Jean-Paul Sartre

“Sartre” redirects here. For other uses, see Sartre (dis-ambiguation).

Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (/ˈsɑːrtrə/;[6]

Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre in Beijing,1955

French: [saʁtʁ]; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) wasa French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political ac-tivist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one ofthe key figures in the philosophy of existentialism andphenomenology, and one of the leading figures in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism.His work has also influenced sociology, critical theory,post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continuesto influence these disciplines.Sartre was also noted for his open relationship withprominent feminist theorist Simone de Beauvoir. To-gether, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the culturaland social assumptions and expectations of their upbring-ings, which they considered bourgeois, in both lifestyleand thought. The conflict between oppressive, spiritu-ally destructive conformity (mauvaise foi, literally, "badfaith") and an "authentic" way of "being" became thedominant theme of Sartre’s early work, a theme embod-ied in his principal philosophical work Being and Noth-ingness (L'Être et le Néant, 1943).[7] Sartre’s introductionto his philosophy is his work Existentialism and Human-ism (L'existentialisme est un humanisme, 1946), originally

presented as a lecture.He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature butrefused it, saying that he always declined official honoursand that “a writer should not allow himself to be turnedinto an institution”.[8]

1 Biography

1.1 Early life

Jean-Paul Sartre was born in Paris as the only child ofJean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, andAnne-Marie Schweitzer.[9] His mother was of Alsatianorigin and the first cousin of Nobel Prize laureateAlbert Schweitzer. (Her father, Charles Schweitzer, wasthe older brother of Albert Schweitzer’s father, LouisThéophile.)[10] When Sartre was two years old, his fatherdied of a fever overseas. Anne-Marie moved back to herparents’ house in Meudon, where she raised Sartre withhelp from her father, a teacher of German who taughtSartre mathematics and introduced him to classical liter-ature at a very early age.[11] When he was twelve, Sartre’smother remarried, and the family moved to La Rochelle,where he was frequently bullied.[12]

As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted tophilosophy upon reading Henri Bergson's essay Time andFree Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Conscious-ness.[13] He attended the Cours Hattemer, a private schoolin Paris.[14] He studied and earned certificates in psy-chology, history of philosophy, logic, general philosophy,ethics and sociology, and physics, as well as his diplômed'études supérieures (roughly equivalent to an MA the-sis) in Paris at the École Normale Supérieure, an institu-tion of higher education that was the alma mater for sev-eral prominent French thinkers and intellectuals.[15] (His1928 MA thesis under the title “L'Image dans la vie psy-chologique: rôle et nature” ["Image in Psychological Life:Role and Nature"] was directed by Henri Delacroix.)[15]It was at ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimesfractious, friendship with Raymond Aron.[16] Perhaps themost decisive influence on Sartre’s philosophical devel-opment was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojève'sseminars, which continued for a number of years.[17]

From his first years in the École Normale, Sartre was oneof its fiercest pranksters.[18][19] In 1927, his antimilitaristsatirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthoredwith Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the direc-

1

2 1 BIOGRAPHY

tor Gustave Lanson.[20] In the same year, with his com-rades Nizan, Larroutis, Baillou and Herland,[21] he or-ganized a media prank following Charles Lindbergh'ssuccessful New York–Paris flight; Sartre & Co. callednewspapers and informed them that Lindbergh was go-ing to be awarded an honorary École degree. Manynewspapers, including Le Petit Parisien, announced theevent on 25 May. Thousands, including journalists andcurious spectators, showed up, unaware that what theywere witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike.[20][22][23] The public’s resultant outcry forced Lan-son to resign.[20][24]

In 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beau-voir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on tobecome a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. Thetwo became inseparable and lifelong companions, initi-ating a romantic relationship,[25] though they were notmonogamous.[26] The first time Sartre took the exam tobecome a college instructor, he failed. He took it a sec-ond time and virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir,although Sartre was eventually awarded first place in hisclass, with Beauvoir second.[27][28]

Sartre was drafted into the French Army from 1929 to1931 and served as a meteorologist for some time.[29] Helater argued in 1959 that each French person was respon-sible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War ofIndependence.[30]

From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycéesof Le Havre (at the Lycée de Le Havre, the present-day Lycée François-Ier (Le Havre), 1931–36), Laon (atthe Lycée de Laon, 1936–37), and, finally, Paris (at theLycée Pasteur, 1937–39, and at the Lycée Condorcet,1941–44;[31] see below).In 1932, Sartre discovered Voyage au bout de la nuit byLouis-Ferdinand Céline, a book that had a remarkableinfluence on him.[32]

In 1933–34, he succeeded Raymond Aron at the Institutfrançais d'Allemagne in Berlin where he studied EdmundHusserl's phenomenological philosophy. Aron had al-ready advised him in 1930 to read Emmanuel Levinas'sThéorie de l’intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl(The Theory of Intuition in Husserl’s Phenomenology).[33]

The Neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève andJean Hyppolite in the 1930s inspired a whole generationof French thinkers, including Sartre, to discover Hegel’sPhenomenology of Spirit.[34]

1.2 World War II

In 1939 Sartre was drafted into the French army, wherehe served as a meteorologist.[35] He was captured by Ger-man troops in 1940 in Padoux,[36] and he spent ninemonths as a prisoner of war—in Nancy and finally inStalag XII-D, Trier, where he wrote his first theatricalpiece, Barionà, fils du tonnerre, a drama concerning

Christmas. It was during this period of confinementthat Sartre read Martin Heidegger's Being and Time,later to become a major influence on his own essay onphenomenological ontology. Because of poor health (heclaimed that his poor eyesight and exotropia affected hisbalance) Sartre was released in April 1941. Given civil-ian status, he recovered his teaching position at LycéePasteur near Paris, settled at the Hotel Mistral. In Oc-tober 1941 he was given a position at Lycée Condorcet inParis, replacing a Jewish teacher who had been forbiddento teach by Vichy law.

French journalists visit General George C. Marshall at his officein the Pentagon building, 1945

After coming back to Paris in May 1941, he partici-pated in the founding of the underground group Social-isme et Liberté (“Socialism and Liberty”) with other writ-ers Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Toussaint Desanti, DominiqueDesanti, Jean Kanapa, andÉcole Normale students. In August Sartre and de Beau-voir went to the French Riviera seeking the support ofAndré Gide and André Malraux. However, both Gideand Malraux were undecided, and this may have beenthe cause of Sartre’s disappointment and discouragement.Socialisme et liberté soon dissolved and Sartre decided towrite instead of being involved in active resistance. Hethen wrote Being and Nothingness, The Flies, andNo Exit,none of which were censored by the Germans, and alsocontributed to both legal and illegal literary magazines.After August 1944 and the Liberation of Paris, he wroteAnti-Semite and Jew. In the book he tries to explain theetiology of “hate” by analyzing antisemitic hate. Sartrewas a very active contributor to Combat, a newspaper cre-ated during the clandestine period by Albert Camus, aphilosopher and author who held similar beliefs. Sartreand de Beauvoir remained friends with Camus until 1951,with the publication of Camus’s The Rebel. Later, whileSartre was labeled by some authors as a resistant, theFrench philosopher and resistant Vladimir Jankelevitchcriticized Sartre’s lack of political commitment duringthe German occupation, and interpreted his further strug-gles for liberty as an attempt to redeem himself. Accord-ing to Camus, Sartre was a writer who resisted; not a re-

1.3 Cold War politics and anticolonialism 3

sister who wrote.In 1945, after the war ended, Sartre moved to an apart-ment on the rue Bonaparte which was where he wasto produce most of his subsequent work, and wherehe lived until 1962. It was from there that he helpedestablish a quarterly literary and political review, LesTemps modernes (Modern Times), in part to popularizehis thought.[37] He ceased teaching and devoted his timeto writing and political activism. He would draw onhis war experiences for his great trilogy of novels, LesChemins de la Liberté (The Roads to Freedom) (1945–1949).

1.3 Cold War politics and anticolonialism

Jean-Paul Sartre (middle) and Simone de Beauvoir (left) meetingwith Che Guevara (right) in Cuba, 1960

The first period of Sartre’s career, defined in large partby Being and Nothingness (1943), gave way to a secondperiod—when the world was perceived as split into com-munist and capitalist blocs—of highly publicized politicalinvolvement. His 1948 playLesmains sales (Dirty Hands)in particular explored the problem of being a politically“engaged” intellectual. He embraced Marxism but didnot join the Communist Party. While a Marxist, Sartreattacked what he saw as abuses of freedom and humanrights by the Soviet Union. He was one of the first Frenchjournalists to expose the existence of the labor camps,and vehemently opposed the invasion of Hungary, Rus-sian anti-Semitism, and the execution of dissidents. As ananti-colonialist, Sartre took a prominent role in the strug-gle against French rule in Algeria, and the use of tortureand concentration camps by the French in Algeria. Hebecame an eminent supporter of the FLN in the AlgerianWar and was one of the signatories of the Manifeste des121. Consequently, Sartre became a domestic target ofthe paramilitary Organisation de l'armée secrète (OAS),escaping two bomb attacks in the early '60s.[38] (He hadan Algerian mistress, Arlette Elkaïm, who became hisadopted daughter in 1965.) He opposedU.S. involvementin the VietnamWar and, along with Bertrand Russell andothers, organized a tribunal intended to expose U.S. warcrimes, which became known as the Russell Tribunal in1967.His work after Stalin’s death, the Critique de la raison

Sketch of Sartre for theNewYork Times by Reginald Gray, 1965

dialectique (Critique of Dialectical Reason), appeared in1960 (a second volume appearing posthumously). In theCritique Sartre set out to give Marxism a more vigor-ous intellectual defense than it had received until then;he ended by concluding that Marx’s notion of “class” asan objective entity was fallacious. Sartre’s emphasis onthe humanist values in the early works of Marx led to adispute with a leading leftist intellectual in France in the1960s, Louis Althusser, who claimed that the ideas ofthe young Marx were decisively superseded by the “sci-entific” system of the later Marx.Sartre went to Cuba in the 1960s to meet Fidel Castroand spoke with Ernesto “Che” Guevara. After Guevara’sdeath, Sartre would declare him to be “not only an in-tellectual but also the most complete human being of ourage”[39] and the “era’s most perfect man.”[40] Sartre wouldalso compliment Guevara by professing that “he lived hiswords, spoke his own actions and his story and the story ofthe world ran parallel.”[41] However he stood against thepersecution of gays by Castro’s régime, which he com-pared to Nazi persecution of the Jews, and said: “In Cubathere are no Jews, but there are homosexuals”.[42]

During a collective hunger strike in 1974, Sartre vis-ited Red Army Faction leader Andreas Baader inStammheim Prison and criticized the harsh conditions ofimprisonment.[43] Towards the end of his life, Sartre be-came an anarchist.[44][45][46]

4 1 BIOGRAPHY

1.4 Late life and death

Hélène de Beauvoir's house in Goxwiller, where Sartre tried tohide from the media after being awarded the Nobel Prize.

In 1964 Sartre renounced literature in a witty and sar-donic account of the first ten years of his life, LesMots (The Words). The book is an ironic counterblastto Marcel Proust, whose reputation had unexpectedlyeclipsed that of André Gide (who had provided the modelof littérature engagée for Sartre’s generation). Literature,Sartre concluded, functioned ultimately as a bourgeoissubstitute for real commitment in the world. In October1964, Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literaturebut he declined it. He was the first Nobel laureate to vol-untarily decline the prize,[47] and remains one of only twolaureates to do so.[48] In 1945, he had refused the Légiond'honneur.[49] The Nobel prize was announced on 22 Oc-tober 1964; on 14 October, Sartre had written a letter tothe Nobel Institute, asking to be removed from the list ofnominees, and warning that he would not accept the prizeif awarded, but the letter went unread;[50] on 23 October,Le Figaro published a statement by Sartre explaining hisrefusal. He said he did not wish to be “transformed” bysuch an award, and did not want to take sides in an Eastvs. West cultural struggle by accepting an award froma prominent Western cultural institution.[50] After beingawarded the prize he tried to escape the media by hid-ing in the house of Simone’s sister Hélène de Beauvoir inGoxwiller, Alsace.Though his name was then a household word (as was“existentialism” during the tumultuous 1960s), Sartre re-mained a simple man with few possessions, actively com-mitted to causes until the end of his life, such as the May1968 strikes in Paris during the summer of 1968 duringwhich he was arrested for civil disobedience. PresidentCharles de Gaulle intervened and pardoned him, com-menting that “you don't arrest Voltaire.”[51]

In 1975, when asked how he would like to be remem-bered, Sartre replied:

I would like [people] to remember Nausea,[my plays] No Exit and The Devil and the GoodLord, and then my two philosophical works,

Jean-Paul Sartre in Venice in 1967

Sartre’s and de Beauvoir’s grave in the Cimetière de Montpar-nasse

more particularly the second one, Critique ofDialectical Reason. Then my essay on Genet,Saint Genet.... If these are remembered, thatwould be quite an achievement, and I don't askfor more. As a man, if a certain Jean-PaulSartre is remembered, I would like people toremember the milieu or historical situation inwhich I lived,... how I lived in it, in terms of allthe aspirations which I tried to gather up withinmyself.[52]

5

Sartre’s physical condition deteriorated, partially be-cause of the merciless pace of work (and the use ofamphetamines)[53] he put himself through during thewriting of the Critique and a massive analytical biogra-phy of Gustave Flaubert (The Family Idiot), both of whichremained unfinished. He suffered from hypertension,[54]and became almost completely blind in 1973. Sartre wasa notorious chain smoker, which could also have con-tributed to the deterioration of his health.[55]

Sartre died on 15 April 1980 in Paris from edema of thelung. He had not wanted to be buried at Père-LachaiseCemetery between his mother and stepfather, so it was ar-ranged that he be buried at Montparnasse Cemetery. Athis funeral on Saturday, 19 April, fifty thousand Parisiansdescended onto Boulevard Montparnasse to accompanySartre’s cortege.[56][57] The funeral started at “the hospitalat two p.m., then filed through the fourteenth arrondisse-ment, past all Sartre’s haunts, and entered the cemeterythrough the gate on the Boulevard Edgar Quinet.” Sartrewas initially buried in a temporary grave to the left ofthe cemetery gate.[58] Four days later the body was dis-interred for cremation at Père-Lachaise Cemetery, andhis ashes were reburied at the permanent site in Mont-parnasse Cemetery, to the right of the cemetery gate.[59]

2 Thought

See also: Being and Nothingness

Sartre’s primary idea is that people, as humans, are “con-demned to be free”.[60] This theory relies upon his posi-tion that there is no creator, and is illustrated using theexample of the paper cutter. Sartre says that if one con-sidered a paper cutter, one would assume that the cre-ator would have had a plan for it: an essence. Sartre saidthat human beings have no essence before their existencebecause there is no Creator. Thus: “existence precedesessence”.[60] This forms the basis for his assertion thatsince one cannot explain one’s own actions and behaviourby referencing any specific human nature, they are nec-essarily fully responsible for those actions. “We are leftalone, without excuse.” “We can act without being deter-mined by our past which is always separated from us.”[61]

Sartre maintained that the concepts of authenticity andindividuality have to be earned but not learned. We needto experience “death consciousness” so as to wake up our-selves as to what is really important; the authentic in ourlives which is life experience, not knowledge.[62] Deathdraws the final point when we as beings cease to live forourselves and permanently become objects that exist onlyfor the outside world.[63] In this way death emphasizes theburden of our free, individual existence.As a junior lecturer at the Lycée du Havre in 1938, Sartrewrote the novel La Nausée (Nausea), which serves insome ways as a manifesto of existentialism and remains

one of his most famous books. Taking a page from theGerman phenomenological movement, he believed thatour ideas are the product of experiences of real-life sit-uations, and that novels and plays can well describe suchfundamental experiences, having equal value to discur-sive essays for the elaboration of philosophical theoriessuch as existentialism. With such purpose, this novel con-cerns a dejected researcher (Roquentin) in a town similarto Le Havre who becomes starkly conscious of the factthat inanimate objects and situations remain absolutelyindifferent to his existence. As such, they show them-selves to be resistant to whatever significance human con-sciousness might perceive in them.He also took inspiration from phenomenologist episte-mology, explained by Franz Adler in this way: “Manchooses and makes himself by acting. Any action impliesthe judgment that he is right under the circumstances notonly for the actor, but also for everybody else in similarcircumstances.”[64]

This indifference of “things in themselves” (closely linkedwith the later notion of “being-in-itself” in his Being andNothingness) has the effect of highlighting all the morethe freedom Roquentin has to perceive and act in theworld; everywhere he looks, he finds situations imbuedwith meanings which bear the stamp of his existence.Hence the “nausea” referred to in the title of the book;all that he encounters in his everyday life is suffused witha pervasive, even horrible, taste—specifically, his free-dom. The book takes the term from Friedrich Nietzsche'sThus Spoke Zarathustra, where it is used in the contextof the often nauseating quality of existence. No matterhow much Roquentin longs for something else or some-thing different, he cannot get away from this harrowingevidence of his engagement with the world.The novel also acts as a terrifying realization of someof Immanuel Kant's fundamental ideas about freedom;Sartre uses the idea of the autonomy of the will (thatmorality is derived from our ability to choose in real-ity; the ability to choose being derived from human free-dom; embodied in the famous saying “Condemned to befree”) as a way to show the world’s indifference to theindividual. The freedom that Kant exposed is here astrong burden, for the freedom to act towards objects isultimately useless, and the practical application of Kant’sideas proves to be bitterly rejected.

3 Career as public intellectual

While the broad focus of Sartre’s life revolved aroundthe notion of human freedom, he began a sustained in-tellectual participation in more public matters towardsthe end of the Second World War, around 1944-45.[65]Prior to this—before the Second World War—he wascontent with the role of an apolitical liberal intellectual:“Now teaching at a lycée in Laon [...] Sartre made his

6 3 CAREER AS PUBLIC INTELLECTUAL

Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir at the BalzacMemorial

headquarters the Dome café at the crossing of Montpar-nasse and Raspail boulevards. He attended plays, readnovels, and dined [with] women. He wrote. And hewas published.”[66] Sartre and his lifelong companion, deBeauvoir, existed, in her words, where “the world aboutus was a mere backdrop against which our private liveswere played out”.[67]

Sartre portrayed his own pre-war situation in the char-acter Mathieu, chief protagonist in The Age of Reason,which was completed during Sartre’s first year as a soldierin the SecondWorldWar. By forgingMathieu as an abso-lute rationalist, analyzing every situation, and functioningentirely on reason, he removed any strands of authenticcontent from his character and as a result, Mathieu could“recognize no allegiance except to [him]self”,[68] thoughhe realized that without “responsibility for my own exis-tence, it would seem utterly absurd to go on existing”.[69]Mathieu’s commitment was only to himself, never to theoutside world. Mathieu was restrained from action eachtime because he had no reasons for acting. Sartre then,for these reasons, was not compelled to participate in theSpanish Civil War, and it took the invasion of his owncountry to motivate him into action and to provide a crys-tallization of these ideas. It was the war that gave him apurpose beyond himself, and the atrocities of the war canbe seen as the turning point in his public stance.

The war opened Sartre’s eyes to a political reality he hadnot yet understood until forced into continual engagementwith it: “the world itself destroyed Sartre’s illusions aboutisolated self-determining individuals and made clear hisown personal stake in the events of the time.”[70] Return-ing to Paris in 1941 he formed the “Socialisme et Liberté"resistance group. In 1943, after the group disbanded,Sartre joined a writers’ Resistance group,[71] in which heremained an active participant until the end of the war.He continued to write ferociously, and it was due to this“crucial experience of war and captivity that Sartre beganto try to build up a positive moral system and to expressit through literature”.[72]

The symbolic initiation of this new phase in Sartre’s workis packaged in the introduction hewrote for a new journal,Les Temps modernes, in October 1945. Here he alignedthe journal, and thus himself, with the Left and called forwriters to express their political commitment.[73] Yet, thisalignment was indefinite, directed more to the concept ofthe Left than a specific party of the Left.Sartre’s philosophy lent itself to his being a public in-tellectual. He envisaged culture as a very fluid concept;neither pre-determined, nor definitely finished; instead,in true existential fashion, “culture was always conceivedas a process of continual invention and re-invention.”This marks Sartre, the intellectual, as a pragmatist, will-ing to move and shift stance along with events. He didnot dogmatically follow a cause other than the belief inhuman freedom, preferring to retain a pacifist’s objectiv-ity. It is this overarching theme of freedom that meanshis work “subverts the bases for distinctions among thedisciplines”.[74] Therefore, he was able to hold knowl-edge across a vast array of subjects: “the internationalworld order, the political and economic organisation ofcontemporary society, especially France, the institutionaland legal frameworks that regulate the lives of ordinarycitizens, the educational system, the media networks thatcontrol and disseminate information. Sartre systemati-cally refused to keep quiet about what he saw as inequal-ities and injustices in the world.”[75]

Sartre always sympathized with the Left, and supportedthe French Communist Party (PCF) until the 1956 So-viet invasion of Hungary. Following the Liberationthe PCF were infuriated by Sartre’s philosophy, whichappeared to lure young French men and women awayfrom the ideology of communism and into Sartre’s ownexistentialism.[76] From 1956 onwards Sartre rejectedthe claims of the PCF to represent the French workingclasses, objecting to its “authoritarian tendencies”. Inthe late 1960s Sartre supported the Maoists, a move-ment that rejected the authority of established com-munist parties.[1] However, despite aligning with theMaoists, Sartre said after the May events: “If onerereads all my books, one will realize that I have notchanged profoundly, and that I have always remained ananarchist.”[44] He would later explicitly allow himself tobe called an anarchist.[45][46]

7

In the aftermath of a war that had for the first time prop-erly engaged Sartre in political matters, he set forth abody of work which “reflected on virtually every impor-tant theme of his early thought and began to explore al-ternative solutions to the problems posed there”.[77] Thegreatest difficulties that he and all public intellectuals ofthe time faced were the increasing technological aspectsof the world that were outdating the printed word as aform of expression. In Sartre’s opinion, the “traditionalbourgeois literary forms remain innately superior”, butthere is “a recognition that the new technological 'massmedia' forms must be embraced” if Sartre’s ethical andpolitical goals as an authentic, committed intellectual areto be achieved: the demystification of bourgeois politi-cal practices and the raising of the consciousness, bothpolitical and cultural, of the working class.[78]

The struggle for Sartre was against the monopolisingmoguls who were beginning to take over the media anddestroy the role of the intellectual. His attempts to reacha public were mediated by these powers, and it was oftenthese powers he had to campaign against. He was skilledenough, however, to circumvent some of these issues byhis interactive approach to the various forms of media,advertising his radio interviews in a newspaper columnfor example, and vice versa.[79]

The role of a public intellectual can lead to the individ-ual placing himself in danger as he engages with dis-puted topics. In Sartre’s case, this was witnessed in June1961, when a plastic bomb exploded in the entrance ofhis apartment building. His public support of Algerianself-determination at the time had led Sartre to becomea target of the campaign of terror that mounted as thecolonists’ position deteriorated. A similar occurrencetook place the next year and he had begun to receivethreatening letters from Oran, Algeria.[80]

4 Literature

Sartre wrote successfully in a number of literary modesand made major contributions to literary criticism andliterary biography. His plays are richly symbolic andserve as a means of conveying his philosophy. Thebest-known, Huis-clos (No Exit), contains the famousline “L'enfer, c'est les autres”, usually translated as “Hellis other people.”[81] Aside from the impact of Nausea,Sartre’s major work of fiction was The Roads to Freedomtrilogy which charts the progression of how World WarII affected Sartre’s ideas. In this way, Roads to Freedompresents a less theoretical and more practical approach toexistentialism.Despite their similarities as polemicists, novelists,adapters, and playwrights, Sartre’s literary work has beencounterposed, often pejoratively, to that of Camus inthe popular imagination. In 1948 the Roman CatholicChurch placed Sartre’s oeuvre on the Index Librorum Pro-

hibitorum (List of Prohibited Books).

5 Criticism

Some philosophers argue that Sartre’s thought is con-tradictory. Specifically, they believe that Sartre makesmetaphysical arguments despite his claim that his philo-sophical views ignore metaphysics. Herbert Marcuse crit-icized Being and Nothingness for projecting anxiety andmeaninglessness onto the nature of existence itself: “In-sofar as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it re-mains an idealistic doctrine: it hypostatizes specific his-torical conditions of human existence into ontologicaland metaphysical characteristics. Existentialism thus be-comes part of the very ideology which it attacks, and itsradicalism is illusory.”[82] In Letter on Humanism, Hei-degger criticized Sartre’s existentialism:

Existentialism says existence precedesessence. In this statement he is takingexistentia and essentia according to theirmetaphysical meaning, which, from Plato’stime on, has said that essentia precedes exis-tentia. Sartre reverses this statement. But thereversal of a metaphysical statement remainsa metaphysical statement. With it, he stayswith metaphysics, in oblivion of the truth ofBeing.[83]

Philosophers Richard Wollheim and Thomas Baldwinhave argued that Sartre’s attempt to show that SigmundFreud's theory of the unconscious is mistaken was basedon a misinterpretation of Freud.[84][85] Author RichardWebster considers Sartre one of many modern thinkerswho have reconstructed Judaeo-Christian orthodoxies insecular form.[86]

Author Brian C. Anderson denounced Sartre as an apol-ogist for tyranny and terror and a supporter of Stalinism,Maoism, and Castro’s regime in Cuba.[87] Historian PaulJohnson asserted that Sartre’s ideas had inspired theKhmer Rouge leadership: “The events in Cambodia inthe 1970s, in which between one-fifth and one-third ofthe nation was starved to death or murdered, were en-tirely the work of a group of intellectuals, who were forthe most part pupils and admirers of Jean-Paul Sartre –'Sartre’s Children' as I call them.”[88]

Sartre, who stated in his preface to Frantz Fanon's TheWretched of the Earth that, “To shoot down a Europeanis to kill two birds with one stone, to destroy an oppressorand the man he oppresses at the same time: there remainsa dead man and a free man,” has been criticized by An-derson and Michael Walzer for supporting the killing ofEuropean civilians by the FLN during the Algerian War.Walzer suggests that Sartre, a European, was a hypocritefor not volunteering to be killed himself.[87][89]

8 8 REFERENCES

Author Clive James excoriated Sartre in his book ofmini biographies Cultural Amnesia (2007). Among otherthings, James attacks Sartre’s philosophy as being “all apose”.[90]

6 Works

7 See also

• Sartre’s Roads to Freedom Trilogy

• Situation (Sartre)

• Freud: The Secret Passion

8 References[1] “Jean-Paul Sartre”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Retrieved 27 October 2011.

[2] Sartre, J.-P. 2004 [1937]. The Transcendence of the Ego.Trans. Andrew Brown. Routledge, p. 7.

[3] Siewert, Charles, “Consciousness and Intentionality”, TheStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2011 Edition),Edward N. Zalta (ed.).

[4] Ian H. Birchall, Sartre against Stalinism, Berghahn Books,2004, p. 176: “Sartre praised highly [Lefebvre’s] work onsociological methodology, saying of it: 'It remains regret-table that Lefebvre has not found imitators among otherMarxist intellectuals’.”

[5] “Sartre’s Debt to Rousseau” (PDF). Retrieved 2 March2010.

[6] “Sartre”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictio-nary.

[7] McCloskey, Deirdre N. (2006). The Bourgeois Virtues:Ethics for an Age of Commerce. University of ChicagoPress. p. 297. ISBN 0-226-55663-8.

[8] The Nobel Foundation (1964). “Minnen, bara minnen”(ISBN 9100571407) from year 2000 by Lars GyllenstenNobel Prize in Literature 1964 – Press Release. Addressby Anders Österling, Member of the Swedish Academy.Retrieved on: 4 February 2012.

[9] Forrest E. Baird (22 July 1999). Twentieth Century Philos-ophy. Prentice Hall. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-13-021534-5.Retrieved 4 December 2011.

[10] “Louis Théophile Schweitzer”. Roglo.eu. Retrieved 18October 2011.

[11] Brabazon, James (1975). Albert Schweitzer: A Biography.Putnam. p. 28.

[12] Jean-Paul Sartre, by Andrew N. Leak, (London 2006),page 16-18

[13] Jean-Paul, Sartre; Arlette Elkaïm-Sartre, Jonathan Web-ber (2004) [1940]. The Imaginary: A PhenomenologicalPsychology of the Imagination. Routledge. pp. viii. ISBN0-415-28755-3.

[14] “Quelques Anciens Celebres”. Hattemer. Retrieved2015-06-30.

[15] Schrift, Alan D. (2006). Twentieth-century French Phi-losophy: Key Themes and Thinkers. Blackwell Publishing.pp. 174–5. ISBN 1-4051-3217-5.

[16] Memoirs: fifty years of political reflection, By RaymondAron (1990)

[17] Auffret, D. (2002), Alexandre Kojeve. La philosophie,l'Etat, la fin de l'histoire, Paris: B. Grasset

[18] Jean-Pierre Boulé (2005), Sartre, self-formation, andmasculinities, p.,53

[19] Cohen-Solal, Annie (1988), Sartre: A Life, pp. 61–2quote: “During his first years at the Ecole, Sartre was thefearsome instigator of all the revues, all the jokes, all thescandals.”

[20] John Gerassi (1989), Jean-Paul Sartre: Protestant orprotester?, pp. 76–7

[21] Godo, Emmanuel (2005), Sartre en diable, p. 41

[22] Hayman, Ronald (1987), Sartre: a life, pp.69, 318

[23] “Jeanj.m.m.,n,mnn-Paul Sartre – philosopher, social ad-vocate”. Tameri.com. Retrieved 27 October 2011.

[24] Sartre by David Drake, 2005, p. 6

[25] Humphrey, Clark (28 November 2005). “The PeopleMagazine approach to a literary supercouple”. The SeattleTimes. Archived from the original on 31 December 2007.Retrieved 20 November 2007.

[26] Siegel, Liliane (1990). In the shadow of Sartre. Collins(London). p. 182. ISBN 0-00-215336-X.

[27] Wilfred Desan, The Tragic Finale: An Essay on the Philos-ophy of Jean-Paul Sartre (NewYork: Harper Torchbooks,1960) xiv.

[28] Deirdre Bair, Simone de Beauvoir: A Biography (NewYork: Touchstone Book, 1990), pp. 145–146.

[29] Ann Fulton, Apostles of Sartre: Existentialism in America,1945–1963 (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press,1999) 7.

[30] Le Sueur, James D.; Pierre Bourdieu (2005) [2005]. Un-civil War: Intellectuals and Identity Politics During the De-colonization of Algeria. University of Nebraska Press. p.178. ISBN 0-8032-8028-9.

[31] Harold Bloom (ed.), Jean-Paul Sartre, Infobase Publish-ing, 2009, p. 200.

[32] Simone de Beauvoir, La Force de l’âge, Gallimard, 1960,p. 158.

[33] Jean-Paul Sartre, “Merleau-Ponty vivant”, in Situations,IV: portraits, Gallimard, 1964, p. 192.

9

[34] Ursula Tidd, Simone de Beauvoir, Psychology Press, p. 19.

[35] Van den Hoven, Adrian; Andrew N. Leak (2005). SartreToday: A Centenary Celebration. Andrew N. Leak.Berghahn Books. pp. viii. ISBN 1-84545-166-X.

[36] Boulé, Jean-Pierre (2005). Sartre, Self-formation, andMasculinities. Berghahn Books. p. 114. ISBN 1-57181-742-5.

[37] Ann Fulton, Apostles of Sartre: Existentialism in Amer-ica, 1945–1963 (Evanston, IL: Northwestern UniversityPress, 1999) 12.

[38] István Mészáros, The Work of Sartre: Search for Free-dom and the Challenge of History, rev. ed. (New York:Monthly Review, 2012), p. 16.

[39] ""Remembering Che Guevara”, 9 October 2006, ''The In-ternational News’', by Prof Khwaja Masud”. The News In-ternational. 9 October 2006. Archived from the originalon 12 January 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2011.

[40] Amazon Review of: ',The Bolivian Diary: Authorized Edi-tion',. Amazon.com. ISBN 1920888241.

[41] HeyChe.org – People about Che Guevara Archived 9 July2008 at the Wayback Machine.‹The templateWayback isbeing considered for merging.›

[42] Conducta Impropria by Nestor Almendros, 1983:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIQB5cI9b4A&index=8&list=PLD12AFBD33DDE5D99.

[43] Jean-Paul Sartre (7 December 1974). “The Slow Death ofAndreas Baader”. Marxists.org. Retrieved 2March 2010.

[44] “Sartre at Seventy: An Interview by Jean-Paul Sartre andMichel Contat”. The New York Review of Books. 7 August1975. Retrieved 27 October 2011.

[45] “R.A. Forum > Sartre par lui-même (Sartre by Himself)".Raforum.info. 28 September 1966. Retrieved 27 October2011.

[46] “Interview with Jean-Paul Sartre” in The Philosophy ofJean-Paul Sartre, ed. P. A. Schilpp, p. 21.

[47] “Nobel Prize in Literature 1964 – Press Release”. nobel-prize.org. Retrieved 11 February 2009.

[48] “Nobelprize.org”.

[49] “Le Figaro”.

[50] Histoire de lettres Jean-Paul Sartre refuse le Prix Nobelen 1964, Elodie Bessé

[51] “Superstar of the Mind”, by Tom Bishop in New YorkTimes 7 June 1987

[52] Charlesworth, Max (1976). The Existentialists and Jean-Paul Sartre. University of Queensland Press. p. 154.ISBN 0-7022-1150-8.

[53] “New Criterion review of La Cérémonie des adieux bySimone de Beauvoir”.

[54] Ronald Hayman. Sartre: A Biography. Carroll & Graf,1992, p. 464.

[55] Samuel, Henry (10 March 2005). “Hell is other peopleremoving your cigarette”. The Telegraph.

[56] “Histoire Du Monde”.

[57] Singer, Daniel (5 June 2000). “Sartre’s Roads to Free-dom”. The Nation. Retrieved 9 May 2009.

[58] Cohen-Solal, Annie. Sartre: A Life. Random House, Inc.,1987, p. 523.

[59] Cohen-Solal, Annie, p. 523. Also, Ronald Hayman,Sartre: A Biography. Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc.,1992, p. 473. Also see Simone De Beauvoir, Adieux:A Farewell to Sartre. Translated by Patrick O'Brian. Pan-theon Books, 1984. Chapter: “The Farewell Ceremony,”unpaginated ebook.

[60] Existentialism and Humanism

[61] Yoann Malinge: Does our past have a motivationaleffect? Our reasons for acting: Sartre’s philosophy ofaction. https://www.academia.edu/8181406/Does_our_past_have_a_motivational_effect_Our_reasons_for_acting_Sartre_s_philosophy_of_action

[62] Being and Nothingness, p. 246

[63] Death. (1999). In Gordon Hayim (Ed.) Dictionary ofExistentialism (p. 105). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

[64] Adler, Franz. “The Social Thought of Jean-Paul Sartre”.American Journal of Sociology. 55 (3).

[65] Baert 2015

[66] Gerassi 1989: 134

[67] de Beauvoir 1958: 339

[68] Sartre 1942: 13

[69] Sartre 1942: 14

[70] Aronson 1980: 108

[71] Aronson, Ronald (2004). Camus & Sartre: The Story ofa Friendship and the Quarrel That Ended It. Universityof Chicago Press. p. 30. ISBN 0-226-02796-1, ISBN978-0-226-02796-8.

[72] Thody 1964: 21

[73] Aronson 1980: 10

[74] Kirsner 2003: 13

[75] Scriven 1999: xii

[76] Scriven 1999: 13

[77] Aronson 1980: 121

[78] Scriven 1993: 8

[79] Scriven 1993: 22

[80] Aronson 1980: 157

[81] Woodward, Kirk (9 July 2010). “TheMost Famous ThingJean-Paul Sartre Never Said”. Rick on Theater. Blogger(Google: blogspot.com). Retrieved 8 January 2010.

10 10 FURTHER READING

[82] Marcuse, Herbert. “Sartre’s Existentialism”. Printed inStudies in Critical Philosophy. Translated by Joris De Bres.London: NLB, 1972. p. 161

[83] Martin Heidegger, “Letter on Humanism”, in Basic Writ-ings: Nine Key Essays, plus the Introduction to Being andTime , trans. David Farrell Krell (London, Routledge;1978), 208. Google Books

[84] Thomas Baldwin (1995). Ted Honderich, ed. The Ox-ford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford Univer-sity Press. p. 792. ISBN 0-19-866132-0.

[85] Wollheim, Richard. Freud. London, Fontana Press, pp.157–176

[86] Webster, Richard (2005). Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin,Science and Psychoanalysis. Oxford: The Orwell Press.p. 7. ISBN 0-9515922-5-4.

[87] The Absolute Intellectual Brian C. Anderson

[88] Johnson, Paul, "The Heartless Lovers of Humankind",The Wall Street Journal, 5 January 1987.

[89] Can There Be a Decent Left? Archived 18 November2011 at the Wayback Machine.‹The templateWayback isbeing considered for merging.› Michael Walzer

[90] James, Clive (29 March 2007). “Jean-Paul Sartre”. Re-trieved 16 August 2016 – via Slate.

[91] “Jean-Paul Sartre Biography”. People.brandeis.edu. Re-trieved 27 October 2011.

[92] “Nobel Prize, Jean-Paul Sartre biography”. Nobel-prize.org. 15 April 1980. Retrieved 27 October 2011.

9 Sources

• Aronson, Ronald (1980) Jean-Paul Sartre – Philos-ophy in the World. London: NLB

• Baert, Patrick (2015) The Existentialist Moment;The Rise of Sartre as a Public Intellectual. Cam-bridge: Polity Press.

• Gerassi, John (1989) Jean-Paul Sartre: Hated Con-science of His Century. Volume 1: Protestant orProtester? Chicago: University of Chicago Press

• Judaken, Jonathan (2006) Jean-Paul Sartre and theJewish Question: Anti-antisemitism and the Politicsof the French Intellectual. Lincoln: University ofNebraska Press

• Kirsner, Douglas (2003) The Schizoid World ofJean-Paul Sartre and R.D. Laing. New York:Karnac

• Scriven, Michael (1993) Sartre and The Media.London: MacMillan Press Ltd

• Scriven, Michael (1999) Jean-Paul Sartre: Politicsand Culture in Postwar France. London: MacMillanPress Ltd

• Thody, Philip (1964) Jean-Paul Sartre. London:Hamish Hamilton

10 Further reading

10.1 Full-length biographies and memoirs

• Annie Cohen-Solal, Sartre: A Life. Translated byAnna Cancogni. NewYork: Pantheon Books, 1987.

• Ronald Hayman, Sartre: A Biography. New York:Carroll &Graf Publishers, 1987. (Detailed chronol-ogy of Sartre’s life on pages 485–510.)

• Simone de Beauvoir, Adieux: A Farewell to Sartre,New York: Pantheon Books, 1984.

10.2 Criticism

• Steven Churchill and Jack Reynolds (eds.) Jean-Paul Sartre: Key Concepts, London/NewYork:Routledge, 2014.

• Gianluca Vagnarelli, La democrazia tumultuaria.Sulla filosofia politica di Jean-Paul Sartre, Macerata,EUM, 2010.

• Robert Doran, “Sartre’s Critique of Dialectical Rea-son and the Debate with Lévi-Strauss,” Yale FrenchStudies 123 (2013): 41–62.

• Thomas Flynn, Sartre and Marxist Existentialism:The Test Case of Collective Responsibility, Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1984.

• John Gerassi, Jean-Paul Sartre: Hated Conscienceof His Century, Volume 1: Protestant or Protester?,University of Chicago Press, 1989. ISBN 0-226-28797-1.

• R.D. Laing andD. G. Cooper, Reason and Violence:A Decade of Sartre’s Philosophy, 1950–1960, NewYork: Pantheon, 1971.

• Suzanne Lilar, A propos de Sartre et de l'amour,Paris: Grasset, 1967.

• Axel Madsen, Hearts and Minds: The CommonJourney of Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-PaulSartre, William Morrow & Co, 1977.

• Heiner Wittmann, L'esthétique de Sartre. Artistes etintellectuels, translated from theGerman byN.Weit-emeier and J. Yacar, Éditions L'Harmattan (Collec-tion L'ouverture philosophique), Paris 2001.

11.2 On Sartre 11

• Élisabeth Roudinesco, Philosophy in TurbulentTimes: Canguilhem, Sartre, Foucault, Althusser,Deleuze, Derrida, Columbia University Press, NewYork, 2008.

• Jean-Paul Sartre and Benny Levy, Hope Now: The1980 Interviews, translated by Adrian van denHoven, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

• P.V. Spade, Class Lecture Notes on Jean-PaulSartre’s Being and Nothingness. 1996.

• Jonathan Webber The existentialism of Jean-PaulSartre, London: Routledge, 2009

• H. Wittmann, Sartre und die Kunst. Die Porträtstu-dien von Tintoretto bis Flaubert, Tübingen: GunterNarr Verlag, 1996.

• H. Wittmann, Sartre and Camus in Aesthetics. TheChallenge of Freedom.Ed. by Dirk Hoeges. Di-aloghi/Dialogues. Literatur und Kultur Italiens undFrankreichs, vol. 13, Frankfurt/M: Peter Lang 2009ISBN 978-3-631-58693-8

• Wilfrid Desan, The Tragic Finale: An Essay on thephilosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre (1954)

• BBC (1999). "The Road to Freedom". Human, AllToo Human.

11 External links• Jean-Paul Sartre at DMOZ

11.1 By Sartre

• Works by or about Jean-Paul Sartre at InternetArchive

• Americans and Their Myths Sartre’s essay in TheNation (18 October 1947 issue)

• Sartre Texts on Philosophy Archive

• Sartre Internet Archive on Marxists.org

• Works by Jean-Paul Sartre at Open Library

11.2 On Sartre

• UK Sartre Society

• Alfredo Gomez-Muller: Sartre, de la nausée àl'engagement. Paris, éditions du Félin, 2014.

• Groupe d'études sartriennes, Paris

• Sartre’s Critique of Dialectical Reason essay byAndy Blunden

• Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980): Existentialism Inter-net Encyclopedia of Philosophy

• Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980): Political PhilosophyInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

• Jean-Paul Sartre (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso-phy)

• Sartre.org Articles, archives, and forum

• “The Second Coming Of Sartre”, John Lichfield,The Independent, 17 June 2005

• TheWorld According to Sartre essay by Roger Kim-ball

• Reclaiming Sartre A review of Ian Birchall, SartreAgainst Stalinism

• Sartre’s Existential Marxism and the Quest for Hu-manistic Authenticity essay by Daniel Jakopovich inthe journal Synthesis Philosophica

• Biography and quotes of Sartre

• Living with Mother. Sartre and the problem ofmaternity, Benedict O'Donohoe, International We-bjournalSens Public.

• L’image de la femme dans le théâtre de Jean-PaulSartre – Jean-Paul Sartre:sexiste? by Stephanie Ru-pert

• Pierre Michel, Jean-Paul Sartre et Octave Mirbeau.

• Listen to Radio 4’s In Our Time programme onSartre – RealAudio

• Sartre: philosophy, literature, politics (articles), In-ternational Webjournal Sens Public

• Buddhists, Existentialists and Situationists: Wakingup in Waking Life

• Hell is other people people at breakfast

• Sartre phenomenological theory of emotions –Adolfo Vasquez Rocca – J.P. Sartre: TeoríaFenomenológica de las Emociones (in spanish)

• Mim Udovitch – a contributing editor for Esquire (6December 1988). “Hot and Epistolary: 'Letters toNelson Algren', by Simone de Beauvoir”. The NewYork Times. Retrieved 9 June 2012.

• Louis Menand (26 September 2005). “Stand ByYour Man: The strange liaison of Sartre and Beau-voir (Book review of the republished The Second Sexby Simone de Beauvoir)". The New Yorker. Re-trieved 9 June 2012.

12 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text• Jean-Paul Sartre Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre?oldid=745597852 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Derek Ross,

Brion VIBBER, Vicki Rosenzweig, Tarquin, Youssefsan, Danny, Christian List, Enchanter, Deb, Formulax~enwiki, Camembert,Hephaestos, Olivier, Quintessent, Pit~enwiki, Kwertii, Llywrch, Jtdirl, Gabbe, Menchi, Dramatic, GTBacchus, Delirium, Skysmith,Minesweeper, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Pjamescowie, Angela, Nanobug, Ugen64, Lupinoid, Uri~enwiki, Poor Yorick, Dpol, Big iron,Sethmahoney, John K, Jonik, Skyfaller, Raven in Orbit, Conti, Uriber, Alex S, Kbk, WhisperToMe, CBDunkerson, Tpbradbury, Mar-tinphi, Buridan, Jasonnolan, Stormie, Rbellin, Hajor, Owen, Lumos3, RadicalBender, Dimadick, Robbot, Moriori, Chrism, Fredrik, Xi-aopo, Moondyne, Goethean, Modulatum, Mayooranathan, Burn the asylum, Sverdrup, Sunray, UtherSRG, Vishruth, Brenton, Snobot,Marc Venot, Pmaguire, MaGioZal, Meursault2004, Zigger, Curps, Henry Flower, Varlaam, Jdavidb, Niteowlneils, Maarten van Vliet,Kukkurovaca, Edcolins, Beland, FC, RetiredUser2, Bodnotbod, Darnel, Masmith, Histrion, Soman, Clemwang, Maikel, Mennonot, Es-perant, Clubjuggle, Yazman, D6, Jayjg, Simonides, Ocon, EugeneZelenko, Buffyg, Sfeldman, Marlowe~enwiki, Bedders, Discospin-ster, Rich Farmbrough, FranksValli, Xjy, Vsmith, BalowStar, Silence, Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters, Number 0, Bender235, Calair, Ignig-not, Whooper, Brian0918, Aecis, MBisanz, El C, Zenohockey, Kwamikagami, Shanes, RoyBoy, Jpgordon, Whosyourjudas, Reinyday,Adraeus, Per Olofsson, Filiocht, Viriditas, Jung dalglish, Pokrajac, Pretender, Saluyot, Lokifer, Crust, DBrane, Amerindianarts, Knucmo2,Jumbuck, Schissel, Alansohn, Hektor, Rd232, NJC, Cjthellama, ,ליאור Snowolf, Sycron, Noosphere, Mcferran, Max rspct, Bbsrock, An-drew Norman, Danaman5, Brubakerj, Omphaloscope, Dirac1933, T1980, Yurivict, RyanGerbil10, Hunfe, Defixio, Mwalcoff, OleMaster,Woohookitty, Etacar11, Simon Shek, Sburke, Azaziel, Ruud Koot, Bkwillwm, Schzmo, AnaZ, Tickle me, OCNative, Prezboy1, Newcru-sade, Mandarax, Graham87, Alienus, CerpinTaxt, Cuchullain, Chun-hian, Kbdank71, Dpr, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Koavf, Carl Logan,Pleiotrop3, Lockley, BlueMoonlet, JHMM13, Tangotango, Harro5, Funnyhat, YAZASHI, SeanMack, The wub, FlavrSavr, Hanshans23,Saksham, FayssalF, FlaBot, Pruneau, Moskvax, RobertG, Ground Zero, Wikidgood, Oliver Chettle, Gelwood, Worldbeater2002, Super-morff, Rune.welsh, Gurch, Tlitic, 3finger, OpenToppedBus, Elviajeropaisa, Dbd, Spencerk, Chobot, Jaraalbe, DVdm, AllyD, CommanderNemet, Bgwhite, Ariasne, Hall Monitor, Rboyer, Skoosh, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, NTBot~enwiki, Peter GWerner, Pip2andahalf, Crazytales, Pigman, Thoreaulylazy, Gaius Cornelius, Bachrach44, Msikma, Aeusoes1, Allanidalen, Stuartfernie,Howcheng, Irishguy, Gerhard51, Iamnotanorange~enwiki, Bota47, Kewp, Cesarsorm~enwiki, Dv82matt, Wknight94, Langdell~enwiki,Nikkimaria, Theda, Closedmouth, Rms125a@hotmail.com, Abune, NYArtsnWords, GraemeL, Carabinieri, Curpsbot-unicodify, Shastra,Ilmari Karonen, Sangak1, CIreland, Tom Morris, robot, Cumbiagermen, SmackBot, Small Profit, Roger Davies, JimmyGuano,Lestrade, Reedy, InverseHypercube, McGeddon, Unyoyega, KocjoBot~enwiki, DWaterson, Eskimbot, Hardyplants, Monty Cantsin,Edgar181, Yamaguchi , Hmains, Betacommand, Kevinalewis, Chris the speller, ScottForschler, DStoykov, NCurse, Dwinetsk, Om-niphile, Dlohcierekim’s sock, TheLeopard, Nbarth, Go for it!, Baa, Colonies Chris, MercZ, Constanz, Sajendra, Can't sleep, clown will eatme, Snowmanradio, Zvar, Jmlk17, WilliamQuill, Downwards, Jwy, Sokrat3000, EPM, Detruncate, Jbergquist, Copysan, Mystaker1, Jrom-bousky, Folding Chair, Curly Turkey, Kukini, Ohconfucius, Byelf2007, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Bluerattle, T-dot, John, Lin-uxDude, Eowyn42, Mathiasrex, Tazmaniacs, Gobonobo, Nobunaga24, Ckatz, OMHalck, Fernando S. Aldado~enwiki, Bcem2, Hvn0413,Beetstra, Nicetomeetyou, Saxophone143, Kyoko, MTSbot~enwiki, Dl2000, Christian Roess, Hu12, BranStark, OnBeyondZebrax, Jayse-phus, Yale2010, Twas Now, BHammond1, Joey80, Wolfdog, Theraven, Tanthalas39, Cricketmaster7, R9tgokunks, Thprfssnl, WeggeBot,John Thaxter, Neelix, Godardesque, Chicheley, Gregbard, David Warner, Sebastian789, Cydebot, Abeg92, Slp1, Xanthoptica, Aristo-phanes68, Christopher Lee Miles, Astrochemist, Gogo Dodo, Weggie, MWaller, Ttiotsw, Adolphus79, Benjiboi, Ejk81, EqualRights,Chris Henniker, Ward3001, Krylonblue83, JohnInDC, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Tepidpond, Mime, Mojo Hand, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, El-tonjohn69, Manuel de Sousa, Emeraldcityserendipity, DekuDekuplex, Tjmayerinsf, Coyets, Modernist, Danny lost, Cvahadji, QwertyBinary, Marcsnydr, Myanw, Skalton, Wahabijaz, Gökhan, JAnDbot, Deflective, Kellster142, Skomorokh, Dsp13, Avaya1, Michaelara-bin, Morphriz, Hamsterlopithecus, Bergmanesque, GoodDamon, Pseudothyrum, Magioladitis, Unused0029, VoABot II, Necklace, Jd-lankin, Joseane, Ling.Nut, Froid, Sam Medany, Indu Singh, Esmatly, Hiplibrarianship, Mondob, Ali'i, Sesesq, Exiledone, JaGa, Gwern,BakerFranke, TheDoorMouse, MartinBot, ExplicitImplicity, BetBot~enwiki, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Panda, Jira123, Simonfieldhouse,Ulyssesmsu, Maurice Carbonaro, Mike.lifeguard, A Nobody, Experiential, George415, Gzkn, Oktavas, Whitehall6, LordAnubisBOT,Ryan Postlethwaite, Hermann Luyken, Skier Dude, Kansas Bear, Domminico, KValade, STBotD, Justforthesakeofargument, HenryLarsen,Gtg204y, Inwind, Scewing, GrahamHardy, WWGB, Jonas Mur~enwiki, BraveFoot, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Alnok-taBOT, BillSung, Cantaire87, Wombleme, TXiKiBoT, Asabbagh, Cosmic Latte, Hammard, BertSen, Tomsega, GcSwRhIc, Aymatth2,Anna Lincoln, BubbleDine, Broadbot, Modal Jig, Styoplyoag, Profronrowe, Wingedsubmariner, ACEOREVIVED, Larklight, Verbist,BankingBum, Cnilep, AlleborgoBot, Ohiostandard, Brandon97, Wpchen, Deconstructhis, Arjun024, MekQuarrie, Brianbrianbrianbrian,SieBot, Brenont, YonaBot, ToePeu.bot, Jrm2007, Gerakibot, Mungo Kitsch, Jbmurray, HTO, Calabraxthis, Andersmusician, Likebox,Flyer22 Reborn, Aljoša Avani, Chhandama, Matthewfreile, Undead Herle King, Monegasque, Michael Blohm, Samepassword, Gassed lastsummer, Oxymoron83, JsePrometheus, Nancy, Vojvodaen, Debil13, StaticGull, Jacob.jose, Thatotherdude, Tognopop, Bowei Huang 2,Dabomb87, Justinjuicebox, Denisarona, Ophiccius, Randy Kryn, Ainlina, ImageRemovalBot, Leranedo, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Clue-Bot, SummerWithMorons, Tikka72, All Hallow’s Wraith, DionysosProteus, Der Golem, Nigelsmith99, Mild Bill Hiccup, TheOldJaco-bite, Ryoutou, Kristamaranatha, Jonund, Trivialist, Ridge Runner, Puchiko, DiscoChildKillerz, Hakonlo, SamuelTheGhost, Pointillist,Angry paedophile jones, DragonBot, Bagworm, Michaelhuddleston, Jusdafax, JDallaTezza, Bchaosf, Sun Creator, Tyler, MickMacNee,Jotterbot, Mfhamdane, Eustress, Camuser, Redthoreau, SchreiberBike, Tomi69, Thehelpfulone, Aitias, 53CTUM53MPR4, Phynicen,Nareg510, DumZiBoT, Cooltrainer Hugh, XLinkBot, Pichpich, Koro Neil, Erik gbg, Good Olfactory, Wanderr~enwiki, Kbdankbot, Jan-inho, VanishedUser ewrfgdg3df3, Addbot, Mia-etol, Stanleywestonmason, Aryder779, Harshael, CarsracBot, Debresser, AnnaFrance,Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Woland1234, AgadaUrbanit, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Wiki11790, Lightbot, , Matěj Grabovský,Jarble, Borchmore, Markvo, Legobot, Luckas-bot, J. Milch, Yobot, EchetusXe, Themfromspace, Andreasmperu, Wikiergocognito, Grond-scry, GOR42, Sulair.speccoll, Shitzuchris, AlexLevyOne, Mnation2, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, MariAna Mimi, Jim1138, JackieBot, Nina-hexan, Louiseblaklake, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, GenPayne, Wandering Courier, Citation bot, Smmlit, Raven1977, ArthurBot,Quebec99, LilHelpa, Sally putnam, Xavierjouve, Xqbot, Tripodian, IsleofPlan, Hammersbach, Jeffrey Mall, Notono, Grim23, Gap9551,Path3, J04n, GrouchoBot, JanDeFietser, Omnipaedista, Sekwanele, Maria Sieglinda von Nudeldorf, RibotBOT, Abcdefgfedcba, Ghaly-Bot, Dbdkmezz, Rajvaddhan, Shadowjams, Heiner Wittmann, Petros000, Thehelpfulbot, JennKR, Green Cardamom, FreeKnowledge-Creator, Dreampsy, Egern~enwiki, FrescoBot, Noproblem60, Surv1v4l1st, Anna Roy, Paine Ellsworth, Egaeus Gracchus, Citation bot 1,Shiki2, Humanevolution101, AlexRetty, Skyerise, Fat&Happy, Drawnt, Anotsu9, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, نوری ,ئاراس Ashley cpt,Sprescott3, Piux2, Abie the Fish Peddler, StephenMUFC, John HGillespie, Aero13792468, Djgbradley, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Georgsiotis,RjwilmsiBot, Dlambe3, Hitolerence2011, PPdd, Cab-rafford, Reginald gray, EmausBot, ImprovingWiki, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot,Avenue X at Cicero, Entrysharex, GoingBatty, SSBDelphiki, Solarra, ZéroBot, Charly Matteï, Zarathoestra, Lynndangeorge, 5rdx6tfc,

12.2 Images 13

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