anywhere in the coverage area, but one ofthe founders is a native son of Ada, which meant thatthe station started out with a reserve of trust thatfacilitated getting community support and localresources. At the estuary of the Volta River, Ada comprises two contiguous towns, Big Ada and AdaFoah, and their surrounding villages in a virtual cul-de-sac that gives residents a particularly intimate sense ofcommunity. Most residents in the area are engaged infarming and fishing.

Actual site: The site of the station building was chosen because of its easy access to the surrounding

community. It sits in full view on the mainfeeder road to the national highway, atthe junction to Big Ada and Ada Foah.

Name: The station’s on-air name, Radio Ada, isdrawn from its location, although it is a radio stationfor the Dangme-speaking community as a whole, notjust Ada. Because of this, it has often been suggestedthat the station’s name should be “Dangme Radio”.The station has, however, retained the name RadioAda because, while it promotes strong local culturesas a basis for sound national development, it alsoguards against chauvinism.

The building: The Radio Ada building was purpose-designed and built. It provides one on-air studio, twoproduction studios with adjacent control rooms, twooffices and a few small service rooms. The decision toconstruct was taken after it was established thatconverting an existing building, whether purchased orleased, would not be cost-effective.

The design tries to blend the essential elements of aprofessional broadcasting operation with the specialrequirements of a community radio station, especiallythe need for access and the realities of working in arural area. For example, rather than being sealed off,the on-air studio looks out onto the main road, allow-ing anyone who comes to the station to see theannouncer, or even passers-by on the road to ex-change a wave with him. The ceilings are lined with “tsatsa”, a local mat woven out of reeds which hasproven satisfactory acoustically while also giving thestudios a cool and indigenous feel.

Equipment selection: The equipment chosenreflects the station’s dual character as a rural, community-based yet professionally complete broad-casting operation. The items of equipment are thebest options technologically for their price, offeringhigh performance with ease of operation, low energyconsumption, and minimum maintenance.

Transmitter: The transmitter, a 350-watt Mallard unit,has performed exceedingly well in covering the target

area, but it will soon be used only as a standby unit. Itwill be replaced by a 1-KW transmitter to enable thestation to get a stronger signal into the nearby metro-politan areas, where there are sizeable Dangme-spea-king populations, thus expanding its market potential.

Antenna Tower: The tower stands 150 feet high rightnext to the station building. It was built out of piecesof scrapped antennas after the cost of a shorter (100-foot) new tower proved prohibitive. It was hoisted byprofessional riggers working during their own time.

Studio equipment: Two of the three studios are fullyequipped; the third is expected to be equipped soon.The on-air studio equipment consists of two sets eachof professional compact disc players, minidisc and cas-sette recorders/players and a 12-channel audio mixer.The production studios have the same equipment,but of a semi-professional standard. The mix and performance of the equipment has proven entirelysatisfactory.

Field recording equipment: Radio Ada attaches greatimportance to field recording equipment because ofits emphasis on programmes originating in the community. Currently, it has four portable minidiscrecorders and two professional and one semi-professional audiocassette recorders. After some initial resistance to the minidisc recorders becausethey seemed too high-tech, staff now favour them fortheir greater portability, recording quality, precision ofoperation, editing facility and efficient in-built rechar-geable batteries. The high cost of minidiscs has lead toa policy of using them as masters with most programmes being dubbed on to audiocassette.

Funding: With long-term sustainability in mind, itwas decided early that requests for donor fundingwould be limited to equipment. Land and the buildingwere provided from the limited resources of the foun-86

ders. For sentimental reasons, Radio Ada first solicitedfunds for its equipment from UNESCO1, a pioneeragency in community radio. UNESCO regarded therequest favourably but was able to meet less than halfthe cost. The shortfall for the equipment, except forone studio, was covered by the Stem van AfrikaFoundation of the Netherlands and the WorldAssociation for Christian Communication.

Major Elements in Running a Community Radio

At the heart of running this community radio stationare the following elements:

Programmes: Radio Ada broadcasts 17 hours a daybetween 0500-2200 hours. The programmes can bebroadly divided into the following categories: newsand current affairs, socio-economic development,local culture, religious, youth and general interest.Guiding programming is the station’s holistic viewthat regards every programme as a potential tool fordevelopment. The main news offerings are three daily15-minute bulletins and a daily 110-minute newsmagazine programme. The bulletins emphasize localnews, especially stories filed by the station’s volunteerstringers. A 10-minute market report is also broadcaston market days.

Programmes that are specifically development-orien-ted include four weekly half-hour programmes forfour key occupational groups - farmers (women andmen), fishermen, fishmongers (i.e. fishsellers who arealso fish smokers) and drivers - as well as programmeson health, the environment and on literacy and deve-lopment. All these programmes are produced andrecorded in the field, based on the participants'concerns and interests, and they typically include

discussions, interviews and spontaneous perfor-mances of traditional worksongs or other music

The occupational, as well as the literacy programmes,apply the principle of “narrowcasting” and are sandwiched between general-interest programmesduring the optimum listening time for the targetgroup. More occupational programmes are beingdeveloped, e.g. for artisans, traders and teachers, withthe idea that every group in the coverage area shouldfeel it has a “piece of the action” in the station. Inaddition to its news and development-oriented programmes, the station produces a weekly total ofapproximately 30 half-hour programmes in the othercategories. Its programmes on local culture includestorytelling, traditional cookery, Dangme bookread-ing, discussions on various aspects of culture, and adaily half-hour of traditional music featuring localgroups recorded either at the studio or in the field.

One development-oriented programme on the envi-ronment is designed as a travelogue, with the producergoing from village to village each week, highlightingits special features of interest and in the process calling attention to environmental problems. Despitethe soft-sell approach, the message seems to getthrough. Arriving at a village one day, the producernoticed a sudden flurry. He had been recognized, andchildren were sent scurrying by their elders to fetchbrooms and tidy up the area. While this was flatteringconfirmation that the producer’s words were beingheard, the ultimate objective of the station is thatprogrammes should lead to sustained communityaction. This requires attractive, contextual presenta-tions that build on people’s knowledge and that areclosely integrated with interventions on the ground.

Staff: Radio Ada’s staff consists of about 50 volun-

teers. Fourteen work full-time. Twenty producers operate mainly in the field and come tothe station at least once a week to discuss programmes, edit recordings, etc. Ranging in agefrom the early 20s to the early 50s, the volunteersinclude farmers, teachers, hairdressers, masons,civil servants, traders, school leavers and extensionworkers. Approximately a third are women. Abouthalf of the volunteers have full-time jobs outsidethe radio station, while the rest are self-employedor unemployed. When resources permit, theremuneration of a core group of staff will be consi-dered. The founders of the station serve as itsvolunteer executive directors.

Staff training: Prior to their involvement withRadio Ada, none of the staff had had any expe-rience or training in broadcasting. Except for fivewho went for short-term courses in radio produc-tion in Kaduna, Nigeria, all received their entiretraining through courses organized by Radio Ada.This was for two reasons: first, conventional training courses do not emphasize a developmentphilosophy and community-based approach;second, conventional training normally requiresqualifications that are unnecessary or even irrele-vant for a community radio station. The basic criteria for volunteers at Radio Ada are simple andinclusive: commitment to the community, willing-ness to work as a volunteer, and ability to speakDangme and English - the latter because the majority of the trainers did not speak Dangme.

All formal training was organized through a seriesof participatory workshops covering:participatory research tools, basic pro-gramme production, news production,

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and announcing. The workshops, conducted by specialists who support Radio Ada’s objectives, started out with its development philosophy and thenecessary professional concepts and they offeredpractical, hands-on experience. Training, organized invarious forms, has continued as a permanent activityof the station.

Management: Much of the management of the station is done by a committee of seven of the moresenior volunteers. This establishes, implements andmonitors policy on all aspects of the station and alsomaintains the station’s bank account. A station coor-dinator is the acknowledged head but refers routinelyto the executive directors. The decision-making of thecommittee is based on constant consultation witheach other and with other volunteers. Team spirit andself-appraisal are fostered in monthly evaluationworkshops involving all the volunteers, except for thenews stringers who are not resident in the immediatecatchment area.

Community support, access and participation:

Prior to its application for a licence, the idea of settingup Radio Ada was discussed with, and informallyendorsed by, the appropriate traditional leaders andgovernment authorities in the intended host commu-nity. With the allocation of its frequency, the first taskwas to widen the process of building community support. This was concentrated on the station'simmediate catchment area, from which it wouldnecessarily draw its main resources. Built into the pro-cess was the recruitment and training of volunteers.

A community survey was conducted by these volun-teers in July 1996. Its purpose was to introduce the

idea of a development-oriented, ver-nacular station and solicit the ideas ofthe community on programming and

operations. The survey involved over 1,200 respon-dents in 42 villages who gave virtually unanimous,almost emotional, support to the idea of the station.Typical responses from the survey, during a communi-ty meeting, were:

“Yes, FM in Ada will be helpful. We do not hear aboutthings happening on the radio. Anybody who rejectsthis idea must be jailed. In the old days we never hadthis chance. Now when it comes, we must embrace it.Now all of us can listen to our own voices. We cannow listen...in our own mother tongue. It shouldcome now, now.”

The enthusiastic response of the community to theidea of the station has been sustained by the partici-patory character of its programming and operations.To give yet another opportunity for community participation, five minutes are set aside after the midday and evening news for a commentary wherelisteners may record their views on any subject, withthe only proviso that they do not make slanderous orderogatory statements.

One commentary involved the leader of an associa-tion of women fishmongers. Traditionally, it is onlythe men who fish, and it is from them that their wivespurchase fish to smoke and sell. The men sell at theirprice and the women keep any profits they make ontheir sales to consumers for the maintenance of theirhousehold.

In her commentary, the leader of the fishmongers bitterly criticized Radio Ada’s market report and protested against the beating of some members ofher association by their husbands. This is becausewhen Radio Ada started broadcasting the marketnews, the husbands of the fishmongers angrily claimed that their wives were cheating them by sellingat far more than the price they had paid to them.

In a presentation on Radio Ada, it was explained thatthe market prices reflected the cost and time of the12 different processes involved, or value added, bet-ween the time of purchase and the time of sale of thefish. The presentation elicited respect and calmed thesituation.

Audience reaction: Lacking the necessary resources,Radio Ada has not been able to conduct a formal lis-tener survey. However, feedback is constant throughthe staff's interaction with listeners on their recordingtrips and the influx of letters and visits to the station.The feedback is consistent in characterizing Radio Adaas a "blessing on the Dangme community." Lettersand comments from a variety of sources quote precise details, indicating that listeners pay attentionmeticulously to programme content. Many offerconstructive criticism and make suggestions for otherprogrammes. As many letters as possible are respondedto in a weekly mailbag programme.

Reports from the field indicate that whole sections oftowns and villages stop for certain programmes, suchas the series of an indigenous street musician whoweaves local legend and moral tales into song. Formany, the station is clearly their only source of infor-mation of the outside world. It has also become aplayer in the life of the community, being called uponfrequently to establish the veracity of issues andmediate in disputes.

Operational costs: Radio Ada has not solicited anysubsidies for its operational costs. These are intendedto be funded entirely from income from commercialadvertising and from low-priced social announce-ments (e.g. obituaries). Currently, expenditure ismainly for utilities, supplies and, in the absence of astation vehicle, transport allowances which are calculated88

at actual cost. After nearly a year in operation, andeven with an all-volunteer staff, income is running atabout half of expenditure. This is mainly because, withthe many other tasks involved in establishing the station,not enough attention was focused on marketing. It isexpected that with more aggressive marketing, thestation will at least break even by the end of its secondyear of operation.

Problems and Difficulties Encountered

Problems: There were delays in the arrival of mater-ials for the construction of the building, but even so itwas completed in 13 months. The transmission frequency was the most serious problem. After RadioAda’s successful test broadcasts in August 1997, apowerful FM station in Lagos, Nigeria, began opera-ting on the same frequency, effectively jammingRadio Ada and making it impossible to begin fullbroadcasting at Christmas 1997 as planned. Radio Adahad to apply for a new frequency, and 93.3 MHz wasgranted in mid-January 1998, postponing broadcast-ing until 1st February.

Sixteen days later, Radio Ada was surprised by suddenand severe electricity rationing. For a while, it tried tooperate with generators borrowed, firstly, from anNGO and later from a local government department,but neither provided enough power for full opera-tions. The programme schedule was cut to 10 hours aday. But listeners made impassioned pleas throughthe radio station to the local government authoritiesto provide it with a generator. Without Radio Adarequesting it, the Dangme East District Assemblydonated a generator to the station in recognition ofits vital services to the community. The station nowoperates seamlessly through power cuts.

Difficulties: The management of a large corps ofvolunteers presents special difficulties. These areaddressed through dialogue, mentoring, and self-criticism and evaluation. However, even with paidstaff, there would be a shortage of the necessary qual-ities and skills. At the same time, there is a shortage oftrainers with participatory development experience,competence in radio programme production and relevant vernacular language skills.

Another difficulty is that the development servicesare too weak to be able to support and follow up onradio programmes properly. In the circumstances, andsince the task is too important to be postponed, thestation has to try to energize and facilitate those services. Accessing resources to meet all these needs isa full-time job for several people - who do not at present exist.

The station has not yet developed the marketing strategies required for accessing the advertisingpotential of the market. There is a need to introducethe “culture of advertising” to the small enterprisesand traders in the coverage area to generate revenuefor the station. This advertising drive is a task that willrequire care to ensure that the objectives of the station are not compromised.

Main Lessons Learnt

The first year of operation has been an important les-son in validation: for the community, that radio canplay an essential and developmental role in their day-to-day lives; for the volunteers, that they have thecapacity to run and maintain a broadcasting station;and for the station itself, that it provides a vital andappreciated service.

The main lesson learnt is that, in the interests ofsustainability, the commercial aspects should havebeen addressed from the very beginning. Therewas so much pressure to get the station up andrunning that no staff were assigned to “sell” thestation’s services.

This is particularly urgent now because theachievements of Radio Ada have carried their ownmomentum. Overnight, the station outgrew itscapacities. The community response has beensuch that the station is called upon for a greatervariety of outreach services than ever anticipated.The necessary resources exist but the station mustnow help to mobilize them.

The final lesson is more of a reminder: in additionto material resources, knowledge and skills, itneeds faith and solidarity to carry an idea forward- as Radio Ada’s volunteers have amply demon-strated. Admonishing a fellow volunteer for hispriorities in giving more time to party politics thanto the station, a volunteer said: “Party politics is forfour years. Radio Ada will be here forever.”

1 Alex Quarmyne worked with UNESCO for many years promoting community radio.On retirement, he and his wife returned to his home community to start Radio Ada.

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The Context for Community Radio

After years of broadcast monopoly by the (then)Apartheid state's South African BroadcastingCorporation (SABC), "the struggle to free the airwaves" has been won. SABC was restructured andin 1993 an Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA)was established. Since the first licences were issued in1995, South Africa now has more than 85 indepen-dent radio stations, and community radio is here tostay. (See Chapter 3 for details of South African legislation.)

The presence of community radio has changed theface of broadcasting in South Africa. It has recruited acountless number of volunteers and community workers who actively participate in their stations. Inaddition, the sector has managed to attract advertisers,and in certain instances, stations are generating a fairincome from selling airtime and promoting events.However, the stations that have achieved most interms of financial independence are, in one sense, victims of that success: they are often seen as toocommercial to belong fully to the developmentalcommunity radio sector.

The community radio sector has shown, in its shortexistence, a tremendous ability to survive. However,the need to continue developing, training and mostimportantly, to work toward self-sustainability is clear.

Donor support has been excellentover the last few years, especially forbroadcast equipment. Some stations

also receive core funding for daily operations. It seemsclear that for now, donor funding remains one of thefew dependable options for start-up support. Inmoving toward self-sufficiency, many stations haveidentified other possible income sources, the mostprominent of which, apart from advertising, aremembership fees and community fund-raisers.

Getting Started

In the late 1980's, a small group of people interestedin the development of an alternative audio communi-cation system formed an organization that recordedinformation on cassettes in radio format, made dupli-cates, and distributed them in and around Cape Town.

The organization was called CASET (CassetteEducation Trust), located in a small office in Salt River.Its objective was to inform and educate the poor onsubjects like literacy, hygiene, health and of courserelevant political issues. Since its humble beginnings,the initiators of the project always knew that broad-casting would be integral to its long-term educationaland empowerment objectives. CASET began to discuss the idea and its potential, and eventually proposed establishing a community radio facility atthe University of the Western Cape (UWC), just outside Cape Town.

After much deliberation, however, it became clearthat the UWC campus would not be a suitable location: it was too far away to be accessible to theblack community as a whole. In fact, UWC had been

built in 1960 for "coloured" people, a racial definitionthat defined persons of a hybrid origin. The College,located far from the city and surrounded by densebush, soon became known as Bush College and its campus cafeteria radio station was known as Bush Radio.

In due course, CASET was dissolved and recreated asan aspirant community radio initiative. Keeping theoriginal campus name, Bush Radio was born.Constituted in 1992 as a Voluntary Association,owned and operated by its members, it focused ongetting the community on air. The objective was togive black people the opportunity to be broadcasters.Money was needed to keep the initiative afloat. Manydonors were approached until finally the FriedrichEbert Stiftung (FES), a German foundation involved inbroadcasting training, provided support.

News of the FES support spread. The concept of com-munity radio was exciting and applications for trainingfrom all over started to flood in. Bush Radio soonestablished itself as a key trainer and lobbyist for theestablishment of community radio in South Africa.Pressuring the government to grant it a licence tobroadcast and training fledgling stations across thecountry, Bush Radio slowly established both itself andthe concept of community radio as a significant force.

Defiance

After a number of licence applications were rejected,Bush Radio decided to broadcast illegally. In May1993, a group of volunteer activists took the station’s90

BUSH RADIO 89.5 FM, SOUTH AFRICA - PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

by Zane Ibrahim and M. Adams

equipment, including its illegally obtained transmitter,into a room, set it up, and prepared to switch on. Apress release was circulated, a short programme sche-dule was designed, and a song was composed. After afew test runs, Bush was ready. Interspersing shortdrama, talks, short poems, and comic turns, BushRadio went on air.

The broadcast lasted four hours before the authoritiesinvaded the premises and seized the equipment. BushRadio's two key members were charged on threecounts: illegal broadcasting; illegal possession ofbroadcast apparatus; and obstructing the course ofjustice. The case dragged on, but friends and support-ers nationally and internationally understood whyBush Radio members would risk being jailed for theright to be heard. After tremendous pressure fromindividuals and organizations world-wide the statedropped the charges eight months later.

Training and Activism

During the next two years, the country witnessedmassive political change and prepared for its firstdemocratic elections. Meanwhile, Bush Radio contin-ued its quest to get the community on air. It pursuedand vigorously implemented its national training acti-vities. It became the first South African communityradio initiative to join the World Association ofCommunity Radio Broadcasters (AMARC), and contin-ued to champion the cause for the establishment ofcommunity radio in South Africa.

At the beginning of 1993, the FES donated a fullyequipped studio, for the primary purpose of training.It was indeed a wonderful sight. Bush Radio was starting to look like a real radio station.

A full-time training co-ordinator was brought onboard. The courses included: introduction to commu-nity radio; features and documentary production;women and technology; and managing communityradio. The activities were in essence the training oftrainers. Participants were expected to return to theirstations and gradually train their volunteers. Otherorganizations soon became involved, and partner-ships and exchange programmes were establishedwith Deutsche Welle, Radio France Internationale,USIS, and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.

National institutions, including the Institute for theAdvancement of Journalism and the Media TrainingCentre also started to offer radio courses. So a resourceof basic radio production and management skills wasslowly established. Radio training, networking, andlobbying, were together sowing the seeds for today'scommunity radio movement in South Africa.

To promote the cause of community radio further, aNational Community Radio Forum (NCRF) was estab-lished in 1994 to lobby government and co-ordinateand guide the sector. Initially operating from theoffices of Bush Radio, the NCRF later raised its ownfunds, and set-up an office in Gauteng. By the end of1994, more than a hundred licence applications forcommunity stations had been submitted to the IBA.

Licence at Last

In June 1995, exactly seven years after CASET madeits first commitment to get the people on air, BushRadio received its licence. But the IBA had to workwith an inherited frequency plan that could notaccommodate the flood of licence applications. Andbecause of Cape Town's notorious Table Mountain,

they offered Bush Radio a shared frequency, a50/50 split with a community station called C-Flat. Although not perfect, everyone was happy.Bush Radio broadcast daily from 14.00 to 02.00hours and C-Flat took over until 14.00 hours, andso on.

Getting Ready to Broadcast

The mission to get a licence was achieved, and thepeople now had to go on air. Until that time, BushRadio had three full-time staff, a pool of trainedand enthusiastic volunteers, and a well-equippedtraining studio.

Activity now needed to be focused on successfulprogramming, marketing, and fund-raising for anoperational station. In July 1995, Bush Radio helda strategic workshop to assess, plan and establisha common vision for its future activities. BushRadio membership had grown to 1,000 and therewere about 100 active and trained volunteers.Countless NGOs were also keen to support andget involved in the service of community radio.

A schedule of programmes including both enter-tainment and education was debated with themembers. Strong emphasis was placed on repre-senting the culture, language and aspirations ofour local communities with honesty and pride.The three dominant languages in the Cape(Xhosa, English and Afrikaans) were naturallyapproved as the broadcast languages for the sta-tion. The motto we agreed was: "It's yours, itsmine, it’s ours."

With a programme schedule agreed andwith less than eight weeks before going

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on air, volunteers rushed to attend brush-up courses,programming meetings and other preparations. TheSoros Open Society Foundation funded a state-of-the-art broadcast facility.

Finally, Bush Radio began broadcasting at 14.00 hourson 1 September, 1995. This is National Women's Day.As a mark of the importance the station gives towomen in the country’s development, the station haddeliberately chosen to start on that day.

Bush Radio recently relocated to new and larger premises, still in Salt River. The 300 sq.m location, ontwo floors is twice as big as the previous one. Thecomplex is a sophisticated analogue training, produc-tion and broadcast facility, probably the most techno-logically advanced community station in the country.

Sound Management and Community Participation

Bush Radio was originally structured as a VolunteerAssociation, guided by an appointed board of trusteesand an executive committee. Once on air, it was deci-ded that in order to move toward self-sufficiency, anew structure was needed. The Board opted to createnon-profit company, and this has facilitated operatingthe station. It also puts it in a position to attract spon-sorship and support from the business communitybecause a company has a better organizational base.

One of the legal requirements is that a seven-memberboard of directors be set up to account for the assetsand operation of the company. Bush Radio's newlyappointed directors are both highly skilled and fullycommitted to the station. Their portfolios include,

fund raising, programming, market-ing, staff, etc. The board comprisessome of Cape Town's top achievers.

Community participation is at the core of BushRadio's operations. At the outset, it was made clearthat the station is in existence for only one reason: toserve the community. Everyone from the communityis eligible for membership and training. Through itsbroadcasts, productions, and training, the stationmaintains contact with its target communities.

In addition, outside broadcasts held in these commu-nities give access for participation, as well as maintain-ing and expanding the volunteer base, which at present numbers about five hundred; many have beena part of Bush Radio since its inception.

Members come from all sectors of the communityrepresenting various interests, cultures, and languages. They include students, single mothers, thedisabled, gay activists, the unemployed and therecently retired. The members have direct access to allaspects of the station, from administrative and financialmatters to programme content and training needs.Policy discussions and workshops are held once amonth and the community is invited to give theirinputs for running the station. Community controland ownership is thus assured.

Overview of Programming

The challenge is to offer identifiable voices and rolemodels on air. Music programmes focus on non-mainstream music e.g. hip-hop, reggae, R&B, jazz,blues, and jungle, as well as on popular local music.The music slots often include competitions, call-ins,interviews, gig guides, music charts, and even comedy.An objective is to promote local artists and perfor-mers, as well as genres of music not usually availableon commercial radio.

While music is a vital component, the station remainscommitted to tackling issues that engage and educatethe community. It therefore prefers to host discus-sions and air features that facilitate informationexchange, critical thought, and debate. In features andtalk shows, Bush Radio makes available a broadcastplatform for members of the community who ascribeto the objective of "true" development. Recently, itlaunched a refugee programme, run by refugees, withthe aim of informing the public of their plight.

Some specific regular programmes are:

Backchat: Representatives of various communityorganizations explain the role they play and how thecommunity can access their services. From discussionsand calls during these programmes, it appears thatnot enough has been done to inform the communityof the various organizations that can help them.These services include help for rape victims, health,childcare, pensions for the aged, etc.

Community Law: Produced by 4th and 5th year UWClaw students, factual information that the generalpopulation seldom has explained to them is providedon a variety of issues. Care is taken to carefully outlineeven the simplest of laws or human rights. Phone-insegments of the show have proved to be extremelypopular, while written requests for information arealso encouraged.

Everyday People: This daily, 3-hour programme is inmusic magazine format. It uses mainly local music andits emphasis is on township developments. The musicis interspersed with public-service announcements,information bulletins, notice-board news, competi-tions and call-ins. It has a high profile in the commu-nity, and it is the only local youth programme thatreflects the dialect and personality of Cape Town’sXhosa speaking people.92

TRC Report: The Truth and Reconciliation

Commission (TRC) was established to help the nation

heal itself after Apartheid. Bush Radio hosted a member

of the commission on a fortnightly basis. The commis-

sioner would elaborate on the station’s news report on

the TRC happenings of the week. The discussions often

clarified and provided missing detail on the

Commission’ hearings. On several occasions, the

station’s guests were asked questions by callers that

they found to be important and worthy of further

investigation.

TAXI TALK: Minibus taxis are the only reliable means

of transport to and from the townships. However,

escalating rivalry amongst taxis have led to gun

battles where passengers are also shot and killed. Bush

Radio and the Shell Oil Company joined forces and

produced Taxi Talk, a programme where all involved

were invited to the station to discuss their grievances.

The Federal Minister of Transport also played a major

role in mediating between the parties.

Rape and Alcoholism: Rape of women of all ages has

reached epidemic proportions. Bush Radio has estab-

lished groups doing in-depth studies to find the best

way to develop programmes that will assist in helping

to reduce and even eliminate this social disease.

Alcoholism plays a major part in it, and for this reason

the station refuses to advertise alcoholic products.

Similarly, it does not carry tobacco advertising

for health reasons. Once produced, the rape and

alcoholism programmes will be offered to all other

community radio stations.

A Training Station

As important as broadcasting is to Bush Radio, the

station remains essentially a training centre. Emphasis

is placed on developing potential broadcasters from

the community, rather than on just filling airtime.

Apart from the manager and administrator, all of Bush

Radio's staff are in-service trainees, gaining valuable

on-the-job experience in areas like news, music,

features and programming.

Each year, the station receives hundreds of applica-

tions for training from communities nationally, and in

some cases from initiatives abroad. Much attention is

paid to the selection criteria for trainee candidates

and their future ability to pass on their skills. Bush

Radio has developed training methodology and basic

curricula to suit trainees’ varied cultural, linguistic and

educational backgrounds.

During its first two years on air, much of the activity of

the station was directed at building and maintaining

solid programming and management. This meant that

training had to take a back seat. Now that the station

is more settled in its broadcast ability, and in response

to much demand from the sector, it has returned to its

training focus. In September 1998, Bush Radio laun-

ched a new fully equipped facility, streamlined and

geared toward a comprehensive radio training

programme. Training involves broadcast journalism

and technical and management skills. These are

sophisticated fields of study, and Bush Radio

continues to offer much-needed introductory level

training programmes in them.

Overview of Courses

Introductory courses: These cover differentforms of radio, community radio and its role, anintroduction to field recorders, reel-to-reelmachines, studios, basic editing, various programmeformats and the role of producers, presenters,reporters, engineers, etc. At the end of the course,trainees have enough knowledge to be able tofunction at a minimum level of competence.

In-service trainees: A practical one-year on-the-job experience, structured to offer young graduates or others an opportunity to learn whileworking in the field of radio. They work in the following areas:

News: In-service trainees are required to gatherinformation, log, edit, and read the news live onair.

Music: The trainees are expected to ensure thatthe local content quota, as stipulated by the IBA, isadhered to. They also help to maintain the musiclibrary, develop links with record companies, andensure that the station is offering a balanced variety of music on air.

Production: Apart from technical aspects of programme production, trainees spend muchtime learning about the community's develop-ment needs e.g. in health, safety, education, etc.The amount of research is sometimes over-whelming, but trainees gain essential skills for programme planning.

Programme management: Many stations haveproblems in the area of programmingexpertise. The programme managementpart of the course assists the trainee in

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carefully assessing the needs of the station, theresources available to it, and the make up of the community. The trainee is enabled to design, implement, and evaluate a comprehensive program-ming schedule.

Prison Radio

Bush Radio was approached by the CriminologyDepartment of the University of Cape Town to develop a training programme for young prisoners tobe trained to operate a radio station. After months ofnegotiations with prison officials, a viable plan thatwould enable prisoners to operate a simple radio station within the facility was drawn up. The enthusiasm shown by the participants convinced theauthorities that the therapeutic effect the programmehad on the inmates were beneficial to their rehabilita-tion. The project continues and it is expected thatseveral other prisons will be receiving equipment aswell to duplicate the project.

Lessons Learnt

Management and operation: For the station tooperate efficiently, there must be constant develop-ment through training and other professional activities. Internal communication is essential. Regularstaff meetings should be held to make sure that everyone has a clear understanding of where they fitinto the organization. These meetings can also beused to encourage resource and idea sharing amongthe staff.

Staff members should be encouragedto form strong contacts with thevolunteers. In Bush Radio, we have

learned that staff members tend to develop feelings

of superiority over the volunteers, probably because

we are situated in an area with a high unemployment

rate. To be employed at a radio station also has an

element of glamour.

Marketing the station is also very important if the

station is to become self-sustaining.

Volunteers: Most of the volunteers at Bush Radio

come from deprived communities, i.e. from the

station’s target audience. They often have limited

educational levels and most are unemployed. The

communities that many of them have grown up in are

very tough. They have a dire lack of role models,

facilities and amenities. Thus, community radio often

is subjected to a high level of theft, abuse, resistance

to authority and change, a lack of self-confidence,

pride and commitment, and an inherent apprehensive

attitude towards training and education. Very few

volunteers understand the concept of volunteerism,

its responsibilities and limitations. In effect, most of

the community radio’s target constituency simply

cannot afford to volunteer. They are so poor

that some travel to the station on public transport

illegally.

Nevertheless, the commitment of some of the

volunteers is astounding, but despite their energy and

vigour, and even when they get on air, it is difficult to

depend on their input. Without compensation, they

run out of steam and often, just when programmes

have reached a steady following, the volunteer

participants are drawn to job offers, family commit-

ments, or other more viable activities.

Women in training and recruitment: Women are

often excluded from areas that require technical

knowledge. For this reason, Bush Radio has a policy

that no training programme can begin unless at least

50% of the trainees are women.

Community access and participation: A commu-

nity radio station must be constantly trying to find

ways of providing the community with easier access

to it. Apart from encouraging staff, volunteers and

interested parties to come forward with ideas, Radio

Bush encourages visits to the station. However, these

have had to be limited to certain days and hours. If

not, too many people hang around and disrupt

operations.

Fund-raising: The expectations of the donor and

those of the project have to be carefully discussed and

agreed upon before any funding takes place. Many

projects suffer as a result of misunderstandings. The

station must abide by its mission statement in any

application for funding. Too often projects compromise

their mission statement in order to receive funds. In

the long run this creates confusion.

There are many different formats used for applying

for funding. There is nothing wrong with contacting a

potential donor and asking what information is needed,

whether there is a regular application form, and so on.

Many donors also expect to be kept informed on a

regular basis. This should be done whether it is asked

for or not. It is good to keep a donor or programme

sponsor up to date on developments at the station.94

The Roots in Latin America

It was in Latin America that the world's first communityradio experiences were initiated 50 years ago whentwo very distinct movements turned to radio as a wayof both increasing their influence and of contributingto community development. These were RadioSutatenza in Colombia and the Miners’ Radios inBolivia (see boxes 1 and 2 in Chapter 1).

From these roots of rural Christian social develop-ment and militant trade unionism, community radiohas grown to have significant presence in LatinAmerica; church, commercial, university, trade unionand indigenous peoples' radio stations have combinedto make the region's radio the most dynamic anddiverse in the world.

A Need to Communicate

Radio Chaguarurco, located in a rural part ofEcuador's southern province of Azuay, is a young station that continues in the tradition of LatinAmerican community radio. The idea of setting it upstarted with a series of workshops in 1990. Thesewere organized by campesino organizations and bythe local churches in the counties of Santa Isabel andPucará, in the province of Azuay.

The workshops were intended to organize the communities so that they might gain access to basicservices, such as drinking water and electricity, and toensure that human rights were being respected.

A document written by the station's foundersexplains the process that launched the radio station:

“We started to talk about what we needed; first we mentioned electricity and drinking water, but after that, westarted talking about communication, about being able toshare a common reality and being able to analyse it in orderto improve it. That was how Radio Chaguarurco started.Some people who didn't live in the countryside asked why acommunity radio station was necessary when there were somany other priorities? Isn't a radio station a luxury? Sure, there are lots of other needs: health, nutrition, education, day-care, better agricultural techniques toimprove production. But rather than patching things up tofulfil our needs temporarily, it's important to think aboutthe causes of the problems, about the injustice andinequality that cause poverty and marginalization.”

The director of the station says that the idea grew outof the need to communicate. Because of RadioChaguarurc’s location, it is very difficult to receiveradio stations from the region. Few people haveaccess to television, and even fewer to newspapers.Telephones are still unavailable in many of the towns,and they are not available at all in the countryside,where most people live.

The communities are very scattered. Some are only 30minutes from the county centres, where the politicalstructures and the markets are located, but others arebetween one and 12 hours’ walk away with no roads.For the population of such communities, it is practi-cally impossible to be in daily, or even weekly, contactwith the centres.

Communication began to be seen as a necessity bythe Church and campesino organizations in thearea. The idea of a community radio station thuscaught on quickly, and within a few months itbecame one of the main topics of discussionduring workshops. People in rural areas were usedto being excluded from the media, so they wereexcited about having their own radio station, aplatform for talking about the necessities of theircommunities and about the problems in gettingbasic services.

No doubt, the idea of a radio station was a goodone, but who would make it a reality? A frequencyand government permission would be required.Equipment would have to be bought. Who wouldown the station? Where would the station belocated? Which communities would it serve?

The local Church and the peasant organization,Proyecto Norte, quickly emerged as the two mainbackers of the project. They had collaborated onprevious development projects and had participa-ted in the discussions about a radio station fromthe outset. Helped by the area's representative inCongress, they started laying plans.

The first problem was obtaining a broadcast licence.In 1992, Ecuador’s law did not recognize commu-nity radio. Getting a commercial licence involved acomplex process that, even after years of waiting,could easily fail. But there had been astation in Santa Isabel in the past. Eventhough the man it belonged to had died

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RADIO CHAGUARURCO, ECUADOR - NOW YOU’RE NOT ALONE

by Bruce Girard

and the station had been off the air for many years,the commercial licence was still valid. Buying a stationwith a licence still requires government permission, aprocess almost as complicated as being assigned anew frequency. But it was a definite possibility.

With the process of legalizing the ownership of thefrequency underway, the next step was decidingwhere the station should be located.

Santa Isabel and Pucará

Santa Isabel is a county capital with a population of3,000 people. It seemed the logical place for the station, for it was the largest town in the region andan important market centre. Apart from the Church,the central plaza is ringed by banks, doctors' officesand shops. It is less than two hours from the provincialcapital of Cuenca, and because it has a telephone service, it is an important communications centre forthe region. At an altitude of 1,500 metres, it has a perfect climate for growing tomatoes, onions, andeven sugar cane, products that are sold throughoutEcuador.

The village of Pucará, also a county capital, has apopulation of less than 1,000 and is only 40 kilometres from Santa Isabel. However, the non-stopbus takes two hours to climb the unpaved road tomore than 3,100 metres above sea level. In the rainyseason, the road can be closed for days at a time.There are no telephones and when the road is closed,the village is incommunicado.

Pucará, where the road ends, has a single street in atear-shaped loop, with a brightly pain-ted Church in the middle and a per-imeter of breath-taking mountains

and valleys. This majestic view camouflages a harsherreality. With an average annual temperature of only12 degrees and nights that drop to near zero, Pucará'sclimate supports little more than subsistence agricul-ture - the staples of beans and potatoes - and a precarious living. But Pucará did have one importantadvantage for a possible radio station: its altitude andmore central location meant that, from a technicalperspective, it was a better place to locate the transmitter than Santa Isabel. In any event, the town’sresidents only make up 20% of the total populationand the main target audience would be among therural 80%.

However, the question of where to put the stationalso had a political dimension. The community wherethe station was located would be more likely to haveits concerns broadcast, its members on air, and tobenefit most from it.

The solution was to put the transmitter in Pucará, theadministrative centre in Santa Isabel, and to put studios linked via microwave in both communities.Thus, when Chaguarurco's director talks about theradio, he says it is actually two stations sharing a singlefrequency and a single identity.

Local information is gathered at both. News programmes are also duplicated, with two anchors,one in Pucará and one in Santa Isabel. Some inter-views are also duplicated, with the interviewer in onecommunity and the person being interviewed in theother. Some music programmes are produced only inPucará, and others only in Santa Isabel, but many programmes are produced in both locations.

At the time of writing, a third studio was underconstruction in the village of Shaglly. This has a population of only 250, but it is the nearest

community for 2,500 rural dwellers. There are plansto continue the decentralization process by establi-shing new studios in other communities.

The Chaguarurco Foundation

The issue of ownership of the station was as importantas that of location. From the beginning it was agreedthat it would not be owned by the local priest, or bythe parish, or by any single person. It was to be ownedby the people. In September 1992 the ChaguarurcoFoundation for Rural Development was establishedwith representatives from campesino organizations inthe two counties, from the Catholic parishes, andfrom the workers and volunteers of the radio station.The radio is under the care and supervision of theFoundation, ensuring that the people, who in effectown it, will always be in control and have access to it.

The Chaguarurco Foundation's board meets everythree months, with extraordinary meetings held whennecessary. The board receives reports from the stationdirector and makes the important programming andbudget decisions.

By the time the Foundation was set up, the dream ofthe radio station had been circulating for almost twoyears. Nobody foresaw that they would have to waitanother two-and-a-half years to see how theFoundation would function, obtain funding for theequipment, get approval for a frequency, and trainpeople for the station.

Funding in the region is difficult, and the project wasgoing to be an expensive one. The area's geographiccharacteristics called for an AM transmitter, whichwas substantially more expensive than an FM one.The 5 kW Nautel transmitter, including its antenna96

and installation, was going to cost US$80,000, morethan the community could ever put together on itsown. Once the Foundation was established, it startedthe slow process of getting the money together fromlocal and international sources. However, even thoughthey needed the money, the community was not pre-pared to sacrifice the station's independence for it.

Practically all new equipment was needed; what wasavailable in the old station was not even good enoughto put in a museum. The transmitter, antenna and installation were donated by the Spanish aid agency,Intermon. Caritas, Manos Unidas, some Spanishvolunteers and a solidarity group in Madrid also helped. The Church in the provincial capital, Cuenca,donated a pickup truck.

Donations were only sought for equipment and installation. The Foundation was determined that thestation would pay its way, and that is what has happened.

Training the Community

While the process of legalizing the purchase of thefrequency crept slowly ahead, a group of volunteersbegan training people from the community. One problem was that nobody working on the project hadhad any experience in radio, apart from two Spanishvolunteers who had a little experience in communityradio stations in Madrid.

In essence, those involved had to train themselvesfirst in order to be able to train others. They read whatever books they could find and travelled to otherstations to see how these were run. Experienced radiopeople were invited to speak and to give courses. Inthe end, a manual and a trainers' package were produced based on what had been learned. Then the

newly-trained trainers went out to start training thecommunity volunteers.

Serious training started in December 1993. The ideawas that each community would look for a personthat they considered to be an appropriate correspon-dent. In addition, there was a general invitation toanyone who was interested to participate in thecourses.

Four trainers divided the work between December1993 and October 1994, going to different communi-ties week by week. There was no shortage of volun-teers. Many of them walked four, five or even sixhours to get to the place where the courses were held.There was particular enthusiasm in one village wherethere had been many conflicts and much abuse ofpower by the authorities. Some people had even beenkilled. People believed that the radio would help themput an end to such abuses.

In November 1994, the staff was selected fromamong those who had been trained. In Decemberthey underwent a month of intensive and more specialized training. The ongoing training and discus-sions about the radio kept the project moving forward and people involved. However, five years hadpassed since the project was first discussed and thewait had a cost. Some people had got discouraged andhad left.

However, the station finally went on the air on 1 January, 1995. As one participant remembers:

“It was the most beautiful thing. With lots of people listen-

ing. We were crazy. Greeting all the people. Thanking the

ones who had been with us since the beginning, those who

had taken courses with us, the correspondents. Making

calls to Cuenca to see if the signal reached the city. There

were people who knew we were going to be on the air,

and they called us. We played lots of music and every

few minutes announced, ‘This is Radio Chaguarurco!

We're on the air! Listen to us on 1550 kilohertz! Tell

your neighbours to listen!’. It was crazy!”

‘Now you're not alone’

After years of waiting, people's expectations werehigh. They were not going to be satisfied with astation that sounded like all the rest. They wantedto hear their own experiences and concerns, toldin their own voices and in their own language.Now there was a communication medium wherepeople could talk, say what they felt, and denounceofficials who were giving them a hard time. The phrase, ‘Now you are not alone’ summed upthe sentiment produced by the station.

To produce the kind of radio that the communitywanted called for a special kind of radio producer.Only four of the eight full-time staff and 20 volun-teers had ever formally studied journalism. Theothers learned their skills in Chaguarurco's owncourses, but all of them now work as journalistsand programme producers. Five of the full-timestaff are based at the station in Santa Isabel, andthe other three are based in Pucará.

The staff in the station are in fact almost volunteers. Their salaries are not even the minimum that the law requires. However,as the radio's income rises, their salarieswill also increase gradually.

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Role of Volunteers

In addition to the paid staff, there are some 20 volun-teer producers. Six of them are correspondents in surrounding villages. They gather the news in theirareas and periodically travel to the station with theirstories and tapes. The station supplies them with taperecorders and rechargeable batteries. Proceeds froman annual raffle are used to pay their bus fares.

One volunteer produces a one-hour music programmesix days a week. It features Ecuadorian music, which isa special interest she developed at a time when thiswas unavailable on the radio. She uses her personalcollection of records and tapes and says that the radioprogramme has "collectivized" it.

Other volunteers produce a weekly market programme,hosted simultaneously in Pucará and Santa Isabel. Thislooks at prices and trends in the area's markets. It hasplayed an important role in controlling speculation.

There is a constant turnover among the volunteers,and for this reason the station continues to offerregular training courses to new ones.

Participation and Programming

There are important characteristics that distinguishChaguarurco from other stations in the region. Themost important is the priority the station gives tolocal voices, language and culture. Unlike radio stations in the city, which have announcers who try tohide any regionalisms in their accents or their language,Chaguarurco's announcers celebrate their own way ofspeaking. Another important distinction is that the

station actively seeks the participationof people from the countryside, invi-ting them to visit the station, to tell

their stories, to sing, or just to greet their friends andfamily over the air.

The station also plays an important role as a commu-nication channel at the service of the communities -a telephone service for those who do not have it.When places in the radio’s coverage area are withoutroads and are difficult to reach, the people who livethere listen to the station for information aboutimpending visitors so they can be ready for them.

For example, the community health project has amedical team which periodically visits remote communities. Before the radio went on air, this wouldtravel to a community and lose hours or even dayswaiting for the news of its arrival to get out to thepeople in the countryside, and for the people to travelin to where the team was waiting to attend them.Now the radio announces visits ahead of time, andthe community is ready and waiting for them.

Health matters are very important to the station.They are covered, for example, in radio dramas thatthe station produces and broadcasts daily. The dramashave characters that the people in the countryside canidentify with. They chat with each other and tell stor-ies about health and related matters. They talk abouttreating garbage, vaccinations, nutrition and aboutthe environment. Some of the dramas also deal withpolitics, culture and human rights. These dramas,acted by the station's own staff, provide a valuableway of explaining complex issues in everyday languageand in a way that people can easily understand.

A recent addition to the station’s programming is theinclusion of news from Latin America and the worldthat the station gets from ALRED (Latin AmericanAssociation for Radio Education), and the Púlsar newsagency. A satellite dish at the Pucará station receives

ALRED's programmes, and news from Púlsar arrivesvia the Internet.

This information from other countries and conti-nents, which people did not have before, has met withfavourable comment. “We see that there are people outthere just like us, campesinos like us. We're exchanginginformation with them. In the same way, we receive information here from other countries, we also send newsfrom here to them. And this is interesting, to communicatelike brothers.”

A Minga for Chaguarurco

The way the Chaguarurco Foundation meets its objec-tive of covering the station’s running costs is to keepcosts low, using resources freely offered by the communities it serves. In addition to the volunteerservices, the studios in Pucará and Santa Isabel are inspace provided free by the local churches. When a studio needs a handyman, or when a pot of soup isneeded for a minga (a day of volunteer labour for acommunity project), there are always people aroundto offer their skills or help. Even so, Chaguarurco hasto generate some US$2,000 per month to cover itsoperational costs.

The station's financial situation is healthy. It managesto generate enough revenue to cover its fixed costs, aswell as putting aside a few thousand dollars a year toimprove its equipment or cover unforeseen costs.Sources of revenue include advertising, communitymessages, production services, and broadcasts of cultural events.

Advertising, which brings in about 20% of the station's revenue, has always been a controversial subject. Some people argued that commercials had no98

place in community radio. Others said that the survivaland growth of the station was the most importantthing and that all advertisers should be welcome. Thecompromise policy is to advertise only local goodsand services. The philosophy is to promote what istraditional and local, rather than the consumption ofimported products developed through high technologyand chemicals. The message of the commercial radiosis seen as promoting these, at the expense of homeproduce. Thus the station does not give advertisingspace to carbonated drinks produced by multinationals.Nor, in the interests of health, does it broadcast commercials for alcohol or tobacco.

Political advertising is also controversial. For most ofthe country's radio stations, elections are a bonanza.More than a dozen parties buy airtime, and it is customary for stations to put a surcharge of 20% to150% on it. The temptation is strong. During recentelections, one party offered to buy time fromChaguarurco at a price that would have paid the billsfor months. The offer was not accepted: it was notthought beneficial to the community. The station prefers to give equal possibilities to all political partiesrather than allowing the more powerful ones to gainfurther advantage through commercials.

Community announcements and personal messagesaccount for about 40% of the station's revenue. Yetanother source of income is the production of pro-grammes on health and other issues for local NGOsand government. The station also continues to gethelp from the solidarity group in Spain organized byone of the volunteers who helped set up the station.This raises funds through bingo sessions, dinners, andthe sale of handicrafts.

Is Anyone Listening?

Between June and November 1996, a team of students from Santa Isabel, under the guidance of aDutch volunteer, designed and conducted a survey of400 people in the station’s coverage area. The mainconclusions were:

• Radio is the most used medium. In the towns, 64%also watch television, especially in the evening. Inthe countryside only 40% of people have access totelevision.

• Radio Chaguarurco is number one in terms ofaudience in both the towns and the countryside. Itis, however, most popular in the countryside,among adult listeners, and among people with lesseducation.

• Forty percent of respondents from the villages claimto listen to Radio Chaguarurco "everyday". In thecountryside this rises to almost 50%.

• The most popular programming is music, followed bynews programmes and community announcements.

The survey showed that the radio station was wellreceived by its audience, but it also showed whereimprovements could be made by adjusting the sched-ule, providing better training to the announcers, andputting more agricultural information in the programming.

In addition to the figures, however, the survey alsoshowed that, after only four years on the air, RadioChaguarurco has helped to make a number of important changes in community life. It has improvedcommunication, helped bring about more democracyand less abuse, made a positive contribution by promoting the sharing of experiences and solutions toproblems, and made people more aware of and proudof their own culture.

How the Radio Station Has Helped the

Community

The station has a system of announcements andcommuniqués. For three half-hour periods a day -morning, noon and evening - people can send allkinds of messages concerning the situation ofpatients in hospital, deaths, lost animals, invitationsto meetings, etc. The radio is thus the telephonefor those who do not have one.

As a result of the station’s existence, the authorities,institutions and merchants have become moredemocratic. Before it was an everyday practice toabuse campesinos, charge them more than theright price, sell material that was intended forpublic-works projects, and so on. Now, everybodyhears about such abuses on the radio, and theyhave practically disappeared as a result.

The radio has served to share experiences and problems. For example, a community that has succeeded in the struggle to obtain a service, suchas electricity or drinking water, explains on theradio how they went about it, the procedures, andwhat public offices they had to go to, making itmuch easier for others to follow. In addition, solu-tions to everyday problems are shared, e.g. ideasabout farming techniques or latrine building areexchanged.

The radio is also helping to revalue the local culture,music, and way of speaking. Songs that had practic-ally disappeared and that were only sung by theoldest people during family gatherings are onceagain heard on the radio. Programmes containingsuch songs are among the most popular programmes on the radio, and they aregenerating renewed pride in the localculture.

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COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOK

This Community Radio Handbook aims to show that ordinary people, even non-technical rural folk,can plan, set up, manage and produce radio programmes by themselves with a minimum of depen-dence on outside help, whether for technical advice and training or for funds and equipment. Althoughquite a number of radio stations began with a big helping hand from outside, many community stationsthat on the air today were ‘self-start-ups.’ They began with a minimum of equipment and technicalknowledge, but a strong community organization and a group will to push ahead and succeed.

The Handbook highlights the case-stories of several such stations, including Homa Bay Radio inKenya, Radio Apam in Ghana, Miners’ Radio in Bolivia, Radio Sagarmatha in the Kathmandu valley,Nepal, Tambuli Community Radio in the Philippines and several others, in order to share these creativeexperiences with others preparing to set up similar radio stations.

As a handy reference for planning, management, technical background, group dynamics, broadcas-ting legislation, and radio production formats based on pioneering experiences, this book is a basic yetcomprehensive and practical reader for communication students, researchers and planners and a ‘must’for prospective community broadcasters.

1,rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15

Further information: Tel.: (33.1).45.68.40.25 • Fax: (33.1).45.68.55.85

e-mail : i.panevska@unesco.org