Notes

Introduction

1 ‘Bricolage’ is a term originally used for amateur ‘do-it-yourself’ manualbuilding work. Claude Lévi-Strauss introduced it as a concept in culturalanthropology, using it to describe the use of available materials to createartefacts with new cultural meanings. See Claude Lévi-Strauss, The SavageMind (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966).

2 ‘Système D’ is an expression widely used in the 1940s to describe resource-ful improvisations of any kind to overcome shortages, thought to bederived from ‘débrouillard’ (resourceful, ingenious).

3 The concept of myth is developed in Chapter 2.4 See K. H. Adler, Jews and Gender in Liberation France (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2003), 4–6.5 ‘La guerre franco-française’ is a frequently quoted term referring to long-

running divisions within France, especially between supporters and oppo-nents of the Republic, and between Right and Left. The term was givencurrency in the 1950s by Louis-Dominique Girard, La guerre franco-française(Paris: André Bonne, 1950). See also Stéphane Kémis and Jean-FrançoisKahn, ‘Dossier: Deux siècles de guerres franco-françaises’, Evénement dujeudi, no. 180 (1988).

6 Useful general accounts are given in standard histories. The most useful inEnglish are Maurice Larkin, France since the Popular Front, Government andPeople 1936–1986 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), James F McMillan,Twentieth Century France: Politics and Society 1898–1991, 2nd edn (London:Edward Arnold, 1992), Jean-Pierre Rioux, The Fourth Republic 1944–1958,trans. Godfrey Rogers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

7 Marc Bloch, Strange Defeat: a Statement of Evidence Written in 1940, trans.Gerard Hopkins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1949). See also DonaldReid, ‘Narratives of Resistance in Marc Bloch’s L’Étrange défaite’, Modernand Contemporary France, 11, no. 4 (2003).

8 See for example: Hugh Schofield, Plus ça change in Franco-US ties [Webpage](BBC News, Tuesday, 22 July 2003, 16:16 GMT 17:16 UK 2003 [cited 8 October2003]); available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3087785.stm.

9 There are informative articles on these in Bertram M. Gordon, ed., HistoricalDictionary of World War II France (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press,1998).

10 Henry Rousso, The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944,trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,1991).

11 Antony Beevor and Artemis Cooper, Paris after the Liberation 1944–1949(London: Penguin, 1995), 31–4.

12 Grégoire Madjarian, Conflit, pouvoirs et société à la Libération (Paris: Uniongénérale d’éditions, 1980), 14.

188

13 Pierre Péan, Une jeunesse française. François Mitterrand 1934–1947 (Paris:Fayard, 1994).

14 Richard J. Golsan, ed., The Papon Affair: Memory and Justice on Trial (London:Routledge, 2000).

15 Charles de Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 2. L’Unité 1942–1944 (Paris: Plon,1956), 709. All translations from French texts are those of the presentauthor, except where otherwise indicated.

16 Ibid.17 The link between ideas of the Algerian War and the Second World War is

analysed in Philip Dine, ‘The Inescapable Allusion: the Occupation and theResistance in French Fiction and Film of the Algerian War’, in The Liberation ofFrance: Image and Event, ed. H. R. Kedward and Nancy Wood (Oxford: Berg, 1995).

1. Contexts for rebuilding

1 Bloch, Strange Defeat.2 Charles de Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 1. L’Appel 1940–1942 (Paris: Plon, 1954), 5.3 Raymond Williams, Keywords: a Vocabulary of Culture and Society (London:

Fontana, 1988), 178.4 Ernest Renan, Qu’est-ce qu’une nation? et autres essais politiques, ed. François

Laurent (Paris: Presses Pocket, 1992). The principal text was published inEnglish as: Ernest Renan, ‘What is a Nation?’, in Nation and Narration, ed.Homi K. Bhabha (London: Routledge, 1990), 19.

5 Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth,Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 3–5.

6 This is extensively discussed in Anthony D. Smith, National Identity(London: Penguin, 1991). See also Hugh Seton-Watson, Nations and States:an Enquiry into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism (Boulder,Col.: Westview Press, 1977); Craig Calhoun, Nationalism (Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 1997); Keith Cameron, ed., National Identity(Exeter: Intellect, 1999); Tim Edensor, National Identity, Popular Culture andEveryday Life (Oxford: Berg, 2002); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983); Ross Poole, Nation and Identity(London and New York: Routledge, 1999); Ruth Wodak, The DiscursiveConstruction of National Identity, trans. Angelika Hirsch and Richard Mitten(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999).

7 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin andSpread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), 15.

8 Pierre Nora, ‘La nation-mémoire’, in Les Lieux de mémoire, II La nation, ed.Pierre Nora (Paris: Gallimard, 1986).

9 Dominique Schnapper, ‘Existe-t-il une identité française?’, in L’identité, ed.Jean-Claude Ruano-Borbalan (Paris: Sciences Humaines, 1998). See alsoDominique Schnapper, La Communauté des citoyens. Sur l’idée moderne denation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994).

10 Many works explore particular national cultures in this light. In the case ofFrench identity, see, for example, Herman Lebovics, True France: the Warsover Cultural Identity, 1900–1945 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992);Spyros A. Sofos and Brian Jenkins, eds, Nation & Identity in ContemporaryEurope (London and New York: Routledge, 1996); Robert H. Crawshaw and

Notes 189

Karin Tusting, Exploring French Text Analysis: Interpretations of NationalIdentity (London: Routledge, 2000). Broader theoretical issues of culturalnationalism are explored in a number of essays in Homi K. Bhabha, ed.,Nation and Narration (London: Routledge, 1990).

11 Bhabha, ed., Nation and Narration, 1.12 Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Siân Reynolds, 2 vols, vol. 1,

History and Environment (London: Fontana, 1989), 23.13 See Yoram Barzel, A Theory of the State: Economic Rights, Legal Rights, and the

Scope of the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002);AnthonyGiddens, The Nation-State and Violence (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985); BillJordan, The State: Authority and Autonomy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1985).

14 G.W.F Hegel, Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, trans. T. M. Knox (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 1967), 155.

15 Pierre Rosanvallon, L’État en France de 1789 à nos jours (Paris: Seuil, 1992).16 See the chapter entitled ‘Produire la nation’, in ibid., 100–10.17 Ibid., 110.18 Marc Fumaroli, L’État culturel: essai sur une religion moderne (Paris: Livre de

Poche & Fallois, 1992).19 Anderson, Imagined Communities, 15.20 Between 1789 and 1939, French constitutions included three republics

(1792–1804, 1848–52, 1870–1940) three monarchies (1789–92, 1814–30,1830–48) and two empires (1804–14, 1852–70).

21 This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.22 There is an abundant literature on this question. The following discussion

draws on approaches explored in Tony Bennett, Culture: a Reformer’s Science(London: Sage, 1998); Mike Featherstone, Undoing Culture: Globalization,Postmodernism and Identity (London: Sage, 1995); Williams, Keywords;Raymond Williams, Culture (London: Fontana, 1981).

23 Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (London:Hutchinson, 1975), 89.

24 See J. B. Sykes, ed., The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, 7th edn(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982).

25 Williams, Culture, 13.26 Featherstone, Undoing Culture, 33.27 A detailed analysis of these issues is presented in Brian Rigby, Popular

Culture in Modern France: a Study of Cultural Discourse (London: Routledge,1991). The book’s main focus is discussions of popular culture since the1960s. See also Phillippe Bénéton, Histoire des mots: culture et civilisation(Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1975).

28 The debates in this area are lucidly examined in Lebovics, True France.29 For a Catholic example, see Georges Zérapha, ‘Le problème politique

français 1789–1944,’ Esprit 13, no. 105, Décembre (1944) 38. For a Marxistexample, see the ‘Rapport au Xe Congrès du Parti communiste français’(June 1945), partially reprinted in Maurice Thorez, Oeuvres choisies, 2:1938–1950 (Paris: Editions sociales, 1966), 311.

30 For example, Sartre does not use the notion of ‘culture’ in either of hisearly essays in Les Temps modernes: Jean-Paul Sartre, ‘Présentation’, LesTemps modernes, 1, no. 1 (1945); Jean-Paul Sartre, ‘La nationalisation de lalittérature’, Les Temps modernes, 1, no. 2 (1945).

190 Notes

31 See, for example Sartre, ‘Présentation’, reprinted in Jean-Paul Sartre,Situations II (Paris: Gallimard, 1948), 11; Georges Bernanos ‘Il faut refairedes hommes libres’ (July 1945), reprinted in Georges Bernanos, Français, sivous saviez (1945–1948) (Paris: Gallimard, 1961), 28.

32 See Rigby, Popular Culture in Modern France.33 Emmanuel Mounier, Qu’est-ce que le personnalisme? (Paris: Éditions du Seuil,

1947), reprinted in Emmanuel Mounier, Oeuvres, t.3 1944–1950 (Paris: Édi-tions du Seuil, 1962), 243.

34 See for example, Fernand Robert, L’Humanisme: Essai de définition (Paris: LesBelles Lettres, 1946), 65.

35 Simone Weil, L’Enracinement: Prélude à une déclaration envers l’être humain(Paris: Gallimard, 1949), 65.

36 Roger Chartier, Cultural History: Between Practices and Representations(Oxford: Polity, 1988). See especially pp. 1–16.

37 See, for example, Pierre Nora, ed., Les Lieux de mémoire: II La nation (Paris:Gallimard, 1986), especially volumes 2 and 3; Jean-Pierre Rioux and Jean-François Sirinelli, eds, Histoire culturelle de la France, 4 vols (Paris: Seuil,1997–8).

38 Rioux and Sirinelli, eds, Histoire culturelle de la France, 12.39 See Roger Shattuck, The Banquet Years: the Arts in France 1885–1918

(London: Faber, 1959).40 Jill Forbes and Michael Kelly, eds, French Cultural Studies: an Introduction

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 61–78.41 See Denis Peschanski, ed., Images de la France de Vichy 1940–1944 (Paris: La

Documentation française, 1988).42 See Jean-Pierre Rioux, ed., La vie culturelle sous Vichy (Paris: Éditions

Complexe, 1990).43 Vercors, Le Silence de la mer (Paris: Éditions de minuit, 1942). It was trans-

lated into English as Vercors, Put Out the Light, trans. Cyril Connolly(London: Macmillan, 1944), and was published in New York under the titleSilence of the Sea. See also Vercors, The Silence of the Sea, ed. James W. Brownand Lawrence D. Stokes (New York, Oxford: Berg, 1991).

44 See, for example, François Dendieu, Petit miroir de la civilisation française(London: D. C. Heath, 1940).

45 See Nora, ed., Lieux de mémoire, II, and Rioux and Sirinelli, eds, Histoireculturelle de la France.

46 Nora, Pierre, ‘La nation-mémoire’, in Nora, ed., Lieux de mémoire, II, 647–58.47 Ibid., 654.48 See, for example, Martha Hanna, The Mobilization of Intellect: French Scholars

and Writers during the Great War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UniversityPress, 1996).; Forbes and Kelly, eds, French Cultural Studies, 54–61.

49 Marcel Carné, Les Visiteurs du soir (1942).50 Jean-Paul Sartre, Les mouches: drame en trois actes (Paris: Gallimard, 1943),

translated in Jean-Paul Sartre, The Flies and In Camera, trans. Stuart Gilbert(London: Hamish Hamilton, 1946). Jean Anouilh, Antigone (Paris: La TableRonde, 1946), translated as Jean Anouilh, Antigone, ed. Ted Freeman, trans.Barbara Bray (London: Methuen, 2000).

51 This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.52 Braudel, Identity of France, 1, 24.

Notes 191

2. Inventing a language

1 See Roger Fowler, Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press(London: Routledge, 1991), George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors WeLive By (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), Noam Chomsky,Language and Politics, ed. C. P. Otero (Montréal: Black Rose Books, 1988),Michelle Grattan, ‘The Politics of Spin’, Australian Studies in Jounalism, 7(1998).

2 See for example: an American protest movement, Occupation is notLiberation [website] (International A.N.S.W.E.R., 2003 [cited 18 November2003]); available from http://www.internationalanswer.org/news/update/040903occup.html.

3 See Pascal Fouché, L’Édition française sous l’occupation (1940-1944), 2 vols(Paris: Université de Paris–VII, 1987).

4 See Henri Lefebvre, Le Langage et la société (Paris: Gallimard, 1966).5 Roland Barthes, Mythologies (Paris: Seuil, 1957).6 For example: H. R. Kedward and Nancy Wood, eds, The Liberation of

France: Image and Event (Oxford: Berg, 1995). Herbert R. Lottmann, ThePeople’s Anger: Justice and Revenge in Post-Liberation France (London:Hutchinson, 1986). Beevor and Cooper, Paris after the Liberation. Jean-Pierre Azéma, From Munich to the Liberation 1938–1944 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1985). Fabrice Virgili, La France virile: desfemmes tondues à la libération (Paris: Payot, 2000). Lt-col. Eddy Bauer et al,eds, La Libération, La Seconde Guerre Mondiale (Paris: Christophe Colomb,Glarus, 1983).

7 Jean-Paul Sartre, ‘La fin de la guerre’, Les Temps modernes 1, no. 1 (1945).Reprinted in Jean-Paul Sartre, Situations III (Paris: Gallimard, 1949), 63–71.‘On avait dit aux gens de pavoiser: ils ne l’ont pas fait, la guerre a pris findans l’indifférence et dans l’angoisse’.

8 Philippe Buton, La France et les Français de la Libération 1944–1945 (Paris:Musée des deux guerres mondiales-BDIC, 1984), 9–11.

9 Ibid., 17.10 Marshal Pétain introduced a replacement slogan of ‘Travail, Famille, Patrie’

(‘Work, Family, Country’).11 ‘Liberator’ was also the name given by the Royal Air Force to the

American-manufactured heavy bomber, the B24. 12 The poster is reproduced in Buton, La France et les Français de la Libération, 34.

and in Bauer et al., eds, La Libération, 57. It can be viewed on the website ofthe Hoover Institution: Phili, Liberation (1944 [cited 4 December 2003]); avail-able from http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/pubaffairs/ar2000/liberation.html.See also Marie de Thézy and Thomas Michael Gunther, Images de la Libérationde Paris (Paris: Paris-Musées, 1994), 2. This shows the poster displayed in Parison a boarded-up pharmacy.

13 De Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 2, 709. ‘Paris! Paris outragé! Paris brisé! Parismartyrisé! mais Paris libéré! libéré par lui-même, libéré par son peuple avecle concours des armées de la France, avec l’appui et le concours de la Francetoute entière, de la France qui se bat, de la seule France, de la vraie France,de la France éternelle.’

14 Ibid. ‘…le concours de nos chers et admirables alliés’.

192 Notes

15 Reproduced in Bauer et al., eds, La Libération, 80.16 The pétroleuses were women who used, or were accused of using, oil to start

fires while fighting on the barricades in defence of the revolutionary ParisCommune in 1871, against government troops

17 This is discussed in the Introduction.18 De Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 2, 709.19 Albert Camus’s editorial in Combat (27 June 1945), reprinted in Albert

Camus, Essais (Paris: Gallimard, 1965), 288.20 The list of French terms has almost thirty root-words, including the follow-

ing: crise, renaître/ renaissance, (se) refaire, réforme/ (se) réformer, révolution,recommencer/ recommencement, reconquérir/ reconquête, reconstruire/reconstruction, redevenir, redresser/ redressement, régénérer/ régénération,(se) relever/ relèvement, remettre (debout/ en marche etc), (se) renouveler/renouvellement, réparer/ réparation, reprendre/ reprise, restaurer/ restaura-tion, rétablir/ rétablissement, retour, (se) retrouver, revenir, démarrer/ démar-rage, évolution, moderniser/ modernisation, rajeunir/ rajeunissement, (se)rassembler/ rassemblement, rénover/ rénovation. The list was established byconcordance analysis of a corpus of political texts from the period collectedby the CARAFE project at the University of Southampton, with the support ofthe British Academy.

21 In French, the group comprises the terms (se) refaire, réforme, (se) réformer,révolution.

22 Marie Granet and Henri Michel, Combat: histoire d’un mouvement de résistance,de juillet 1940 à juillet 1943 (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1957).

23 Emmanuel Mounier, ‘Esprit, nouvelle série’, Esprit, no. 105 (1944): 2. 24 Emmanuel Mounier, ‘Suite française aux maladies infantiles des révolu-

tions’, Esprit, no. 105 (1944). Reprinted in Emmanuel Mounier, Oeuvres, t.4Recueils posthumes, Correspondance (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1963), 89.

25 Emmanuel Mounier, ‘Refaire la Renaissance’, Esprit 1, no. 1 (1932).26 Emmanuel Mounier, ‘Situation du personnalisme (suite et fin)’, Esprit,

no. 120 (1946). Reprinted in Mounier, Oeuvres, 3, 207.27 See Mounier, Oeuvres, 3, 183.28 Sartre, ‘Présentation’. Reprinted in Sartre, Situations II, 16.29 Jean-Paul Sartre, ‘Matérialisme et révolution’, Les Temps modernes (1946).

Reprinted in Sartre, Situations III, see especially p. 224.30 The poster was reproduced on the front page of the first issue of the com-

munist review Action: Paul Colin, ‘1789–1830–1848–1871–1944’, Action, 9septembre 1944.

31 Sartre, Situations II, 16.32 In this discussion, the term ‘rebirth’ has mainly been used in English, as the

first meaning for the French term ‘renaissance’. 33 See Jean-Pierre Rioux, La France de la Quatrième République I. L’ardeur et la

nécessité (Paris: Seuil, 1980), 74.34 Thorez, Oeuvres choisies, 2, 290. ‘L’unité nationale sera la condition d’une

renaissance effective de la France’.35 This is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.36 Thorez, Oeuvres choisies, 2, 353.37 See Nicholas Hewitt, ‘Les Lettres Françaises and the Failure of the French

Postwar “Renaissance”’, in The Culture of Reconstruction. European Literature,

Notes 193

Thought and Film, 1945–1950, ed. Nicholas Hewitt (London: Macmillan,1989).

38 Henri Wallon, ‘Pour une encyclopédie dialectique’, La Pensée (1945).39 These terms were all used in his speech to the 10th Party Congress in June

1945, see Thorez, Oeuvres choisies, 2, 308–70.40 Ibid., 453. Interview in The Times, 17 November 1946.41 This group comprises the following terms: recommencer/ recommencement,

reconquérir/ reconquête, reconstruire/ reconstruction, redevenir, redresser/redressement, régénérer/ régénération, (se) relever/ relèvement, remettre(debout/ en marche etc), (se) renouveler/ renouvellement, réparer/ répara-tion, reprendre/ reprise, restaurer/ restauration, rétablir/ rétablissement,retour, (se) retrouver, revenir.

42 Jacques Fauvet, La IVe République (Paris: Fayard, 1959), 21.43 De Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 2, 712.44 Charles de Gaulle, Lettres, notes et carnets, juin 1943–mai 1945 (Paris: Plon,

1983), 319.45 The foot of the poster bears the information ‘G.P.R.F. Secrétariat général à

l’Information, affiche exécutée sous l’occupation allemande–août 1944’.46 This is discussed in Chapter 3.47 Reproduced in Stéphane Marchetti, Affiches 1939-1945. Images d’une certaine

France (Lausanne: Edita, 1982), 173.48 Archives de France, ed., Reconstructions et modernisation. La France après les

ruines 1918 … 1945 … (Paris: Archives nationales, 1991), 159.49 C’est une fleur de Paris, Du vieux Paris qui sourit, Car c’est la fleur du retour,

Du retour des beaux jours. Pendant quatre ans, dans nos coeurs, Elle a gardéses couleurs, Bleu, blanc, rouge … Avec l’espoir, elle a fleuri, Fleur de Paris. Thesong ‘Fleur de Paris’ was written in 1944, with words by Maurice Vandair,music by Henri Bourtayre, published by Éditions Paul Beuscher, see PierreSaka, La chanson française à travers ses succès (Paris: Larousse, 1988), 158.

50 Ibid.51 De Gaulle, Lettres, notes et carnets, juin 1943–mai 1945, 172. 52 De Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 1, 1.53 This group comprises the following terms: démarrer/ démarrage, évolution,

moderniser/ modernisation, rajeunir/ rajeunissement, (se) rassembler/rassemblement, rénover/ rénovation

54 Archives de France, ed., Reconstructions et modernisation, 95.55 These themes are extensively explored in Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean

Bodies: Decolonisation and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge, Mass.:MIT Press, 1995).

56 Andrew Shennan, Rethinking France, Plans for Renewal 1940–1946 (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1989), 89. The omissions are mine. In the passage quoted,he is specifically discussing the socialists, though the same point can beextended to the other governing parties.

3. Finding the symbols

1 See Lefebvre, Le Langage et la société. Barthes, Mythologies. The concepts arediscussed in Chapter 2.

2 See Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind, 17–19.

194 Notes

3 Fredric Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act(London: Methuen, 1981). See Chapter 1, ‘On Interpretation: Literature as aSocially Symbolic Act’, 17–102.

4 Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, ed. J. B. Thompson, trans.Gino Raymond and Matthew Adamson (Cambridge: Polity and Blackwell,1991). See Chapter 7, ‘On Symbolic Power’, 163–70.

5 Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, trans. Sheila Faria Glaser (AnnArbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994), 6.

6 Jean-Paul Sartre, ‘Paris sous l’occupation’, La France libre, 15 November1944. Reprinted in Sartre, Situations III, 28.

7 De Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 2, 311.8 See Barthes, Mythologies, 235–6.9 Jean-Paul Sartre, ‘La République du silence’, Les Lettres françaises, 9 September

1944. Reprinted in Sartre, Situations III, 11.10 This point is developed in the Introduction.11 The Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories is discussed in the

Introduction.12 ‘Message à Alexandre Parodi, délégué général du G.P.R.F. en France, à Paris’,

in de Gaulle, Lettres, notes et carnets, juin 1943–mai 1945, 274–5.13 De Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 2, 700.14 Ibid., 289–322.15 ‘Rien n’y manque, excepté l’État. Il m’appartient de l’y remettre. Aussi m’y

suis-je d’abord installé.’ Ibid., 306.16 Ibid., 709.17 Fauvet, La IVe République, 21.18 De Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 2, 309.19 De Gaulle subsequently claimed that the speech was improvised, no doubt

emphasising that the occasion lacked formal status. The text is reproducedin ibid., 709–10. Aspects of the speech are discussed in Chapter 2.

20 Barthes, Mythologies, 230.21 Anderson, Imagined Communities, 19.22 De Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 1, 1.23 Rioux, La France de la Quatrième République, I, 30.24 See Anne Bony, Les Années 40 (Paris: Editions du Regard, 1985); Pontus

Hulten, ed., Paris-Paris 1937–1957 (Paris: Centre Georges Ponpidou, 1981);Jean-Luc Daval, ed., L’art en Europe. Les années décisives 1945–53 (Geneva:Skira, 1987); Frances Morris, ed., Paris Post War: Art and existentialism1945–55 (London: Tate Gallery, 1993).

25 Hulten, ed., Paris-Paris, 455.26 Ibid., 454.27 Quoted in Henri Amouroux, ed., La France contemporaine: les années quarante

(Paris: Taillandier, 1972), 262.28 Sartre, Situations III, 34.29 Ibid., 42.30 Morris, ed., Paris Post War, 132.31 Job, 23.2. The Authorised Version reads: ‘Even today is my complaint

bitter; my stroke is heavier than my groaning’, while the Good NewsBible has ‘I still rebel and complain against God. I can’t hold back mygroaning’.

Notes 195

32 Lucien Goldmann, The Hidden God: a Study of Tragic Vision in the Pensées ofPascal and the Tragedies of Racine, trans. Philip Thody (London: Routledge &Kegan Paul, 1964).

33 Marchetti, Affiches 1939–1945, 171.34 John, 11. 1–44.35 See W. D. Halls, Politics, Society and Christianity in Vichy France (Oxford:

Berg, 1995).36 See Kay Chadwick, ed., Catholicism, Politics and Society in Twentieth-Century

France (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2000). The impassioned debatesaround the wearing of Islamic headscarves are a continuing illustration ofthis point.

37 See William Kidd, ‘Identity and Iconography: French War-memorials1914–1918 and 1939–1945’, in Popular Culture and Mass Communication inTwentieth-Century France, ed. Rosemary Chapman and Nicholas Hewitt(Lampeter: Edwin Mellen, 1992).

38 See Halls, Politics, Society and Christianity in Vichy France, 368–9., and deGaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 2, 314–15.

39 See Rioux, La France de la Quatrième République, I, 31. The following statisticsare given: Soldiers killed in action or fatally wounded: 170 000 (92 000 in1939–40; 58 000 in 1940–45; 20 000 FFI). Prisoners and deportees: 280 000(40 000 prisoners; 60 000 political deportees; 100 000 racial deportees; 40 000workers; 40 000 Alsaciens incorporated in the Wehrmacht). Civilian casual-ties: 150 000 (60 000 in bombings; 60 000 in land-fighting and massacres; 30 000 executed).

40 Louis Aragon, La Diane française (Paris: Seghers, 1944), 19–20. ‘Celui quicroyait au ciel / Celui qui n’y croyait pas / Tous deux adoraient la belle /Prisonnière des soldats’

41 L’un court et l’autre a des ailes / De Bretagne ou du Jura / Et framboise oumirabelle / Le grillon rechantera / Dites flûte ou violoncelle / Le doubleamour qui brûla / L’alouette et l’hirondelle / La rose et le réséda.

42 See ‘Il n’y a pas d’amour heureux’, in Aragon, La Diane française, 29–30.43 The poem is dedicated to four Resistance figures who were executed, two

Catholics and two communists.44 Aragon, Louis, ‘De l’exactitude historique en poésie’, in Aragon, La Diane

française, 95.

4. Workers and intellectuals

1 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, ‘La guerre a eu lieu’, Les Temps modernes (1945).2 Aragon, La Diane française, 19. The French text is: Quand les blés sont sous

la grêle/ Fou qui fait le délicat/ Fou qui songe à ses querelles/ Au coeur ducommun combat.

3 ‘Le Chant des Partisans’, 1943, words by Joseph Kessel and Maurice Druon,music by Anna Marly. See Chantal Brunschwig, Jean-Louis Calvet, and Jean-Claude Klein, Cent ans de chanson française, 2nd edn (Paris: Seuil, 1981), 88.The opening verse is: ‘Ami, entends-tu le vol noir des corbeaux sur nosplaines? / Ami, entends-tu les cris sourds du pays qu’on enchaîne? / Ohé!partisans, ouvriers et paysans, c’est l’alarme! / Ce soir l’ennemi connaîtra le

196 Notes

prix du sang et des larmes …’ (‘O friend, can you hear the black flight of thecrows on our plains? O friend, can you hear the muffled cries of ourcountry in chains? Hey there, partisans, workers and peasants, this is thesignal! Tonight the enemy will know the price of blood and tears …’)

4 The second verse is: ‘Montez de la mine, descendez des collines, camarades /Sortez de la paille, les fusils, la mitraille, les grenades … / Ohé! les tueurs, à laballe ou au couteau, tuez vite! / Ohé! saboteur, attention à ton fardeau,dynamite!’ (‘Come up from the mines, come down from the hills, comrades,Bring out from the straw the guns, the ammunition and grenades … Heythere, you killers, with the bullet or knife, kill quickly, Hey there, saboteur,take care with your load, dynamite!’)

5 Thorez, Oeuvres choisies, 2, 334–45.6 Ibid., 334–5.7 Ibid., 357.8 Ibid., 360.9 Ibid., 369.

10 Maurice Thorez, Fils du peuple (Paris: Éditions sociales internationales,1937), translated as Maurice Thorez, Son of the People, trans. DouglasGarman (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1938).

11 For, example, a word-frequency analysis of the conference address showsthat the most frequently used nouns are parti (126), France (89), peuple(s)(67), guerre (59), pays (57), production (51). Classe(s) occurs 20 times.

12 Thorez, Oeuvres choisies, 2, 312.13 ‘14 juillet de la Renaissance Française’, Ce soir, 14 July 1945, reproduced on

the back cover of Charles-Louis Foulon, La France libérée 1944–1945 (Paris:Hatier, 1984). The image is discussed in more detail in Chapter 5, pp. 124–5.

14 Charles De Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 3. Le Salut 1944–1946 (Paris: Plon,1959), 309.

15 See Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Sens et non-sens (Paris: Nagel, 1948), 195.16 See his editorial in Combat, 30 août 1945, reprinted in Camus, Essais, 289–91.17 See Raymond Aron, ‘Les désillusions de la liberté’, Les Temps modernes 1, no.

1 (1945).18 Emmanuel Mounier, ‘Situation du personnalisme’, Esprit, no. 118 (1946),

reprinted in Mounier, Oeuvres, 3, 191.19 See Georges Bernanos, ‘Il n’y a pas de révolution dirigée. Le président

Truman et son piano’, La Bataille (1945) in Bernanos, Français, si vous saviez,47–50.

20 See Chapter 3.21 Jacques Prévert, Paroles (Paris: Gallimard, 1946). The poem was first

published in October 1945, and is reprinted in Jacques Prévert, Oeuvrescomplètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1992), 139–40.

22 ‘Il ne faut pas laisser les intellectuels jouer avec les allumettes/ Parce queMessieurs quand on le laisse seul/ Le monde mental Messssieurs/ N’estpas du tout brillant/ Et sitôt qu’il est seul/ Travaille arbitrairement/S’érigeant pour soi-même/ Et soi-disant généreusement en l’honneur destravailleurs du bâtiment/ Un auto-monument/ Répétons-le Messssssieurs/Quand on le laisse seul/ Le monde mental/ Ment/ Monumentalement’(‘Intellectuals should not be allowed to play with matches/ BecauseGentlemen when it is left alone/ The mental world Geenntlemen/ is far

Notes 197

from brilliant/ And as soon as it is alone/ Works arbitrarily/ Erecting foritself/ And so-called generously in honour of building workers/ A self-monument/ Let me repeat Geeennntlemen/ When it is left alone/ Themental world/ Lies/ Monumentally’)

23 This argument has been forcefully proposed in Bernard-Henri Lévy, Le Sièclede Sartre (Paris: Gallimard, 2000).

24 Sartre, ‘La nationalisation de la littérature’, reprinted in Sartre, Situations II,50.

25 Sartre, Situations II, 34–5.26 Ibid., 35. The constitution of a Fourth Republic was under discussion at this

point. It was not formally inaugurated as the Fourth Republic until a yearlater.

27 Ibid.28 Ibid., 46.29 Ibid., 49.30 Sartre, ‘Présentation’. Reprinted in Sartre, Situations II, 30.31 Sartre, ‘La République du silence’, reprinted in Sartre, Situations III, 11–14.32 Sartre, ‘Paris sous l’occupation’, reprinted in Sartre, Situations III, 42.33 See Michel Contat and Michel Rybalka, Les écrits de Sartre (Paris: Gallimard,

1970), 117–23.34 ‘Jean-Paul Sartre revient des États-unis’, Radiodiffusion française, 1 April

1946. Author’s transcription from the tape recording, consulted at theInathèque in the Maison de la radio, Paris.

35 ‘Premier éditorial du journal “Combat” lu par Albert Camus’, BBC, 22August 1944. Inathèque reference Lo 5823/A. The recording lasts for fourminutes. The text is not included in Camus Essais., which collects most ofhis journalism from this period.

36 Camus, Essais, 255–316.37 The use of religious symbols is discussed in Chapter 3.38 ‘La rose et le réséda’, in Aragon, La Diane française, 19–20. See also Chapter 3.39 Mounier, Oeuvres, 4, 798.40 Tony Judt, Past Imperfect. French Intellectuals 1944–1956 (Berkeley & Los

Angeles: California University Press, 1992).41 Vincent Descombes, Modern French Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1990).42 See, for example, Michael Kelly, Hegel in France (Birmingham: Modern

Languages Publications, 1992).43 These movements are discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.44 Jean-Paul Sartre, Plaidoyer pour les intellectuels (Paris: Gallimard, 1972).

Reprinted in Jean-Paul Sartre, Situations VIII (Paris: Gallimard, 1972). See pp. 377–8. Similar formulations are adopted in Pascal Ory and Jean-FrançoisSirinelli, Les intellectuels en France : De l’affaire Dreyfus à nos jour, 3rd edn(Paris: Armand Colin, 2002), and Michel Leymarie, Les intellectuels et lapolitique en France (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 2001).

45 These groups are discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.46 Sartre, Situations II, 49.47 Julien Benda, La trahison des clercs (Paris: Grasset, 1927), translated as Julien

Benda, The Great Betrayal, trans. Richard Aldington (London: G. Routledge,1928). It was republished after the war as The Betrayal of the Intellectuals

198 Notes

(1955) and Treason of the Intellectuals (1969), by which time the term ‘intel-lectuals’ had become established.

48 For example, the Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes (CVIA-Anti-fascist intellectuals vigiliance committee), and the Union des intel-lectuels français (UDIF – French intellectuals union). See Jean-FrançoisSirinelli, Intellectuels et passions françaises. Manifestes et pétitions au XXe siècle(Paris: Gallimard, 1990), 132–214.

49 Ibid., 241–3. 50 Merleau-Ponty, Sens et non-sens, 183–4.51 See Sirinelli, Intellectuels et passions françaises, 231–8.; Pierre Assouline, L’Épura-

tion des intellectuels: 1944–1945 (Bruxelles: Éditions Complexe, 1985).52 Jean-Paul Sartre, ‘Qu’est-ce qu’un collaborateur? I’, La République française 2,

no. 8 (1945); Jean-Paul Sartre, ‘Qu’est-ce qu’un collaborateur? II’, LaRépublique française 2, no. 9 (1945); reprinted in Sartre, Situations III, 45.

53 Thorez, Oeuvres choisies, 2, 346.54 Their speeches were reprinted as a brochure: Georges Cogniot and Roger

Garaudy, Les Intellectuels et la Renaissance française (Paris: Éditions du PCF, 1945).55 Georges Cogniot, in ibid., 17.56 Roger Garaudy, in ibid., 6.57 This has been extensively studied, for example, in David Caute, Communism

and the French Intellectuals, 1914–60 (London: Deutsch, 1964); and JeannineVerdès-Leroux, Au service du Parti. Le parti communiste, les intellectuels et laculture (1944–1956) (Paris: Fayard/Minuit, 1983).

58 See also Michael Kelly, ‘French Intellectuals and Zhdanovism’, FrenchCultural Studies, 8, no. 22, February (1997).

59 See Margaret Atack, May 68 in French Fiction and Film (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 1999), 74.

60 See for example Anna Boschetti, The Intellectual Enterprise. Sartre and ‘LesTemps modernes’, trans. Richard C. McCleary (Evanston: NorthwesternUniversity Press, 1988).; Jeremy Jennings, ed., Intellectuals in Twentieth-Century France, Mandarins and Samurais (London: Macmillan, 1993); Oryand Sirinelli, Les intellectuels en France; Leymarie, Les intellectuels et lapolitique en France.

5. Regendering the nation

1 See Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London: Sage, 1997); Sylvia Walby,‘Woman and Nation’, in Mapping the Nation, ed. Gopal Balakrishnan(London: Verso, 1996); Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments:Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press,1993); Rada Ivekovic and Julie Mostov, eds., From Gender to Nation (LongoEditore: Ravenna, 2002).

2 See Claire Duchen, Women’s Rights and Women’s Lives in France 1944–68(London: Routledge, 1994); Hanna Diamond, Women and the SecondWorld War in France 1939–1948. Choice and Constraints (London: Pearson,1999).

3 Friedrich Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State(London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1972).

Notes 199

4 Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, trans. Howard Madison Parshley(Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1972), 84–91.

5 Catharine A. MacKinnon, Toward a Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 244.

6 Pierre Bourdieu, La domination masculine (Paris: Seuil, 1998).7 This point is developed in more detail in Michael Kelly, ‘The Hegemony of

National Identity in the Field of Cultural Identities’, in Memory, History andCritique: European Identity at the Millennium CD-ROM, ed. Frank Brinkhuisand Sascha Talmor (Utrecht: ISSEI/UHS, 1998).

8 See Célia Bertin, Femmes sous l’Occupation (Paris: Stock, 1993); Diamond,Women and the Second World War; Hanna Diamond and Claire Gorrara,‘Special Issue: Gendering the Occupation of France’, Modern andContemporary France 7, no. 1 (1999).

9 See Diamond, Women and the Second World War; Margaret Collins Weitz,Sisters in the Resistance: How Women Fought to Free France, 1940–1945 (NewYork; Chichester: J. Wiley, 1995).

10 See Duchen, Women’s Rights and Women’s Lives.; Diamond, Women and theSecond World War. Both of these works offer detailed bibliographical infor-mation on the topic.

11 Diamond, Women and the Second World War, 204.12 The fullest account is provided by Fabrice Virgili, Shorn Women. Gender and

Punishment in Liberation France, trans. John Flower (Oxford: Berg, 2002). Seealso Alain Brossat, Les tondues: un carneval moche (Paris: Manya, 1993) andCorran Laurens, ‘“La femme au turban”: les femmes tondues’, in TheLiberation of France. Image and Event, ed. Nancy Wood (Oxford: Berg, 1995).

13 Photographs are reproduced in many sources, see in particular Virgili, ShornWomen and Laurens, ‘La femme au turban’.

14 See Brossat, Les tondues, who invokes the notion of carnival in his subtitle,Un carneval moche.

15 This is examined in detail in Peter Novick, The Resistance versus Vichy(London: Chatto and Windus, 1968), and Lottmann, The People’s Anger.

16 ‘Jerrybags’ was the derogatory term used in the Channel Islands at thisperiod to denote women (‘bags’) who had associated with the Germanoccupying forces (‘the Jerries’).

17 A useful overview is presented in the special number of the review Clio,edited by Françoise Thébaud, ‘Résistances et Libérations. France1940–1945’, Clio, 1 (1995).

18 See L’Ordre de la Libération (2004 [cited 1 February 2004]); available fromhttp://www.defense.gouv.fr/actualites/dossier/d29/libe.htm.

19 See Hilary Footitt, ‘The First Women Députés: “les 33 glorieuses”?’, in TheLiberation of France. Image and Event, ed. H. R. Kedward and Nancy Wood(Oxford: Berg, 1995); William Guéraiche, ‘Les femmes politiques de 1944 à1947: quelle libération?’, Clio 1 (1995).

20 From November 1947 to July 1948. See Yvonne Knibiehler, ed., GermainePoinso-Chapuis, femme d’État (1901–1981) (Aix-en-Provence: Edisud, 1998).

21 See Edmund Dulac, 1882–1953 Collection [Website] (25 November 2003 2003[cited 1 February 2004]); available from http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/research/fa/dulac.html#folder. Edmond Dulac, born in France, had lived inEngland for forty years by this time, was naturalised British, and adopted

200 Notes

the English spelling of his first name, Edmund, under which he is morewidely known.

22 Hulten, ed., Paris-Paris, 455. This image is discussed in Chapter 3.23 Gabriel Audiovisio, ‘L’Air de la délivrance’, Poésie 44, no. 20 (1944). ‘O

Semaine stupéfiée par trop d’espérances si longtemps contenues!Assomption, dans l’été, des attentes chimériques. Assomption, vierge deParis, au ciel illuminant le soleil enfin qui retrouvait sa naissance despremiers jours du monde pour des hommes nouveaux tout étonnés desentir qu’ils allaient bientôt vivre.’

24 See Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation. This concept is discussed inChapter 3.

25 This practice began informally with Brigitte Bardot in 1969, and wasformalised with subsequent versions based on celebrities includingCatherine Deneuve, Mireille Mathieu, Mireille Darc, Isabelle Adjani andLaetitia Casta.

26 John Berger, Ways of Seeing (London: BBC/Penguin, 1972), 47.27 Elizabeth Badinter, X Y de l’identité masculine (Paris: Odile Jacob, 1992), 15.28 These are the concluding words of Le Mythe de Sisyphe (1942). See Camus,

Essais, 198.29 Reproduced in Hulten, ed., Paris-Paris, 129. This is discussed in more detail

in Chapter 6.30 David Rousset, L’univers concentrationnaire 1 (Paris: Éditions du Pavois,

1946), 71.31 Ibid., 76.32 Marchetti, Affiches 1939–1945, 171. The poster is discussed in Chapter 3.33 Bernanos, Français, si vous saviez, 205.34 Merleau-Ponty, Sens et non-sens, 331.35 Simone de Beauvoir, L’Existentialisme et la sagesse des nations (Paris: Nagel,

1986), 9–10.36 Simone de Beauvoir, ‘Idéalisme moral et réalisme politique’, Les Temps

modernes, 1, no. 2 (1945): 266.37 Sartre, Situations II, 22–3.38 Beauvoir, The Second Sex, 15. Interpolation added.39 Ibid., 295.40 See John MacInnes, The End of Masculinity: The Confusion of Sexual Genesis

and Sexual Difference in Modern Society (Buckingham: Open University Press,1998), 1–23.

41 The previous photograph in the series indicates this. In it, the woman,already seated, attempts to brush the hands of two of the men away fromher hair.

42 Reproduced on the back cover of Foulon, La France libérée.43 The main headline is ‘14 juillet de la Renaissance Française’, and the two

feature columns on either side of the picture are by Jean-Richard Bloch,‘La leçon de 1789’, and Louis Saillant, ‘Les États généraux et la Nation’, areference to the meeting of the States General, which sparked theRevolution.

44 Henri Lefebvre, Le marxisme (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1948), 10.45 See Jean-François Sirinelli, Les baby-boomers: Une génération 1945–1969

(Paris: Fayard, 2003).

Notes 201

6. The humanist moment

1 See Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice (Cambridge: Polity, 1990).2 André George et al., Les grands appels de l’homme contemporain (Paris: Éditions

du Temps présent, 1946). The papers were originally delivered betweenJanuary and April 1946.

3 Roland Barthes, S/Z (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1970), 24–8. 4 Ibid., 104.5 The picture is reproduced in Hulten, ed., Paris-Paris, 129.6 See Plautus, The Comedy of Asses, ‘Man is not a man, but a wolf, to those he

does not know’.7 See Robert Burns, ‘Man Was Made to Mourn’ (1786).8 Marchetti, Affiches 1939–1945, 174–5.9 See Rioux and Sirinelli, eds, Histoire culturelle de la France.

10 See D. G. Charlton, Positivist Thought in France during the Second Empire1852–1870 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959).

11 See F. Charmot, SJ, L’Humanisme et l’humain (Paris: Éditions Spes, 1934).12 Charles Andler, L’Humanisme travailliste (Paris: Bibliothèque de la civilisation

française, 1927).13 Paul Arbousse-Bastide, Pour un humanisme nouveau (Paris: Cahiers Foi et Vie,

1930). Contributors included P. Archambault, H. Brémond, L. Brunschvicg,J. Chevalier, A. Forest, R. Garric, H. Gouhier, A. Lalande, J. Maritain, R.Rolland and D. de Rougemont. See also Henri Clavier, L’Humanisme et lapiété chrétienne (Paris: Éditions Je Sers, 1932).

14 Mounier, ‘Refaire la Renaissance’, reprinted in Emmanuel Mounier, Oeuvres,t.1 1931–1939 (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1961), 153. See Michael Kelly,Pioneer of the Catholic Revival: the Ideas and influence of Emmanuel Mounier(London: Sheed & Ward, 1979).

15 See Jacques Maritain, Humanisme intégral: Problèmes temporels et spirituelsd’une nouvelle chrétienté (Paris: Aubier, 1968).

16 Ibid., 10.17 See Michael Kelly, Modern French Marxism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982).18 See for example Waldemar George, L’Humanisme et l’idée de patrie (Paris:

Fasquelle, 1936).19 See for example Max Hermant, Hitlérisme et Humanisme (Paris: Paul Brodard

& Joseph Taupin, 1936). Victor Monod, Dévalorisation de l’homme (Paris:Félix Alcan, 1935).

20 ‘Vers un nouvel humanisme’, Bulletin de la coopération intellectuelle, 75–6 (1937).21 Paul, Nizan ‘Sur l’humanisme’ in Paul Nizan, Paul Nizan, intellectuel

communiste, 2 vols, vol. 2 (Paris: Maspéro, 1970), 32–7. The article wasfirst published in Europe, 1935.

22 Jean-Paul Sartre, La Nausée (Paris: Gallimard, 1938). See Jean-Paul Sartre,Oeuvres romanesques, ed. Michel Contat and Michel Rybalka (Paris:Gallimard, 1981), 138–40.

23 Sartre, Oeuvres romanesques, 140. The emphasis is Sartre’s.24 See René D’Ouince, ‘A nos lecteurs’, Études (1945).25 Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Pilote de guerre (Paris: Gallimard, 1942).

Translated as Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Flight to Arras, trans. LewisGalantière (London: William Heinemann, 1942).

202 Notes

26 ‘L’homme où est l’homme l’homme L’Homme / Floué roué troué meurtri /Avec le mépris pour patrie / Marqué comme un bétail et comme / Un bétailà la boucherie’. Aragon, La Diane française, 15. The poem was originallypublished clandestinely in Paul Éluard, ed., L’Honneur des poètes (Paris:Éditions de Minuit, 1943).

27 Louis Aragon, ‘De l’exactitude historique en poésie’, in La Diane française(Paris: Seghers, 1944).

28 Jean-Paul Sartre, L’Etre et le néant (Paris: Gallimard, 1943), 474.29 The possibility of extra-terrestrial species replacing God as a third party is

not considered in this context.30 See Henri Michel and Boris Mirkine-Guetzévitch, eds, Les Idées politiques et

sociales de la Résistance (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1954); andHenri Michel, Les Courants de pensée de la Résistance (Paris: Presses universi-taires de France, 1962).

31 André Hauriou, Vers une doctrine de la Résistance: le socialisme humaniste(Alger: Éditions Fontaine, 1943).

32 Quoted in Ibid., 223.33 This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.34 The following titles were published in 1945: Paul Alpert, Economie human-

iste; Léon Blum, A l’échelle humaine; Pierre Bourgelin, L’Homme et le temps;Jacques Maritain, Les Droits de l’homme et la loi naturelle; Jean Mouroux, LeSens chrétien de l’Homme. A longer list appeared in 1946: André Ulmann,L’Humanisme du XXe siècle; Luc Sommerhausen, L’Humanisme agissant deKarl Marx; Louis Aragon, L’Homme communiste; Jacques Rennes, Du marx-isme à l’humanisme; Robert Fernand, L’Humanisme: essai de définition;Georges Friedmann, Machine et humanisme; Georges Izard, L’Homme est révo-lutionnaire; Daniel Perrot, Style d’homme; André Lang, L’Homme libre, ce pris-onnier; André George et al., Les Grand appels de l’homme; Simone deBeauvoir, Tous les hommes sont mortels; Nicolas Berdiaeff De l’esclavage et dela liberté de l’homme; Edward Montier, Les Jeunes devant l’humanisme intégral;Louis de Lavareille, Humanisme et prière; Charles Moeller, Humanisme et sain-teté; Xavier de Virieu, Perspectives d’humanisme militaire; Jean-Paul Sartre,L’Existentialism est un humanisme.

35 Guillaume Budé (1467–1540) was one of the leading French humanists ofthe Renaissance.

36 Robert, L’Humanisme: Essai de définition, 9.37 Ibid., 11.38 See Martin Heidegger, ‘Letter on Humanism’, in Martin Heidegger: Basic

Writings, ed. David Farrell Krell (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978).39 Ibid., 195.40 See for example, Rioux, The Fourth Republic 1944–1958; Roderick Kedward

and Roger Austin, eds, Vichy France and the Resistance: Culture and Ideology(London: Croom Helm, 1985); Lottmann, The People’s Anger.

41 The concept of bricolage is discussed in Chapter 3.42 André Mandouze, ‘Nous avons rompu, sous saurons unir’, Témoignage chré-

tien, 9 September 1944.43 Mgr Saliège, ‘Vocation de la France’, Témoignage chrétien, 30 September 1944.44 Emmanuel Mounier, ‘Faut-il refaire la Déclaration des droits de l’homme?’,

Esprit, no. 105 (1944).

Notes 203

45 See Stanislas Fumet, ‘Charles de Gaulle, ami de Temps présent’, Tempsprésent, 26 August 1944.

46 See ‘Il faut reconstruire en pensant à l’homme’, Temps présent, 24 November1944; and Gilles Ferry, ‘Uriage: École d’humanisme’, Temps présent, 22September 1944.

47 Jacques Maritain, Les Droits de l’homme et la loi naturelle (Paris: PaulHartmann, 1945); Jacques Maritain, Principes d’une politique humaniste (NewYork: Éditions de la Maison française, 1944).

48 See for example Philippe Viannay, Nous sommes des rebelles (Paris: Défense del’Homme, 1945), published under his Resistance pseudonym ‘Indomitus’.

49 SFIO (Section française de l’internationale ouvrière) was the French sectionof the Second International, and one of the main precursors of the presentsocialist party.

50 Robert Verdier and Pierre Stibbe, ‘Socialisme humaniste’, Esprit (1945): 691.51 Léon Blum, A l’échelle humaine (Paris: Gallimard, 1945). See also Tony Judt,

The Burden of Responsibility: Blum, Camus, Aron and the French TwentiethCentury (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1998); Joel Colton, Léon Blum:Humanist in Politics (New York: Knopf, 1966).

52 Pierre Hervé and Philippe Viannay, ‘Un “socialisme humaniste”?’, Esprit(1945); Verdier and Stibbe, ‘Socialisme humaniste’; Jean Lacroix, ‘Un social-isme humaniste’, Esprit (1945).

53 Jean Lacroix, Socialisme? (Paris: Éditions du livre français, 1945).54 Ibid., 66.55 Ibid. ‘En dehors de la culture, on n’est pas un homme.’56 Jean Mouroux, Le Sens chrétien de l’Homme (Paris: Aubier, 1945), 5.

Translated as Jean Mouroux, The Meaning of Man, trans. A. H. C. Downes(London: Sheed and Ward, 1948).

57 D’Ouince, ‘A nos lecteurs’, 8–9.58 Paul Alpert, Economie humaniste (Paris: Desclée de Brouwer, 1945).59 Henri de Lubac, Le Drame de l’humanisme athée (Paris: Spes, 1944).

Translated as Henri de Lubac, The Drama of Atheist Humanism, trans. EdithM. Riley (London: Sheed & Ward, 1949).

60 Jean Daniélou, ‘H. de Lubac: Le Drame de l’humanisme athée’, Études, no.mai (1945): 275.

61 Henri de Lubac, ‘L’idée chrétien de l’Homme et la recherche d’un hommenouveau’, Etudes, October, november (1947): 1.

62 Jean-Paul Sartre, L’existentialisme est un humanisme (Paris: Nagel, 1946).Whereas the French title asserts that ‘Existentialism is a humanism’, thepublished English translation has a less affirmative title: Jean-Paul Sartre,Existentialism and Humanism, trans. Philip Mairet (London: Methuen, 1974).

63 Jean Kanapa, L’Existentialisme n’est pas un humanisme (Paris: Éditionssociales, 1947).

64 Henri Lefebvre, Le matérialisme dialectique, 2nd edn (Paris: Presses universi-taires de France, 1947). See also Lefebvre, Le marxisme.

65 See Georges Friedmann, Machine et humanisme (Paris: Gallimard, 1946).66 See Auguste Cornu, ‘Marxisme et idéologie’, La Pensée (1945). See also Auguste

Cornu, Karl Marx et la pensée moderne (Paris: Éditions sociales, 1948).67 Cogniot and Garaudy, Les Intellectuels et la Renaissance française, 12. ‘Patrie

d’élection de l’humanisme’.

204 Notes

68 See for example René Maublanc, ‘Le rationalisme en face des mystiques’, LaPensée (1945).

69 Hervé and Viannay, ‘Un “socialisme humaniste”?’, 409.70 See Gaston Fessard, France, prends garde de perdre ta liberté (Paris: Éditions du

Témoignage chrétien, 1945). The issue is usefully discussed in Ronald Tiersky,French Communism, 1920–1972 (London: Columbia University Press, 1974).

71 Sartre, ‘Présentation’, quoted from Sartre, Situations II, 15.72 Sartre, Situations II, 28.73 Francis Ponge, ‘Notes premières de l’homme’, Les Temps modernes 1, no. 1

(1945).74 Beauvoir, ‘Idéalisme moral et réalisme politique’, 266.75 This point is taken up in Chapter 7.76 Sartre, L’existentialisme est un humanisme.77 See Michel Tournier, Le Vent Paraclet (Paris: Gallimard, 1977), 160–1.78 In the essay ‘Le Yogi et le prolétaire’, first published in Les Temps modernes in

the winter of 1946–47, and reprinted in Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Humanisme etterreur. Essai sur le problème communiste (Paris: Gallimard, 1947), 178.

79 This is discussed in Chapter 5.

7. The battle of ideas

1 See Pierre Nora, ‘Mi-vainqueur, mi-vaincu’, in Les idées en France 1945–1988:Une chronologie, ed. Anne Simonin and Hélène Clastres (Paris: Gallimard,1989).

2 It is a common expression, which echoes the biblical text: ‘For whosoeverwill save his life shall lose it; but whosoever shall lose his life for my sakeand the gospel’s, the same shall save it’ (Mark, 8, 35). It often occurs in thetitles of books and films, and is also the name used for versions of chess andcheckers. It was a favourite theme with Jean-Paul Sartre and EmmanuelMounier, and the idea was used as the title for an English translations ofSartre’s play, Les séquestrés d’Altona (1960): Jean-Paul Sartre, Loser wins … aplay in five acts, trans. Sylvia Leeson and George Leeson (London: HamishHamilton, 1960). Most recently it is the title of a film directed by LaurentBénégui (2004). See, for example, Christina Howells, ‘Sartre and Derrida:qui perd gagne’, Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology (1982); PhilipKnee, Qui perd gagne: essai sur Sartre (Sainte-Foy: Presses de l’UniversitéLaval, 1993).

3 This is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.4 Pierre Bourdieu, La Distinction: critique sociale du jugement (Paris: Minuit,

1979); Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984). This framework is also used inother works on this area: Boschetti, The Intellectual Enterprise. Sartre and ‘LesTemps modernes’, and in Gisèle Sapiro, La Guerre des écrivains, 1940–1953(Paris: Fayard, 1999).

5 See Michael E. Porter, The Competitive Advantage of Nations (New York: FreePress, 1990), 148–54.

6 See Herbert R Lottman, The Left Bank (New York: Wallace and Sheil, 1981),and Ory and Sirinelli, Les intellectuels en France, 143.

Notes 205

7 The climate of commitment is discussed in Chapter 4.8 See for example, Allen Joyland Belkind, Jean-Paul Sartre: Sartre and

Existentialism in English. A Bibliographical Guide (Kent, Ohio: Kent StateUniversity Press, 1970); Walter Arnold Kaufmann, ed., Existentialism: FromDostoevsky to Sartre (New York: New American Library, 1975); Mark Poster,Existential Marxism in Postwar France: From Sartre to Althusser (Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1975); Lottman, The Left Bank; George Myerson,Sartre’s Existentialism and Humanism: a Beginner’s Guide (London: Hodder &Stoughton, 2002). See also the journal Sartre Studies International: anInternational Journal of Existentialism and Contemporary Culture (Providence,RI: Berghahn).

9 This was the title of a series of seven one-hour broadcasts on French radio:Michel Contat, ‘Les années Sartre’, (Paris: France-Culture, 1990). It wasadopted as the title for the final part of Michel Winock, Le siècle des intel-lectuels (Paris: Seuil, 1999).

10 See for example, Aron, ‘Les désillusions de la liberté.’; Emmanuel Mounier,Malraux, Camus, Sartre, Bernanos: l’espoir des désespérés (Paris: Éditions duSeuil, 1953); Iris Murdoch, Sartre, Romantic Rationalist (London: Fontana,1967).

11 Blaise Pascal, Pensées (Paris: Mercure de France, 1976). Blaise Pascal, Pascal:selections, ed. Richard H. Popkin (New York: Macmillan, 1989).

12 See Reinhardt Grossmann, Phenomenology and Existentialism: an Introduction(London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984).

13 Sartre, La Nausée, translated as Jean-Paul Sartre, Nausea, trans. LloydAlexander (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1962).

14 Sartre, L’Etre et le néant. Translated as Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness:an Essay on Phenomenological Ontology, trans. Hazel E. Barnes (London:Methuen, 1972).

15 Reproduced in Sartre, Situations II, translated as Jean-Paul Sartre, What isLiterature?, trans. Bernard Frechtman (London: Methuen, 1950).

16 Jean-Paul Sartre, Portrait of the Anti-Semite, trans. Erik de Mauny (London:Secker & Warburg; Lindsay Drummond, 1948).

17 Frantz Fanon, Peau noire, masques blancs (Paris: Seuil, 1952), translated asFrantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Charles Lam Markmann (NewYork: Grove Press, 1967).

18 Sartre, The Flies and In Camera; Jean-Paul Sartre, Three Plays: Crime Passionel,Men without Shadows and The Respectable Prostitute, trans. Kitty Black(London: Hamish Hamilton, 1949); Jean-Paul Sartre, The Chips are Down,trans. Louise Varèse (London: Rider, 1951); Jean-Paul Sartre, In The Mesh,trans. Mervyn Savill (London: Andrew Dakers, 1954); Jean-Paul Sartre, TheAge of Reason, trans. Eric Sutton (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1947); Jean-Paul Sartre, The Reprieve, trans. Eric Sutton (London: Hamish Hamilton,1947); Jean-Paul Sartre, Iron in the Soul, trans. Gerard Hopkins (London:Hamish Hamilton, 1950).

19 Simone de Beauvoir, Pour une morale de l’ambiguité (Paris: Gallimard, 1947);translated as Simone de Beauvoir, The Ethics of Ambiguity, trans. BernardFrechtman (New York: Citadel Press, 1962).

20 Beauvoir, Pour une morale de l’ambiguité, 45.

206 Notes

21 Simone de Beauvoir, Le deuxième sexe (Paris: Gallimard, 1949), translated asSimone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, trans. Howard Madison Parshley(London: Jonathan Cape, 1953). Some of the ideas in this work arediscussed in Chapter 5.

22 The period is described in Beauvoir’s autobiography. See Simone deBeauvoir, La Force des choses (Paris: Gallimard, 1963), translated as Simonede Beauvoir, Force of Circumstance, trans. Richard Howard (London:Deutsch, 1965).

23 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phénoménologie de la perception (Paris: Gallimard,1945), translated as Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception,trans. Colin Smith (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962).

24 Albert Camus, L’Étranger (Paris: Gallimard, 1942)., translated as AlbertCamus, The Outsider, trans. Stuart Gilbert (London: Hamish Hamilton,1946). Also published in English as The Stranger. Albert Camus, Le mythe deSisyphe (Paris: Gallimard, 1942), translated as Albert Camus, The Myth ofSisyphus, trans. Justin O’Brien (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1955).

25 Simone de Beauvoir, Les mandarins (Paris: 1954), translated as Simone deBeauvoir, The Mandarins (London: Fontana, 1960).

26 Albert Camus, L’homme révolté (Paris: Gallimard, 1951); Albert Camus, TheRebel, trans. Anthony Bower (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1953). SeeGermaine Brée, Camus and Sartre: Crisis and Commitment (New York: Dell,1972); Claudie Broyelle and Jacques Broyelle, Les illusions retrouvées: Sartre atoujours raison contre Camus (Paris: Grasset, 1982).

27 See Emmanuel Lévinas, Le Temps et l’autre (Paris: Fata Morgana, 1979).Emmanuel Lévinas, Basic Philosophical Writings, ed. Adriaan T. Peperzak,Simon Critchley and Robert Bernasconi (Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress, 1996).

28 See Jean André Wahl, Le malheur de la conscience dans la philosophie de Hegel(Paris: Rieder, 1929); Jean Wahl, Études Kierkegaardiennes (Paris: Aubier, 1937).

29 See Jean Wahl, Le choix, le monde, l’existence (Paris: Arthaud, 1947); JeanWahl, Esquisse pour une histoire de ‘l’existentialisme’; suivi de Kafka etKierkegaard (Paris: L’Arche, 1949), translated as Jean Wahl, A Short History ofExistentialism, trans. Forrest Williams and Stanley Maron (New York:Philosophical Library, 1949).

30 Alexandre Kojève, Introduction à la lecture de Hegel (Paris: Gallimard, 1947),translated as Alexandre Kojève, Introduction to the reading of Hegel … Lectureson the Phenomenology of Spirit assembled by Raymond Queneau, ed. AlanBloom, trans. James H. Nichols, Jr. (New York & London: Basic Books,1969). See also Dominique Auffret, Alexandre Kojève. La philosophie, l’État, lafin de l’Histoire (Paris: Grasset, 1990).

31 See Chadwick, ed., Catholicism, Politics and Society in Twentieth-Century France;Frank Tallett and Nicholas Atkin, eds, Religion, Society and Politics in Francesince 1789 (London: Hambledon Press, 1991); Roy Pierce, Contemporary FrenchPolitical Thought (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966); R. William Rauch,Politics and Belief in Contemporary France: Emmanuel Mounier and ChristianDemocracy, 1932–1950 (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1972).

32 Both encyclicals are reprinted in Anne Freemantle, ed., The Social Teachingsof the Church (New York: Mentor-Omega, 1963). See also Charles E. Curran,

Notes 207

Catholic Social Teaching, 1891–Present: a Historical, Theological, and EthicalAnalysis (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2002).

33 See Jean-Louis Loubet del Bayle, Les non-conformistes des années 30 (Paris:Seuil, 1969).

34 See Michel Winock, ‘Esprit’. Des intellectuels dans la cité 1930–1950, Revue etaugmentée ed., Histoire (Paris: Seuil, 1996); Kelly, Pioneer of the CatholicRevival.

35 See John Hellman, Emmanuel Mounier and the New Catholic Left, 1930–1950(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); John Hellman, The Knight-Monks of Vichy France, Uriage, 1940–45 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1993). A defence of Mounier’s position is given inWinock, Le siècle des intellectuels, 426–37.

36 Bernanos, Français, si vous saviez, 163.37 See Kelly, Pioneer of the Catholic Revival; Hellman, Emmanuel Mounier and the

New Catholic Left, 1930–1950; David L. Schalk, The Spectrum of PoliticalEngagement: Mounier, Benda, Nizan, Brasillach, Sartre (Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1979).

38 Emmanuel Mounier, Oeuvres, t.2. Traité du caractère (Paris: Éditions du Seuil,1961), translated as Emmanuel Mounier, The Character of Man, trans.Cynthia Rowland (London: Rockliff, 1956).

39 Emmanuel Mounier, Le Personnalisme, Que sais-je? (Paris: Presses Universitairesde France, 1949). Translated as Emmanuel Mounier, Personalism, trans.Philippe Auguste Mairet (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1952).

40 See Jacques Maritain, The Rights of Man and Natural Law (London: GeoffreyBles, 1944).; Jacques Maritain, Christianity and Democracy, trans. Doris C.Anson (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1945); Jacques Maritain, The Person and theCommon Good, trans. John J. Fitzgerald (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1948).

41 His two most influential works are Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, ThePhenomenon of Man (London: Collins, 1959), and Pierre Teilhard deChardin, Le milieu divin: an Essay on the Interior Life, trans. Bernard JosephWall (London: Collins, 1960). In 1948 he was forbidden by his Order topublish the books.

42 Hellman, The Knight-Monks of Vichy France.43 Laurent Greilshamer, Hubert Beuve-Méry (1902–1989) (Paris: Fayard, 1990).44 Claude-Edmonde Magny, Les Sandales d’Empédocle: essai sur les limites de la

littérature (Neuchâtel: Baconnière, 1945); Claude-Edmonde Magny, L’âge duroman américain (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1948). Claude-Edmonde Magny,The Age of the American Novel: the Film Aesthetic of Fiction between the TwoWars, trans. Eleanor Hochman (New York: Ungar, 1972).

45 Alain Resnais, ‘Nuit et brouillard’, (Paris: 1955).46 Jean Cayrol, Je vivrai l’amour des autres, 3 vols (Paris: Seuil, 1947–50).47 Gilbert Cesbron, Les saints vont en enfer (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1952), trans-

lated as Gilbert Cesbron, Saints in Hell, trans. John Russell (London: Secker& Warburg, 1953). Gilbert Cesbron, Il est minuit, Dr Schweitzer (Paris: RobertLaffont, 1951).

48 See R. E. M. Irving, Christian Democracy in France (London: Allen andUnwin, 1973); Rauch, Politics and Belief in Contemporary France; DavidHanley, ed., Christian Democracy in Europe: a Comparative Perspective(London: Pinter, 1994).

208 Notes

49 Much of the following discussion is informed by George Lichtheim,Marxism in Modern France (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966);Tony Judt, Marxism and the French Left (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986); andDaniel Lindenberg, Le Marxisme introuvable (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1975). Seealso Kelly, Modern French Marxism.

50 Proudhon’s best known idea is the ‘property is theft’. See Pierre-JosephProudhon, Selected Writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, ed. Stewart Edwards(London: Macmillan, 1970); Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What is Property?(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Robert Louis Hoffman,Revolutionary Justice : the Social and Political Theory of P.-J. Proudhon (Urbana:University of Illinois Press, 1972).

51 Paul Lafargue, Le droit à la paresse (Paris: Allia, 1999).52 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Collected Works, vol. 43 (London: Lawrence

and Wishart, 1988), 353–8.53 See Bud Burkhard, French Marxism between the Wars: Henri Lefebvre and the

‘Philosophies’ (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2000).54 A useful summary of the situation is given in Jean Kanapa, ‘Bilan des

éditions marxistes’, Europe (1947).55 See the biography of Lefebvre, Rémi Hess, Henri Lefebvre et l’aventure du siècle

(Paris: Métailié, 1988).56 Lefebvre, Le matérialisme dialectique, translated as Henri Lefebvre, Dialectical

Materialism, trans. John Sturrock (London: Cape, 1968). Lefebvre, Le marxisme.57 See Henri Lefebvre, Critique de la vie quotidienne, 1, Introduction (Paris:

Grasset, 1947); translated as Henri Lefebvre, Critique of Everyday Life, 1.Introduction, trans. John Moore (London: Verso, 1991); Michael Kelly, ‘TheHistorical Emergence of Everyday Life’, Sites, 1, no. 1 (1997).

58 This is discussed at some length in Edgar Morin, Autocritique, 3rd edn (Paris:Seuil, 1975).

59 History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks). Short Course(Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1939). The work was editedby a Commission of the Soviet Communist Party, under the general super-vision of Stalin, who is generally attributed with authorship of the sectionon Dialectical Materialism (pp. 97–131). There is further discussion of laterdevelopments in Kelly, ‘French Intellectuals and Zhdanovism’.

60 Henri Lefebvre, Logique formelle, logique dialectique, A la lumière du matérial-isme dialectique, 1 (Paris: Éditions sociales, 1947).

61 Serge Perottino, Roger Garaudy et le marxisme du XXe siècle. Présentation choixde textes, biographie, bibliographie (Paris: Seghers, 1969).

62 See Roger Garaudy, ‘Les sources françaises du marxisme-léninisme’, Cahiersdu communisme (1946); Roger Garaudy, Les sources françaises du socialismescientifique (Paris: Éditions Hier et aujourd’hui, 1948).

63 Gaston Mialaret, Le plan Langevin-Wallon (Paris: Presses Universitaires deFrance, 1997).

64 See Sapiro, La Guerre des écrivains. 1940–1953.65 Caute, Communism and the French Intellectuals; Verdès-Leroux, Au service du

Parti. Le parti communiste, les intellectuels et la culture (1944–1956).66 Roger Vailland, Drôle de jeu (Paris: Bûchet-Chastel, 1945), translated as

Roger Vailland, Playing with Fire, trans. Gerard Hopkins (London: Chatto &Windus, 1948).

Notes 209

67 Louis Aragon, Aurélien (Paris: Gallimard, 1944), published in English asLouis Aragon, Aurelien, trans. Eithne Wilkins (London: Pilot Press, 1946).

68 See Ory and Sirinelli, Les intellectuels en France, 150–4, Winock, Le siècle desintellectuels, 511–84.

69 Pierre Bourdieu, In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive Sociology (Oxford:Polity, 1990), 41.

70 Michael E. Porter, Competitive Advantage (New York: Free Press, 1985),513–36.

71 Pierre Boutang, Sartre est-il un possédé? (Paris: La Table ronde, 1946).72 Jeanne Mercier, ‘Le ver dans le fruit’, Études (1945): 249.73 See Jean-Paul Sartre, ‘Autoportrait à soixante-dix ans’, in Situations, X (Paris:

Gallimard, 1976), 154.74 Paul Foulquié, L’Existentialisme (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,

1946), translated as Paul Foulquié, Existentialism, trans. Kathleen Raine(London: Dennis Dobson, 1947).

75 Foulquié, L’Existentialisme, 6.76 Gabriel Marcel, Homo viator (Paris: Aubier, 1944), 242.77 These relations are discussed in detail in Poster, Existential Marxism, 109–60.78 Henri Mougin, La Sainte famille existentialiste (Paris: Éditions sociales, 1947).79 Ibid., 153.80 Henri Lefebvre, L’existentialisme (Paris: Éditions du Sagittaire, 1946).81 Emmanuel Mounier, Introduction aux existentialismes (Paris: Denoël, 1947),

translated as Emmanuel Mounier, Existentialist Philosophies: an Introduction,trans. Eric Blow (London: Rockliff, 1952).

Conclusion

1 See Simone de Beauvoir, La Force de l’âge (Paris: Gallimard, 1960), 688.2 See Aron, ‘Les désillusions de la liberté’.3 ‘Bricolage’ is a term originally used for amateur ‘do-it-yourself’ manual building

work. See the Introduction and Chapter 3. 4 Sartre, Situations III, 63. 5 De Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, 3, 178. 6 Beauvoir, La Force des choses, 50–1. 7 See Rousso, The Vichy Syndrome.

210 Notes

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Alpert, Paul 148Alsace 5ambiguity 2, 4, 18, 43, 51, 54, 62,

76, 78, 89, 91, 108, 139, 150, 152,162, 177, 185–7

America 4, 5, 7, 33, 36–7, 42, 57, 97,100–1, 109, 112, 169, 174

Amitié française 128, 146anarchism 29, 165Anderson, Benedict 14, 17, 69, 82, 91Andler, Charles 136, 137Anglo-Saxons 101Anouilh, Jean 30anthropology 18, 20, 188anti-semitism 161Aquinas, St Thomas 168Aragon, Louis 30, 81–2, 85–6, 98,

137, 140–1, 146, 175, 183Armistice 2, 4, 6, 31Aron, Raymond 91, 160artists 3, 20, 29, 93, 100–2, 183Association des écrivains et artistes

révolutionnaires (AEAR) 102Assumption 116atheism 141, 149, 176atonement 74Aubrac, Lucie 114Audiovisio, Gabriel 116Augustine, St 159, 168

Badinter, Élisabeth 117, 118, 126Baldwin, James 165Barbusse, Henri 137Barthes, Roland 35, 60, 62, 68, 110,

121, 130, 175Baudrillard, Jean 60, 61Bayard 31BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation)

27, 34, 97Beaufret, Jean 143Beauvoir, Simone de 56–7, 107,

121–3, 152, 157, 159, 162–5, 180,184–6

belle époque 24Benda, Julien 102Benjamin, Walter 100Berdyaev, Nicholas 178Berger, John 117Bergson, Henri 168, 178Berlin 160Bernanos, Georges 91, 120, 167Beuve-Méry, Hubert 169Bhabha, Homi K. 14Bidault, Georges 67Bloch, Marc 5, 13Blondel, Maurice 178Blum, Léon 147, 151Bogart, Humphrey 163Bonaparte, Napoléon 28, 95Bost, Jacques-Laurent 165Bourdieu, Pierre 60, 64, 76, 86,

107, 108, 128, 156, 176, 179,181, 184

Boutang, Pierre 176Brasillach, Robert 102–3Braudel, Fernand 15, 31bricolage 1, 60, 69, 73, 79, 83, 127,

144, 181, 184, 188Britain 4–7, 27, 36, 100, 101, 109,

112, 155, 185brothels 115Bruckberger, Raymond-Léopold 79Budapest 137

225

Index

Budé, Guillaume 142, 203Burns, Robert 131

Caesar 28Café de Flore 165Cahiers du communisme 172Camus, Albert 44, 46, 57, 91, 97,

119, 147, 159, 163, 164capitalism 50, 85, 90, 100, 129, 141,

178carnival 111Casanova, Danielle 104, 114Catholic Action 166Catholicism, Catholics 3, 20, 22, 24,

30, 46, 50, 66, 70–4, 78–81, 67,101, 127, 133, 136, 139, 142,145–6, 148, 150–3, 166–71,175–7, 182

Cau, Jean 165Cayrol, Jean 169Ce soir 174censorship 25Cesbron, Gilbert 170Chamonix 24Chantiers de la jeunesse 139Chaplin, Charles 56, 57, 163Chartier, Roger 22Chenu, Marie-Dominique 168Cherbourg 65, 73Chevalier, Maurice 54Cholitz, General Dietrich von 65Christ, Jesus 71, 73, 76, 78, 120,

126, 140Christian democrats, Christian

democracy 21, 46, 49, 58, 115,137, 143, 145, 148, 153, 158, 167,170, 184

Churchill, Winston 7cinema 24–26, 30, 44citizenship 90civilisation 20, 21, 46, 48, 137, 148Clark, Kenny 165class 3, 48, 84–105, 126, 136, 181, 187Club Maintenant 152Club Saint Germain des Prés 165codes 34–5, 48Cogniot, Georges 194, 151Cold War 2, 10, 14, 49, 52, 57, 104,

126, 154–5, 171, 173, 179

Colin, Paul 53, 71–3, 76, 115, 116collaboration 100, 103, 110, 144,

157–8, 182–6Collège de France 136, 163Colonial Exhibition (1931) 24colonies 10Combat 46, 97, 146–7, 163comics 25, 44Comité général d’études (CGE) 146Comité national des écrivains (CNE)

96, 103, 174Commissaires of the Republic 51,

64, 109commitment 96, 100–1, 161, 165Committees of Liberation 51communism, communists 5, 7, 9,

10, 25, 29, 46, 49, 50–2, 58, 64,76, 83, 87–9, 98, 115, 127, 129,137–9, 141–4, 155, 158, 170–9,186

community (imagined) 1, 3, 14–15,17, 32, 69, 71, 91–2, 98, 109, 112,141

Compagnons 139Comte, Auguste 136, 149concentration camps 78, 120Confédération française des travailleurs

chrétiens (CFTC) 169consciousness 160–5Conseil national de la résistance 67Construire 139Cornu, Auguste 151, 172Coubertin, Pierre de 24Courtade, Pierre 175crisis 49–50cultural memory 2, 28culture 1–4, 11, 13–15, 17, 18–24,

26–30, 43–4, 98–9, 102, 127, 129,131, 133, 137, 143, 147, 151, 153,186–7

Czechoslovakia 12, 50

D’Alembert, Jean 51D’Astorg, Bertrand 169D’Ouince, René 148Dada 29Daniélou, Jean 149, 168Daquin, Louis 175Darnand, Joseph 5

226 Index

Dautry, Raoul 56de Gaulle, Charles 2, 3, 5–11, 13,

17–18, 27, 30, 37, 38, 41–43, 49,52–3, 55, 58, 61–70, 73, 76, 79,80, 89, 90, 98, 102, 104, 115,146–7, 150, 153, 182, 185–6

de Lattre de Tassigny, Jean 9de Menthon, François 170death 70, 73, 78–9, 162Decour, Jacques (Daniel

Decourdemanche) 104defeat 5, 44, 74, 80, 156, 166Delacroix, Eugène 41, 115Descartes, René 44, 52, 174Descombes, Vincent 99Deux Magots, Les 165dialectic 173Diamond, Hanna 108Diderot, Denis 51–2, 174Dimitrov, George 137distinction 156, 179, 181Domenach, Jean-Marie 157domination 60, 64, 107, 109, 113,

117, 157–8, 164, 176, 181–5, 187Dominicans 139doxa 107–8, 184Dreyfus Case 29, 186Drieu la Rochelle, Pierre 103Druon, Maurice 86Duhamel, Georges 137Dulac, Edmond 115–16, 200Dullin, Charles 93–4Dumazedier, Joffre 21Duras, Marguerite 157

École des cadres, Uriage 26, 139, 169École nationale d’administration

(ENA) 169Économie et humanisme 139economy 1, 10, 12, 14, 20, 44, 47,

89, 100education 8, 17, 21–2, 26, 44, 136,

145, 174Eiffel Tower 24Eisenhower, Dwight D. 7Eliot, T. S. 71elites 1, 3, 5, 6, 9, 12, 21, 26, 32–3,

56, 58–9, 83, 88, 93, 100, 127–8,144, 156–8, 180–3, 187

Éluard, Paul 30, 175Emmanuel, Pierre 169Encyclopedia of the French

Renaissance 51Engels, Friedrich 52, 107, 171–2Enlightenment 51, 136Épuration 91, 144Esprit 46, 48, 98–9, 136, 139, 145–7,

164, 166–8, 170, 178État français 6, 17, 18, 25, 31, 63,

69, 147Études 139, 148, 177Europe 10, 36, 129, 130, 136, 139Europe 172, 174everyday life 173existentialism 3, 46–7, 58, 74, 91,

100–1, 121, 143, 149–53, 158–65,168, 170–1, 175–9, 184

Fabien, Colonel (Pierre Georges) 41faith 49Fanon, Frantz 162fascism 29, 87–8, 129, 137, 153,

166, 186Fauvet, Jacques 67Featherstone, Mike 19feminism 107, 163Ferry, Jules 23Feuerbach, Ludwig 137, 149First World War 24, 29Flamand, Paul 169Flaubert, Gustave 131Fougeron, André 89, 124–6, 175Foulquié, Paul 177France libre 96Franco-French war 2, 10, 26, 186,

188Francs-tireurs et partisans français

(FTP) 87freedom 160–2, 184freemasons 25Free French 5, 7, 26–7, 30, 32, 38,

41, 44, 63–4, 67–8, 73, 80, 86,103, 118, 141, 182

French Communist Party (PCF) 5, 9,24, 50–1, 76, 83, 87, 102–4, 124,133, 137, 147, 151, 165, 172–9

Freud, Sigmund 99Friedmann, Georges 137, 151

Index 227

Front national 87Front populaire, see Popular FrontFumaroli, Marc 17Fumet, Stanislas 139, 146

Gandon, Pierre 116Garaudy, Roger 104, 174Geertz, Clifford 18gender 3, 106–26, 136, 181, 187generation 157, 181Germany 4–7, 9, 10, 25, 27, 35–6,

38, 41–2, 63, 79, 80, 99, 100, 102,108, 110, 112–13, 118–20, 155,172, 182, 186

Gid, Raymond 71, 76–7, 120Gide, André 158Girondins 48Gisors 110–11, 123Godot 49Goguel, François 170Goldmann, Lucien 76Gréco, Juliette 165Gruber, Francis 74–6Guesde, Jules 171Guterman, Norbert 137

Hauriou, André 141, 146Hegel, G. W. F. 16, 99, 151, 164,

173, 178, 187Heidegger, Martin 99, 143, 149,

160, 164, 178heroes 63, 120Herr, Lucien 137, 171Hervé, Pierre 147, 151Himes, Chester 165history 35, 66–8, 90–1, 121, 130–1,

133Hitler, Adolf 100, 120, 139, 176,

182Hobsbawm, Eric 14Hollywood 100honour 9Hôtel de Ville 63, 65–8Hugo, Victor 29Huizinga, Johan 137humanism 3, 20, 27, 48, 51, 83,

119–23, 126, 127–54, 156, 161–7,169, 173, 179, 183–4

Humanité, L’ 137, 172, 174

Husserl, Edmund 99, 160, 164Hyppolite, Jean 164

ideas 2, 3, 23, 70, 92, 100, 117, 127,155

identities 2, 3, 11, 22, 60, 69, 71,91, 98, 106–8, 110, 118–19, 129,130, 187

ideology 130, 148, 150, 156, 169,184

images 2, 3, 23, 59, 61, 68–70, 79,92, 131, 175

incarnation 66, 182Indo-China 126intellectuals 3, 29, 84, 92–105, 151,

175–6, 181, 183–4Iraq 1, 4, 12, 33Islam 196, 127Italy 4

Jacobins 48Jakobson, Roman 34Jameson, Fredric 60Japan 155Jaspers, Karl 99, 178Jaurès, Jean 137, 171jazz 100, 165Jesuits 168, 177Jeune France 26, 139Jews 8, 25, 38, 76, 78, 80, 161, 164,

166Joan of Arc 31, 42, 73Judt, Tony 99

Kanapa, Jean 150Kant, Immanuel 99Kessel, Joseph 86Kierkegaard, Søren 164, 178Kojève, Alexandre 164

Laberthonnière, Lucien 178Lacoste, Robert 98–9Lacroix, Jean 147–8, 151, 169Lafargue, Paul 171Lagrange, Léo 21, 25Langevin, Paul 51, 174language 3, 14, 33Languedoc 109Laval, Pierre 26, 118

228 Index

Lazarus 78League of Nations 137Leclerc, Colonel (Philippe de

Hauteclocque) 5, 41, 63, 65Lefebvre, Henri 34, 60, 126, 137,

151, 157, 172–5, 177Léger, Fernand 175Lenin 52, 171–2Leo XIII, Pope 166, 168Lettres françaises 96, 172Lévi-Strauss, Claude 60, 188Lévinas, Emmanuel 164liberation 2, 31, 33, 35–41, 42, 44,

67–8, 103, 109–10, 116, 162, 173,180, 182

literature 93, 95–8Lithuania 127London 7, 17, 64, 95, 97, 141Louvre 115Lubac, Henri de 149, 150, 168Lucifer 121Lyon 147, 169

MacKinnon, Catherine 107Madonna (Virgin Mary) 70, 89, 116,

124, 126, 142Magny, Claude-Edmonde 169Maine de Biran (Marie-François

Gontier) 178Maisons de la culture 21Malraux, André 137, 147Man 47, 120–3, 129, 133, 136–40,

143–6, 151–3, 167–8, 173, 177Mandouze, André 145Mann, Thomas 137Marat, Jean-Paul 174Marcel, Gabriel 177–8Marianne 23, 38, 42, 53, 71, 73, 89,

115–16, 124, 183Maritain, Jacques 136–7, 146, 148,

166, 168Marrane, Georges 67Marseillaise 23Marseille 139Marshall Plan 10, 54Martin du Gard, Roger 158Martinet, André 34Marx, Karl 52, 99, 137, 144, 171,

173–4

Marxism 3, 20, 47, 51–2, 85, 100,129, 137, 149–53, 158, 168,170–9, 184

masculinity 3, 117–26, 183Masson, Loÿs 169Maurras, Charles 139, 166, 176Medusa 93–4memory 14, 22, 28, 35men 3, 107–8, 110, 112–13, 117–26,

183Mercier, Jeanne 177Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 56, 85, 90,

102–3, 120, 153, 159, 163Middle East 127Milice française 5military intervention 1, 2, 4–5, 180misrecognition 60, 64–5, 117Mitterrand, François 8modernisation 56, 57Monde, Le 147, 169Monnet, Jean 10, 56, 58Montand, Yves 175Montour, Bernard 97Montparnasse 65monuments 92, 94Morgan, Lewis H. 107Morin, Edgar 157, 173Mougin, Henri 51, 177Moulin, Jean 27Mounier, Emmanuel 21, 46–8, 91,

98–9, 136–7, 139, 145–6, 157,166–71, 173, 178, 205

Mouroux, Jean 148Mouvement de libération nationale

(MLN) 146Mouvement républicain populaire

(MRP) 47, 150, 167, 170Munich agreement 50Musée de l’homme 24, 140myth, mythology 2, 34–5, 60, 62,

68, 82–3, 110, 114, 119–20, 124,138, 140, 175, 182

Nancy 53Napoléon, see Bonapartenarrative 2, 4, 14–15, 23, 60, 67,

169, 175, 182, 185nation 3, 8, 13–17, 28, 30–1, 42–3,

52–3, 60, 66, 69, 70–1, 74, 76, 81,

Index 229

83–6, 89–92, 95, 99, 100, 104,108–9, 113, 117, 124, 140–1, 144,146, 150, 153, 179, 180–7

nation building 1, 3, 4, 8–11, 106,180–4

National Assembly 8national identity 2–4, 9, 12, 13–16,

18, 27–8, 32, 42–3, 59, 62, 70,82–3, 106, 108, 116, 126–7, 145,154, 180–7

National Revolution 26, 29, 31, 44,79, 127, 139

national unity 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 28,42, 51, 59, 61, 74, 81, 84, 86–9,92, 112, 127, 140, 147, 151–5,185–6

nationalised industries 8, 10nationalism 13, 108, 142, 148New York 146newspapers 34Nietzsche, Friedrich 99, 129, 149,

178Nizan, Paul 138, 172, 177Nora, Pierre 14, 28Normandy landings 2, 4, 7, 64Nouvelle critique 174Nouvelle revue française 158

Occupation 6, 22, 32, 43, 56, 62–3,85, 87, 96, 102, 110, 112, 139,153, 157, 167, 172, 186

Otto lists 25

Palais de Chaillot 90Papon, Maurice 8paradigmatic dimension 34, 36, 45Paris 5, 17, 18, 23, 24, 29, 36–8, 41,

51, 61, 63–5, 67–8, 71, 73, 96, 98,115, 122, 140, 144, 152, 157, 180

Paris Opera 24Parker, Charlie 165Parodi, Alexandre 64Pascal, Blaise 76, 160, 178patriotism 85, 112, 147peasants 86, 103–4Péguy, Charles 47, 142, 166, 168,

178Pensée, La 151, 172, 174people 87–9, 103

personalism 3, 47–8, 100, 158,166–71, 176–9, 184

Pétain, Philippe 2, 6, 7, 17, 25–6,29–31, 41, 55, 63, 74, 78, 86,116–17, 192

pétroleuse 41Peuples et culture 21Phili (Philippe Grach) 38, 39, 53Philip, AndréPhilippe, Gérard 175Piaget, Jean 137Picasso, Pablo 175Pius XI, Pope 166Plautus 131poetry 34Poincaré, Raymond 94Poinso-Chapuis, Germaine 115Poland 127police 8political structures 1, 10, 14, 20, 44Politzer, Georges 104, 172Ponge, Francis 152popular culture 19, 21, 25, 29Popular Front 21, 24–6, 29, 30, 87–8,

137, 140, 147, 151, 166, 172posters 34, 35, 38practices 22, 23Prévert, Jacques 92, 94, 101Prometheus 121propaganda 41Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph 168, 171provisional government 2, 7–8, 18,

25, 27, 42, 44, 48, 63, 68–9, 80,109, 144

publishing 24, 27

Racine, Jean 76radio 24, 34, 96–7Radio Moscow 27, 51Radio Paris 25, 27Radio Vichy 25, 27Rambouillet 65Rassemblement démocratique

révolutionnaire (RDR) 165, 170,178

Ravanel, Colonel 50rebirth 49–52rebuilding 1, 4, 33, 45, 52–5, 98,

108, 126, 133, 146, 153, 182

230 Index

redemption 74reform 45regime change 1, 2, 4, 6–8, 18, 63,

180, 186religion 38, 44, 69–73, 78–80, 82,

97–8, 124, 127, 131, 181, 184,186

Renaissance 50–1, 124, 130, 174representation 22, 61–2, 70Republic 18, 37–8, 53, 55, 56, 67–8,

71, 113, 117, 124, 136, 142, 184,188; First Republic 145; ThirdRepublic 6–7, 13, 17, 23, 28, 29,31, 46, 55, 68–9, 78, 118, 147,156, 158, 166; Fourth Republic10, 55, 68, 94, 153, 198; FifthRepublic 11

Resistance 2, 5, 7–9, 21, 26–7, 30,32, 37–8, 41, 44, 46, 49–50, 62,64–9, 73–4, 79–87, 95, 102–9,114, 118, 123, 139–46, 151,157–8, 163, 167, 170, 175–6, 182,184

Resnais, Alain 169reviews 34revolution 21, 31, 45–51, 85, 90,

124, 176, 182, 186, 201Richard, Marthe 115Rimbaud, Arthur 95Riom 147Rioux, Jean-Pierre 23Rixens, Léa and Émile 116Robert, Fernand 142–3Robespierre 48Rol-Tanguy, Colonel 41, 65Rolland, Romain 137Romains, Jules 158Roosevelt, Franklin D. 7, 63Rosanvallon, Pierre 16–17Rouault, Georges 120, 131–3Rouen 42Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 174Rousset, David 120Rousso, Henri 6, 186Russia 50Rwanda 106

Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de 139Saint-Germain-des-Prés 164–5

Saliège, Archbishop Jules-Gérard145, 148

Salomon, Jacques 104Salon de la libération 74Sartre, Jean-Paul 20, 30, 47–9, 56–7,

61–2, 74, 93–7, 101–4, 121–2,129, 138, 140–1, 150–2, 157–65,173, 176–9, 205

Saussure, Ferdinand de 35Scheler, Max 99Schnapper, Dominique 14science, scientists 100, 102, 130–1,

133Second Armoured Division 7, 41, 63Second Vatican Council 168Second World War 1–2, 4, 33, 70,

84, 117–18, 130, 171, 185Sète 98shearing 109–14, 123Shennan, Andrew 58sign 22, 35Signoret, Simone 175socialism, socialists 21, 29, 49, 83,

91, 115, 137, 140–8, 153, 158,165, 171–9, 184

Sorel, Georges 171Soviet Union 12, 27, 155, 176Spain 166sport 24, 26Stalin 50, 52, 89, 172–4state 3, 7–9, 13, 16–18, 22–24,

27–30, 35, 42–3, 53, 55, 63–6, 67,69, 73, 76, 78–80, 83, 90–4, 98–9,102, 104, 107–8, 116, 124, 145,147, 171, 181–2, 186

Stavisky Affair 50Stibbe, Pierre 147Stil, André 175Stockholm 95Strindberg, August 71style 64, 67, 69suffering 70, 74, 76, 78Suhard, Cardinal Emmanuel 79surrealism 29, 175symbol, symbols 3, 5, 18, 19, 22, 31,

34–5, 59–83, 106, 108, 112, 140,142, 164, 181–6

symbolic violence 76, 86, 90, 104,107, 117, 183

Index 231

syntagmatic dimension 34, 43système D 1, 188

Tabou, Le 165Tardieu, Jean 169Taslitzky, Boris 175Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre 168Teitgen, Pierre-Henri 170Témoignage chrétien 145–6, 163–5, 170Temps modernes 49, 85, 93, 96, 102,

121, 152, 158Temps nouveaux 139Temps présent 87, 128, 139, 146theatre 25–6, 93Thomas, Édith 114Thorez, Maurice 48, 50–52, 87–90,

103–4Times, The 52tondues, see shearingToulouse 120, 145Tournier, Michel 152tourniquet 68, 121trades unions 119, 169, 171, 174transsubstantiation 66Triolet, Elsa 175Trotskyism 165Turenne, Henri de 95

Ulmann, Suzanne 98unconscious 60Union des femmes françaises (UFF)

174United Nations 10United States 7, 10, 27, 97

Vailland, Roger 175Vaillant-Couturier, Paul 137Valéry, Paul 95, 98, 137Valmy 140values 3, 9, 127–8, 130, 143–4, 165,

170, 184

Vercingetorix 28Vercors (Jean Bruller) 27Verdier, Robert 146–7Vian, Boris 165Viannay, Philippe 147Vichy 2, 5–8, 13, 17–18, 21, 25–7,

30–1, 36, 41, 44, 56–7, 63, 74,78–80, 86, 102, 118, 127, 139,142, 144–50, 157–8, 161, 167,169, 172, 176, 182, 185

victory 36, 41, 186Vilar, Jean 71Voice of America 27Voltaire 104, 161, 174

Waffen SS 5Wahl, Jean 164Wall Street Crash 50Wallon, Henri 51, 174war 1, 4, 42, 70, 79, 176, 185War Ministry 65–6Washington 95Weil, Simone 22Williams, Raymond 18–19women 3, 70, 89, 106–26, 183–4worker priests 170workers, working class 3, 76, 84,

86–91, 103–4, 133, 136, 175,183

world fairs 24World Trade Center 59writers 3, 20, 29, 93–5, 98, 100–2,

183

Yalta 50, 89, 174youth 44, 139, 167Yugoslavia (former) 1, 4, 12, 106,

127

zazous, les 165Zhdanov, Andrei A. 174

232 Index