Nixon elected in 1968

Nixon’s Foreign policy = Détente (relaxed tensions)

"It will be a safer world and a better world if we have a strong, healthy, United States, Europe, Soviet Union, China, Japan -- each balancing the other." -- Nixon in 1971

Henry Kissinger -Secretary of State

realpolitik: Nation should pursue policies and make alliances based on its national interests rather than on any particular view of the world.

Vietnamization and Nixon Doctrine

-removal of over 500, 000 troops, supporting South Vietnam and increased bombing (even of Laos and Cambodia)

My Lai Massacre of 1968

Kent State University and at Jackson State College

-students die protesting invasion of Cambodia

1971 –Gulf of Tonkin Resolution repealed

-26th Amendment passed

-Daniel Ellsberg leaks the Pentagon Papers despite White House objections

Nixon visits China (1972) and Soviet Union (1972) to ease the tensions (part of détente policy

The ABM Treaty (anti-ballistic missile treaty) and the SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) are signed with S. Union

Paris Accords (1973)

March 29, 1973, the last American combat troops left South Vietnam (“Peace with Honor”)

Yom Kippur War of 1973 and Arab Oil Embargo

•Arab states established an oil boycott to push the Western nations into forcing Israel to withdraw from lands controlled since the "Six Day War" of 1967

•Kissinger negotiated withdrawal of Israel west of the Suez Canal and the Arabs lifted their boycott.

Energy Crisis, 1973 (sometimes called "Oil Crisis")

•U.S. gas prices doubled and inflation shot above 10%.

•Nixon refused to ration gasoline and an acute gasoline shortage ensued.

Nixon’s Domestic Policy = New Federalism and Revenue Sharing

Civil Rights

•Opposed renewal of the Voting Rights Act and desegregation of schools in Miss.

•Tried to pass anti-busing bill after court ordered forced busing

•Strongly supported affirmative action by establishing timetables for companies to hire blacks and women

•Appointed Warren E. Burger to SC ( a conservative) – made death penalty illegal and passed Roe v. Wade in 1973

•Nixon also expanded Great Society programs by increasing appropriations for Medicare and Medicaid, as well as Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), and created the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), which gave benefits to the indigent aged, blind, and disabled, and he raised Social Security

Congressional legislation during Nixon (not supported by him)

•26th Amendment in 1971

•Social Security benefits and funding for food stamps increased in 1970.

•Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) -- 1970 --Agency would monitor worker safety conditions.

•Federal Election Campaign Act: would reduce campaign contributions

Environmentalism

•Earth Day, April 22, 1970 seen as beginning of the nation?s environmental era.

•Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) est. by Nixon in 1970 (to stall the environmental movement)

•Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) exposed poisonous effects of pesticides.  

The Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973

Economy becomes a problem

•1969, Nixon cut spending and raised taxes. Encouraged Federal Reserve Board to raise interest rates but the economy grew worse.

•Unemployment climbed to 6% in 1970 while real gross national product declined in 1970. U.S. experienced a trade deficit in 1971.

•Inflation reached 12% by 1971 -- Cost of living more than tripled from 1969 to 1981; longest and steepest inflationary cycle in U.S. history.

Nixon’s answer to economic problems:

•1970, Congress gave president the power to regulate prices and wages. 1971, Nixon announced a 90-day price and wage freeze and took the U.S. off the gold standard.

•At end of 90 days, he est. mandatory guidelines for wage and price increases.

•1973, Nixon turned to voluntary wage and price controls except on health care, food, and construction.

•When inflation increased rapidly, Nixon cut back on government expenditures, refusing to spend funds already appropriated by Congress (impounding).

Evaluation of Nixon – Foreign and Domestic (you will read it…and make up your mind)

Watergate Scandal (greatest Presidential scandal in US history)

Burglars hired by Burglars hired by CREEPCREEP caught caught breaking into breaking into Democratic Nat’l Democratic Nat’l HeadquartersHeadquarters at the at the Watergate HotelWatergate Hotel

CREEP -- Committee to Re-Elect the President

• Nixon's attorney general set up CREEP and began a massive illegal fund-raising campaign for the 1972 Election.

•White House "plumbers" instructed to stop anti-Nixon leaks to the press

• Bob Woodward & Carl Bernstein, young Washington Post journalists, broke the story

…Everything perhaps would be ok but there were the tapes…

Prosecutor Archibald Cox demands the tapes to be turned in…Nixon fires 2 of his aides who refuse to fire Cox, until the third fires Cox = Saturday Night Massacre

Spiro Agnew resigns (October, 1973) guilty of tax evasion and is replaced by Gerald Ford

•Nixon releases some of the tapes but most important parts are erased including 18 minute gap

•U.S. v. Nixon – SC orders Nixon to submit the tapes

•July 30 – Impeachment proceedings begin but Nixon resigns on August 7, 1974

Ford pardons Nixon in September for any crimes he may have committed while president (political and social impact?)

Domestic issues:

•“Stagflation” – Ford creates Whip Inflation Now buttons but it does not help

•urged to cut taxes and cut social programs

Foreign Issues:

•Helsinki Conference – recognition of Soviet and Eastern European borders, continuation of détente, but relationship worse

•Fall of Saigon – Congress refused to give Ford money to help S. Vietnam

The Mayaguez Incident - May 12, 1975, Cambodia, seized by communists 2 weeks earlier, seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in the Gulf of Siam.

Election of 1976

“I will never lie to the American people” – Jimmy Carter

Jimmy Carter & Domestic Issues:

•Amnesty – pardoned 10,000 draft evaders

•Created the Department of Education

•Placed the civil service on a merit basis and reduced Civil Service System

•Environment: created Superfund

•created Dept. of Energy - proposed raising the tax on gasoline and taxing autos that used fuel inefficiently in order to reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil-only some it got through and therefore US experienced the second oil crisis in 1979

•Deregulation - Air Transportation Deregulation Act (1978): Ended government regulation of airline fares and routes

• Peacetime Draft Registration: 18 year-olds required to register with the Selective Service

Love Canal, NY

•Created "superfund" for the cleanup of chemical waste dumps.

• Established controls over strip mining

•Protected 100 million acres of Alaskan wilderness from development

•Three-mile Island nuclear accident occurred in 1979

Carter’s Foreign Policy = Humanitarian Policy

•President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel signed some accords at Camp David (Camp David Accords)

•Carter also pledged to return the Panama Canal to Panama by the year 2000 (Panama Canal Treaty) and resumed full diplomatic relations with China in 1979

SALT II

•SALT I treaty due to expire in late 1977.

•Carter called for a renewing of the SALT accords and extending them to include real reductions in nuclear armaments.

•1979, Carter signed SALT II with the USSR.             •Not ratified by the Senate in light of Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (end of detente) -- December 1979

•Carter proclaimed U.S. would "use any means necessary, including force," to protect the Persian Gulf against Soviet aggression.

•Stopped shipments of grain and certain advanced technology to the USSR

•Withdrew from SALT II from the senate

•Boycotted the 1980 summer Olympics held in Moscow.

•In retaliation, Moscow boycotted 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles.

•Verbally lashed out at Cuba and Uganda for human rights violations.

• Cut foreign aid to Uruguay, Argentina, and Ethiopia.

•Championed black majority in South Africa and denounced Apartheid.

•Did not punish South Korea or Philippines -- too vital to U.S. security. -- Some saw this as hypocritical.

•Humanitarian diplomacy ultimately ineffective.

But his presidency was really defined by one issue….

Overthrow of Shah by Ayatullah Khomenini in Iran resulted in the Iran Hostage Crisis

•Carter froze Iranian assets in the U.S. and est. a trade embargo against Iran.

•Iranians eventually freed the black and women hostages but kept 52 others.

•April 1980, Carter ordered a Marine rescue attempt but it failed after several helicopters broke down and another crashed, killing 8 men.

•Carter perceived as weak, indecisive, and ineffective and suffered for it in the 1980 elections.

•Release of the hostages after 444 days

As a final insult to Carter, hostages were released after Reagan took his inaugural oath so that Carter could not solve the crisis during his presidency…

Democrats nominated Jimmy Carter after a challenge from Senator Edward Kennedy.            

-- Kennedy?s Chappaquiddick affair killed his candidacy

•Reagan called for reductions in government spending and taxes, shift in power from the federal gov’t to the states, and advocated "traditional American values" -- family, religion, hard work, and patriotism.             •Blasted the Soviets for their aggression and vowed to rebuild the U.S. military.

•Received vigorous support from the "New Right" incl. evangelical Christian groups like Jerry Falwell’s Moral Majority.                 •Denounced abortion, pornography, homosexuality, the ERA, and esp. affirmative action.                 •Championed prayer in schools and tougher penalties for criminals.

•Reagan denounced the activist gov’t and failed "social engineering" of the "Great Society" in the 1960s.  •Promised to get the government off people's backs.

Ushered in the conservative "Reagan Revolution" that would continue into the mid-1990s

Domestic policy:

•Reaganomics -- Supply-side economics - Reagan cut taxes on the "trickle down" idea that if the people had more money, they would invest rather then spend the excess on consumer goods.

•Economic Recovery Tax Act, 1981 -- Congress granted Reagan a 25% cut, spread over three years.

•Reagan enacted large budget cuts in domestic programs inc. education, food stamps, public housing, and National Endowments for the Arts and Humanities

•Defense budget increased by $12 billion.

•Result: huge budget deficits that resulted in rise in national debt from $1 trillion in 1980 to $3 trillion in 1988

•Taxes had to be implemented in 1984 in order to make up for budget deficit.

•In mid-1980s, U.S. became a debtor nation for 1st time since WWI

Sandra Day O'Connor

Result:

•inflation fell from 12% in 1979 to 4% in 1984.             •Helped by lower demand for goods and oversupply of oil.         •Federal Reserve Board began to lower interest rates which together with lower inflation and more spendable income due to lower taxes, resulted in an increase in business.

•Unemployment fell to less than 8%.

Deregulation (begun under Carter)      •Reagan and Congress deregulated AT&T, airline, and trucking industries.

•Consolidation resulted with many smaller companies going under.

•S & L bailout - In 1982, many savings and loan institutions were threatened with insolvency.

•Reagan pushed for deregulation of the savings and loan industries paved the way for banks to make riskier loans and for shady administrators to bilk millions.

Air Traffic Controllers strike

•August 1981, federally employed air traffic controllers entered an illegal strike.

•Reagan fired 11,400 of them after they refused to follow his order to return to work. --Began training replacements and used military controllers during the interim.

•Air traffic controllers’ union destroyed

Reagan’s Domestic Policy -- 2nd Term

• Tax Reform Act of 1986

•Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986

• Encouraging by deregulation under Carter and Reagan as well as emerging int’l economy, and fueled by funds released by new tax breaks, mergers became a widespread phenomenon in the 1980.

•Challenger explosion, February 1986 killed 7 astronauts (including 1st teacher in space) – hurt NASA and SDI

Reagan’s Economic Legacy:

•Tax cuts and increased military spending created lost revenue of $200 billion per year.

•National debt tripled from about 1 billion in 1980 to about 3 billion in 1988.         •Deficts did not begin to diminish until Clinton's presidency in mid-1990s

•Debt serendipitous for conservatives

•Reduced growth of gov’t and led to cuts in social spending since less money available for gov’t to spend

Reagan’s Foreign Policy:

•Reagan very harsh against Soviet Union

•Begins a new arms race

•In 1981 endorsed the concept of fighting a limited nuclear war on European soil against Soviet Union

•Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) -- "Star Wars" (1983)

NUTS vs. MAD

• SDI upset four decades of strategic thinking about nuclear weapons.

•Nuclear Utilization Theory (NUTs) advocated the winning of a nuclear war. – Reagan’s staff drew up estimates of so-called reasonable losses in the event of a nuclear war -- some as high as 40%.

•Hitherto, Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD), had assured a "balance of terror" for 4 decades.

KAL 007, September 1983

•By end of 1983, all arms-control negotiations with Russians were broken off. •"Evil Empire" speech -- Reagan called the USSR "the evil empire" and the "focus of evil in the modern world." •Justified his military build-up as necessary to thwart aggressive Soviets.

Lebanon

•Reagan sent Marines to Lebanon in 1983 as part of an international peacekeeping force after Israeli attacks against Palestinian strongholds in Lebanon caused chaos.            •October 23, 1983, a suicide bomber crashed his truck into a U.S. Marine barracks killing 241 Marines.

Reagan soon pulled remaining American troops while suffering no political damage from the attack. (Teflon President)

Bombing of Libya

•Reagan ordered the bombing of Libya in 1986 in retaliation for an alleged Libyan-sponsored bombing of a West Berlin discotheque that killed a U.S. serviceman.

•Col. Mommar Qaddafi had long been a sponsor for terrorism against the West.

Iran-Iraq War             -- U.S. backed Iraq and its leader Saddam Hussein as Iran and the U.S. had become bitter enemies since 1979 Iranian Revolution

Additional interventions in:

Nicaragua=Iran-Contra Scandal

El Salvador

Grenada

The End of Cold War

•Gorbachev became a reform-minded leader of the Soviet Union (allowed for free-speech, capitalist economic reforms, and some democracy).

•INF Treaty signed in Washington, D.C. in December 1987 (after 2 years of negotiations)

•All intermediate-range nuclear missiles from Europe banned.

•Significant break through in the Cold War.

•Reagan & Gorbachev: "Nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought"    

Iron Curtain" fell in 1989

•Costs of maintaining satellite countries, both politically and economically, were too much of a burden for the Soviets too handle.

•Solidarity prevails in Poland in August 1989

Berlin Wall torn down in November; Germany reunited in October 1990

.

START -- strategic arms reduction treaty.

•cut 10% of U.S. nuclear weapons and 25% of Soviet nukes and limit ICBM warheads to 1,100 each, later treaty called for 50% reductions within a few years

Fall of the Soviet Union (December 25, 1991) resulted in end of Cold War

Evaluation of Reagan?