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Institutional Challenges to RobustnessInstitutional Challenges to Robustnessof Flood Plain Agricultural Systemsof Flood Plain Agricultural Systems

Audun Sandberg©

Bodø University College

Norway

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Field-Work in Rufiji in 1972Field-Work in Rufiji in 1972

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Field work in Rufiji in 2003Field work in Rufiji in 2003

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Institutional prerequisites for transition from Institutional prerequisites for transition from flood plain agriculture to irrigated agricultureflood plain agriculture to irrigated agriculture

Flood plains as ”Cradles of civilization” Population density and ”Ecology Control” v/ Wilderness Marx’s Asiatic mode of Production – the driving forces? Wittfogel’s hydraulic society and oriental despotism The idea of an agricultural involution Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus and the Garden of Eden ? The large transitions in 2500 BC shaped our cultures Transitions in 21st century AD must be different:

Different time and placeDifferences in technology and genetics

What are the driving forces in unregulated flood plain Social-Ecological Systems today ?

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Rufiji Flood plain as a Risk Management SystemRufiji Flood plain as a Risk Management System

9 Agro-economic zones Flood characterics:

Hights Duration Volumes

Micro environments Old levees Present levees Storm beaches Mud depressions Ox-bow lakes

Soils of the Plain & Delta Kitope (Clays) Mbaragilwa (mixed) Gongo (Sand) 3-D overlays Soil dynamics

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The Agricultural CalendarThe Agricultural Calendar January Plant Rice, fast/slow > high/low February Rice is growing March Rice is growing Harvest maize from river banks April Rice grows May Rice ripens Plant maize on highest places Plant Cowpeas on highest places June Plant maize on Mbaragilwa Plant Cotton on Kitope Harvest Rice July Harvest and market rice Plant Cotton on lowest clays August Harvest maize from high places September Plant maize on lowest clays October Harvest Cow-peas Start harvesting Cotton November Plant Maize on high river banks Start preparing rice fields Harvest and market cotton Harvest and market mango fruits December Harvest maize from low clays Preparing rice fields continue Plant Maize on high river banks Harvest and market mango fruits

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Land preparation before floodsLand preparation before floods

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Ecology Control initiativesEcology Control initiatives

Rice bowl for the Zanzibar Sultanate Forced Cotton cultivation by German colonial powers

Maji Maji Rebellion 1905-1907Rice and Cotton was adopted into the agricultural system

Ujamaa villagization campaignResettlement of flood prone farmers to 25 villages on high groundIncreased distance to flood plane fieldsIncreased vulnerability to vermin attacs – West Valley

Stiglers Gorge Hydroelectric projectFrom multipurpose to single purpose to multipurpose designThe idea of a controlled flood for continued flood farmingWorld Bank: the lack of feasibility for all purposes !

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The Village StructureThe Village Structure

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Farming in the Miyombo WoodlandFarming in the Miyombo Woodland

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Traditional settlement pattern in Rufiji Flood PlainTraditional settlement pattern in Rufiji Flood Plain

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Land tenure changesLand tenure changes

Risk management = low returns to labour Relocation of peasants = cumbersome land use World Bank Structural adjustments effects: From Ujamaa to Economic Liberalization

From working and living togetherTo Institutionalizing a market for land

National Land Policy vs. The Land ActCodification of village land vs. Freedom of transactions

Individual titles for successful villagers ”Land Grabbing” for power holders Commercial farming for foreign investors

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Modernization and Robustness of SystemsModernization and Robustness of SystemsWho absorbs the risk ?Who absorbs the risk ?

Risks in subsistence economies = famine

Risks in commercial farming = loss and bancruptcy

Cashew-nuts on high ground Mango as non-risk fruit in

flood plain Emerging large urban food

markets in Dar es Salaam (3,5 mill)

Commercial farmers and political power

Robustness as adaptability to Ecology or to Markets ?